Spanish victory, rebellion suppressed
46-535: The Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (4 November 1780 – 15 March 1783) was an uprising by cacique -led Aymara , Quechua , and mestizo rebels aimed at overthrowing Spanish colonial rule in Peru . The causes of the rebellion included opposition to the Bourbon Reforms , an economic downturn in colonial Peru, and a grassroots revival of Inca cultural identity led by Túpac Amaru II , an indigenous cacique and
92-450: A "pacific" form of "civilized caciquismo", such as Mexico's Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911). Argentine writer Fernando N.A. Cuevillas views caciquismo as being "nothing more than a special brand of tyrant". In Spain, caciquismo appeared in the late 19th-century and early 20th-century Spain . Writer Ramón Akal González views Galicia in northwest of Spain, as having remained in a continual state of strangulated growth over centuries as
138-523: A European-style nobility, within the newly established colonial system and a cacique's status among the colonizers (along with that of his family) was buttressed by their being permitted the Spanish noble honorifics don and doña . As colonial middlemen, caciques were often the first to introduce European material culture to their communities. This is seen in the Spanish-style houses they built,
184-421: A base from which they launched attacks all across Upper Peru. Cristóbal would hold the town and much of the surrounding territory until mounting losses and diminishing support convinced him to accept a general amnesty from Viceroy Agustín de Jáuregui . A preliminary treaty and prisoner exchange were conducted on 12 December, and Cristóbal's forces formally surrendered on 26 January 1782. Though some rebels resisted,
230-494: A family's prestige, but it could no longer in itself be regarded as a rank of major authority." In a 1769 petition by a cacique family to the Viceroy of New Spain , appealing for the restoration of its privileges, the following expectations were listed: "that, the cacique should be seated separately from commoners at public functions; he was excused from serving in town government; he was exempted from tribute and other exactions; he
276-627: A result of caciquismo and nepotism. "Galicia still suffers from this anachronistic caste of caciques." Spanish strongman El Caudillo Francisco Franco (1892-1975) was born in Ferrol in Galicia. In the Philippines, the term cacique democracy was coined by Benedict Anderson . It has been used to describe the political system where in many parts of the country local leaders remain very strong, with almost warlord-type powers. The Philippines
322-540: Is estimated at 100,000 Indians and 10,000–40,000 non-Indians. Viceroy Jáuregui lessened mita obligations in an attempt to ameliorate some of the Indians' complaints. In 1784, his successor, Teodoro de Croix , abolished the corregidors and reorganized the colonial administration around eight intendants . In 1787, an audiencia was established in Cuzco. Areche's decrees following the execution of Túpac Amaru II included
368-545: The Bourbon Reforms throughout South America . In 1776, as part of these reforms, it created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata by separating Upper Peru (modern Bolivia ) and the territory that is now Argentina from the Viceroyalty of Peru . These territories included the economically important silver mines at Potosí , whose economic benefits began to flow to Buenos Aires in the east instead of Cuzco and Lima to
414-569: The administrators who followed them used the word generically to refer to any leader of practically any indigenous group they encountered in the Western Hemisphere . In Hispanic and Lusophone countries, the term has also come to mean a political boss , similar to a caudillo , exercising power in a system of caciquism . The Taíno word kasike descends from the Taíno word kassiquan , which means "to keep house". In 1555
460-583: The Inca were destroyed, and the juridical institution of the cacique was abolished, with many caciques being replaced by administrators from outside the native locality. This undermined the power of indigenous rulership despite concessions from the viceroyalty. Cacique A cacique , sometimes spelled as cazique ( Latin American Spanish: [kaˈsike] ; Portuguese: [kɐˈsikɨ, kaˈsiki] ; feminine form: cacica ),
506-574: The King of Spain, enforcing royal authority on the corrupt and treacherous colonial administration. He was motivated in part by reading of a prophecy that the Inca would rule again with British support. He may have been aware of the British colonial rebellion in North America and Spanish involvement in the war. Additionally, the growth of mining as a source of colonial revenue was largely caused by
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#1732780960856552-554: The Mexican national archives in a section Vínculos ("entails"). The establishment of Spanish-style town government ( cabildos) served as a mechanism to supplant traditional rule. Spanish manipulation of cabildo elections placed compliant members of the traditional, hereditary lineages on such cabildos town councils. By the late colonial era in central Mexico, the term cacique had lost any dynastic meaning, with one scholar noting that "cacique status could in some degree buttress
598-435: The Spanish army eventually brought them down. Government efforts to destroy the rebellion were frustrated by, among other things, a high desertion rate, hostile locals, scorched-earth tactics, the onset of winter, and the region's altitude (most of the troops were from the lowlands and had trouble adjusting). An army led by Diego Cristóbal occupied the strategically important city of Puno on 7 May 1781 and proceeded to use it as
644-891: The Spanish colonial rule, and decades after Túpac Amaru II 's 1781 uprising other insurrections such as the Túpac Katari or the Mateo Pumakawa uprisings were often the first major engagements of the South American Wars of Independence. Cacicas played significant roles as female leaders and entrepreneurs within indigenous Mexican communities. These women held titles independently, distinct from their husbands, and did not lose their status if they married outside their rank. Cacicas possessed financial insight, engaging in business transactions like property dealings and managing financial networks. They owned valuable assets including land, homes, and livestock, often securing
690-575: The Spanish furnishings that filled them and the European fashions they wore everywhere. They engaged in Spanish commercial enterprises such as sheep and cattle ranchers and sericulture . Many even owned enslaved Africans to operate these concerns. The caciques also acquired new privileges, unknown before contact. These included the right to carry swords or firearms and to ride horses or mules. Some caciques had entailed estates called cacicazgos . The records of many of these Mexican estates are held in
736-484: The Spanish military proved to be too strong for his army of 40,000–60,000 followers. After being repelled from the capital of the Incan empire, the rebels march around the country, gathering forces to attempt to fight back. Troops from Lima were instrumental in helping repel Túpac's siege of Cuzco from 28 December 1780 to 10 January 1781. Following these failures, his coalition of disparate malcontents began to fall apart, with
782-518: The Spanish monarch. In 1781, the Tīpac Amaru rebellion was led by a kuraka who claimed to be a descendant of the Inca royal line, that of the final Inca, Túpac Amaru . At independence in 1825, Simón Bolívar abolished noble titles, but the power and prestige of the kurakas were already in decline following the Great Rebellion. Kuraka rebellions had been waged since the beginning of
828-516: The banning of the Quechua language, the wearing of indigenous clothing, and virtually any mention or commemoration of Inca culture and history. Areche's attempts to destroy Inca culture after the execution of Túpac Amaru II were confirmed by royal decree in April 1782 however, colonial authorities lacked the resources to enforce these laws, and they were soon largely forgotten. Still, paintings depicting
874-541: The best and most fertile territories. Despite their entrepreneurial focus, cacicas also wielded considerable authority, acknowledged by native communities, the Spanish Crown , and the Catholic Church . Their status rivaled high-ranking Spanish men, with privileges like special treatment at religious ceremonies and even distinguished burial sites. This recognition extended beyond their ancestors, surpassing
920-493: The elite class of Taíno society: they lived in a larger rectangular hut in the center of the village, rather than the peripheral circular huts of other villagers, and they had reserved places from which to view the areítos (ceremonial dances) and ceremonial ball game . Most importantly, the kasike 's word was law and they exercised this power to oversee a sophisticated government, finely involved with all aspects of social existence. The Spanish transliterated kasike and used
966-640: The increased burden placed on indigenous workers who formed the base of the labor used to mine silver, leading to increased unrest. On 4 November 1780, after a party in Tungasuca, where Túpac was a cacique , Túpac and supporters seized Antonio Arriaga, the corregidor of his hometown of Tinta. They forced him to write letters to his treasurer in Tinta requesting money and arms and to other influential individuals and kurakas ordering them to congregate in Tungasuca. On 10 November, six days after his capture, Arriaga
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#17327809608561012-695: The last of the special privileges of colonial-era caciques were finally abolished. In contrast to the rest of the Spanish Colonial Americas, in the Andean region the local term kuraka was preferred to cacique. After conquering the Inca Empire the Spaniards administering the new Peruvian viceroyalty had allowed the kurakas or caciques to maintain their titles of nobility and perquisites of local rule so long as they swore fealty to
1058-406: The leader of the rebellion. While Amaru II was captured and executed by the Spanish in 1781, the rebellion continued for at least another year under other rebel leaders. Amaru II's rebellion was simultaneous with the uprising of Túpac Katari in colonial-era Upper Peru (now Bolivia). The government of Spain , to streamline the operation of its colonial empire, began introducing what became known as
1104-526: The local population, were often able to take advantage of the changes to bolster their positions. There is no consensus in the scholarly literature about the origins of caciquismo . Murdo J. MacLeod suggests that the terms cacique and caudillo "either require further scrutiny or, perhaps, they have become so stretched by the diversity of explanations and processes packed into them that they have become somewhat empty generalizations". Sangarar%C3%A1, Peru Too Many Requests If you report this error to
1150-578: The mid-1700s, women had a changing role throughout Latin America. They began getting involved politically, economically, and culturally. Women had begun getting involved in the workforce, particularly producing cotton cloth and working as market traders. Because of these growing gender role changes, women were involved in the Túpac Amaru II revolt. Túpac's wife, Micaela Bastidas, had commanded her battalion, and she and her battalion were responsible for
1196-564: The most famous of these early colonial-era caciques are Hatuey from what is now Cuba and Enriquillo on the island of Hispaniola. Both are now respective national heroes in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. The Spanish had more success when they drafted the leaders of the far more hierarchically organized indigenous civilizations of Central Mexico. These Central Mexican caciques served as more effective, and loyal, intermediaries in
1242-501: The new system of colonial rule. The hierarchy and nomenclature of indigenous leadership usually survived within a given community and the Spaniards' designation of caciques did not usually correspond to the hereditary or likely candidate from a given system of indigenous leadership. As a consequence, elite indigenous men willing to cooperate with the colonial rulers replaced their rivals who had better hereditary or traditional claims on leadership. The Spanish recognized indigenous nobles as
1288-567: The next day, destroying the local church where several people had taken refuge. Túpac then turned south, against the advice of his wife and lieutenant Micaela Bastidas , who urged him to attack Cuzco before the government could mobilize. Micaela Bastidas was a pivotal force in the Túpac de Amaru rebellion and is often overlooked. Bastidas was known for leading an uprising in the San Felipe de Tungasucsa region. Indigenous communities often sided with
1334-484: The peasants and commoners) while tightening the rest of its tax system in its colonies, in part to fund its participation in the American Revolutionary War . José Gabriel Condorcanqui, an upper-class Indian with claims to the Inca royal lineage, adopted the name Túpac Amaru II (alluding to Túpac Amaru , the last Inca emperor), and in 1780 called for rebellion. He claimed to be acting on behalf of
1380-571: The power of local political bosses , the caciques. In the post-independence period in Mexico, the term retained its meaning of "indigenous" leaders, but also took on a more general usage of a "local" or "regional" leader as well. Some scholars make a distinction between caudillos ( political strongmen ) and their rule, caudillismo , and caciques and caciquismo . One Argentine intellectual, Carlos Octavio Bunge viewed caciquismo as emerging from anarchy and political disruption and then evolving into
1426-423: The rank of notable figures such as Isabel Moctezuma and her lineage. The multifaceted roles of cacicas highlight their integral contributions to Mexican society under Spanish rule, demonstrating their adeptness in economic enterprise, societal leadership, and cultural influence across indigenous communities. An extension of the term cacique, caciquismo ("boss rule") can refer to a political system dominated by
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1472-409: The rebels, and local militias put up little resistance. It was not long before Túpac's forces had taken control of almost the entire southern Peruvian plateau . Spanish colonial administrator José Antonio de Areche acted in response to Túpac's uprising, moving troops from Lima and as far off as Cartagena toward the region. Tupac Amaru II, in 1780, began to lead an uprising of indigenous people, but
1518-440: The rebels. Some historians have described these killings aimed at non-Indians, in conjunction with attempts to violently eradicate various non-Indian cultural customs, as genocidal in nature. Many of the leaders who fought in the rebellion after Túpac de Amaru's death were discovered to be women (32 out of 73) and were later acknowledged by the eventual liberator of Spanish America, Simón Bolívar in his speech in 1820. Throughout
1564-520: The same end, he also sought the creation of a new audiencia at Cuzco. Túpac began moving through the countryside, gaining supporters, primarily from the Indian and mestizo classes, but also with some creoles. On 17 November, he arrived at the town of Sangarará , where Spanish authorities from Cuzco and the surrounding area had assembled a force of about 604 Spaniards and 700 Indians. Túpac's ad hoc army, which had grown to several thousand, routed this force
1610-471: The term (cacique) to refer to the local leader of essentially any indigenous group in Spanish America . Caribbean caciques who did not initially oppose the Spanish became middlemen, serving as the interface between their communities and the Spanish. Their cooperation was frequently provisional. Most of the early caciques eventually revolted, resulting in their deaths in battle or by execution. Two of
1656-428: The upper-caste criollos abandoning him first to rejoin the loyalist forces. Further defeats and Spanish offers of amnesty for rebel defectors hastened the collapse of Túpac's forces. By the end of February 1781, Spanish authorities began to gain the upper hand. A mostly indigenous loyalist army of 15,000 to 17,000 troops led by Jose del Valle had the smaller rebel army surrounded by 23 March. A breakout attempt on 5 April
1702-477: The uprising in the San Felipe de Tungasucan region. Micaela Bastidas and Bartola Sisa took part in demonstrations against high prices, food distribution networks, racist treatment of Natives, high taxes, and tightening restrictions on the colonies. Although women were involved in the revolution and had a very active role throughout their villages, leading to independence throughout the region, they had received little attention for their efforts. The ultimate death toll
1748-492: The west. The economic hardship this introduced to parts of the Altiplano combined with systemic oppression of Indian and mestizo underclasses (a recurring source of localized uprisings throughout Spanish colonial South America) to create an environment in which a large-scale uprising could occur. In 1778 Spain raised sales taxes (known as the alcabala ) on goods such as rum and pulque (the common alcoholic beverages of
1794-513: The word first entered the English language, defined as "prince". In Taíno culture, the kasike rank was hereditary and sometimes established through democratic means. As the Taínos were mostly a peaceable culture the kasike 's importance in the tribe was determined by the size of his clan rather than his skills in warfare. The Taíno kasikes also enjoyed several privileges that marked them as
1840-442: The worst was over. The last organized remnants of the rebellion would be vanquished by May 1782, though sporadic violence continued for many months. Diego, his mother, and several of his allies would be arrested and executed anyway by Spanish authorities in Cuzco on 19 July 1783 on the pretext he had broken the peace accords. During the rebellion, especially after the death of Túpac Amaru II, non-Indians were systematically killed by
1886-593: Was a colony of Spain from the late sixteenth century until the Spanish–American War of 1898, when the United States assumed control. The U.S. administration subsequently introduced many commercial, political and administrative reforms. They were sometimes quite progressive and directed towards the modernization of government and commerce in the Philippines. However, the local traditional Filipino elites, being better educated and better connected than much of
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1932-639: Was a tribal chieftain of the Taíno people, who were the Indigenous inhabitants of the Bahamas , the Greater Antilles , and the northern Lesser Antilles at the time of European contact with those places. The term is a Spanish transliteration of the Taíno word kasike . Cacique was initially translated as "king" or "prince" for the Spanish. In the colonial era, the conquistadors and
1978-584: Was beheaded. Túpac Amaru's capture and execution did not end the rebellion. In his place, his surviving relatives, namely his cousin Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru, continued the war, albeit using guerilla tactics, and transferred the rebellion's focal point to the Collao highlands around Lake Titicaca . The war was also continued by Túpac Katari 's female commander, Bartolina Sisa. Sisa led a resistance of 2,000 troops for several months until
2024-460: Was excused from Sunday worship and payments of the half real; his servants were not liable for community labor; he was exempt from incarceration for debt and his property from sequestration; he could be imprisoned for serious crime but not in the public jail; the caciques' names were to be listed among the nobles in official registers; and "all these privileges are to apply equally to the caciques' wives and widows." With Mexican independence in 1821,
2070-401: Was executed in front of thousands of gathered Indians , mestizos , and criollos (locals of partial Spanish descent). Following the assassination of Arriaga, Túpac made a proclamation citing several explicit demands related to indigenous issues. These included ending the mita rotational labor system and limiting the power of the corregidor and thus amplifying his power as cacique . To
2116-472: Was repulsed. Túpac and his family were betrayed and captured the next day along with battalion leader Tomasa Tito Condemayta , who was the only indigenous noble who would be executed alongside Túpac. After being tortured, on 15 May Túpac was sentenced to death, and on 18 May forced to witness the execution of his wife and one of his children before he was himself quartered . The four horses running in opposite directions failed to tear his limbs apart, and so Túpac
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