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107-406: Maimonides , in the introduction to his Yad ha-Ḥazaḳah , and others have declared that the title Sifra debbe Rav indicates Abba Arikha is the author. I.H. Weiss attempts to support this. His proofs are not conclusive, though neither are the opposing arguments of Friedmann, who tries to show that the expression Sifra debbe Rav does not refer to the midrash under discussion. Malbim wrote in

214-625: A yeshiva attached to a small synagogue , which now bears his name. In Palestine, he prayed at the Temple Mount . He wrote that this day of visiting the Temple Mount was a day of holiness for him and his descendants. Maimonides shortly thereafter was instrumental in helping rescue Jews taken captive during the Christian Amalric of Jerusalem 's siege of the southeastern Nile Delta town of Bilbeis . He sent five letters to

321-466: A German physician, pupil of Immanuel Kant . The Treatise on Logic (Arabic: Maqala Fi-Sinat Al-Mantiq ) has been printed 17 times, including editions in Latin (1527), German (1805, 1822, 1833, 1828), French (1936) by Moïse Ventura and in 1996 by Rémi Brague, and English (1938) by Israel Efros, and in an abridged Hebrew form. The work illustrates the essentials of Aristotelian logic to be found in

428-468: A basis for the latter in the former. Maimonides' admiration for the Neoplatonic commentators led him to doctrines which the later Scholastics did not accept. For instance, Maimonides was an adherent of apophatic theology . In this theology, one attempts to describe God through negative attributes. For example, one should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; it can be said that God

535-520: A broad discursive framework was created. The law as laid down in the two compilations is basically similar, except in emphasis and in minor details. In a novel view, David Weiss Halivni describes the longer discursive passages in the Babylonian Talmud as the "Stammaitic" layer of redaction, and believe that it was added later than the rest: if one were to remove the "Stammaitic" passages, the remaining text would be quite similar in character to

642-608: A busy life, and wrote many of his works while travelling or in temporary accommodation. A Berber dynasty, the Almohads , conquered Córdoba in 1148 and abolished dhimmi status (i.e., state protection of non-Muslims ensured through payment of a tax, the jizya ) in some of their territories. The loss of this status forced the Jewish and Christian communities to choose between conversion to Islam , death , or exile . Many Jews were forced to convert, but due to suspicion by

749-552: A cluster of associated notions. The meaning of the words is explained and illustrated with examples. At the end of each chapter, the author carefully draws up the list of words studied. Until very recently, it was accepted that Maimonides wrote the Treatise on Logic in his twenties or even in his teen years. Herbert Davidson has raised questions about Maimonides' authorship of this short work (and of other short works traditionally attributed to Maimonides). He maintains that Maimonides

856-436: A cornerstone of Jewish scholarship. His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries significant canonical authority as a codification of halakha . Aside from being revered by Jewish historians, Maimonides also figures very prominently in the history of Islamic and Arab sciences. Influenced by Aristotle , Al-Farabi , Ibn Sina , and his contemporary Ibn Rushd , he became a prominent philosopher and polymath in both

963-536: A letter discovered in the Cairo Geniza , he wrote: The greatest misfortune that has befallen me during my entire life—worse than anything else—was the demise of the saint, may his memory be blessed, who drowned in the Indian sea, carrying much money belonging to me, to him, and to others, and left with me a little daughter and a widow. On the day I received that terrible news I fell ill and remained in bed for about

1070-477: A single innocent one to death ." He argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until defendants would be convicted merely according to the judge's caprice. Maimonides composed works of Jewish scholarship, rabbinic law , philosophy, and medical texts. Most of Maimonides' works were written in Judeo-Arabic . However,

1177-609: A work of the quality they had intended and that this is the reason why the Gemara do not comment upon the whole Mishnah, or that certain sections were lost. Current perspectives on the dating of the closure of the text of the Palestinian Talmud rely on an understanding of activity of rabbinic scholarship and literary production, identifying datable historical datapoints mentioned by the text, and its reliance on and citation by other datable (or roughly datable) texts. Broadly,

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1284-519: A year, suffering from a sore boil, fever, and depression , and was almost given up. About eight years have passed, but I am still mourning and unable to accept consolation. And how should I console myself? He grew up on my knees, he was my brother, [and] he was my student. Around 1171, Maimonides was appointed the Nagid of the Egyptian Jewish community. Arabist Shelomo Dov Goitein believes

1391-456: Is because she pounds [the spiced ingredients] with him." The Hebrew word for "pound" is dakh ( דך ), which rules out the spelling of rabah ( רבה ), as found in the printed editions. Yemenite Jews still call it dūkeh .   Leiden University Libraries has digitised both volumes of the manuscript and made it available in its Digital Collections. Among the Hebrew manuscripts held in

1498-486: Is given in Biagio Ugolini , Thesaurus, xiv. Other editions include: Maimonides Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides ( / m aɪ ˈ m ɒ n ɪ d iː z / , my- MON -ih-deez ) and also referred to by the Hebrew acronym Rambam ( Hebrew : רמב״ם ), was a Sephardic rabbi and philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars of

1605-630: Is given in his Epistle to Yemen as Moses son of Maimon the Judge, son of Joseph the Wise, son of Isaac the Rabbi, son of Obadiah the Judge. At the end of his commentary on the Mishnah , however, a longer, slightly different genealogy is given: Moses son of Maimon the Judge, son of Joseph the Wise, son of Isaac the Judge, son of Joseph the Judge, son of Obadiah the Judge, son of Solomon the Rabbi, son of Obadiah

1712-480: Is important in that it preserves some earlier variants to textual readings, such as in Tractate Pesachim 10:3 (70a), which brings down the old Hebrew word for charoset (the sweet relish eaten at Passover), viz. dūkeh ( Hebrew : דוכה ), instead of rūbeh/rabah ( Hebrew : רובה ), saying with a play on words: "The members of Isse's household would say in the name of Isse: Why is it called dūkeh ? It

1819-527: Is in comparison to God. This is the basis of the Torah. The principle that inspired his philosophical activity was identical to a fundamental tenet of scholasticism : there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy. Maimonides primarily relied upon the science of Aristotle and the teachings of the Talmud, commonly claiming to find

1926-689: Is meant to be a similar style to Tosafot . Rabbi Chaim Kanievsky published a commentary on tractates Berakhot through Nedarim (roughly 70% of the Jerusalem Talmud), considered by many to be the clearest commentary. Most of it is reprinted in the Oz Vehadar edition of the Yerushalmi. Rabbi Yitzchok Isaac Krasilschikov wrote the Toledot Yitzchak and Tevuna commentaries on tractates Berakhot through Rosh Hashanah (roughly 50% of

2033-554: Is no reason for attacking the above-mentioned assumption that the Sifra in its principal parts is a midrash of R. Judah's. Hoffmann remarks not incorrectly that Sifra Nedabah 4:12 agrees with the views of R. Eliezer , whose decision R. Judah frequently accepts as handed down by his own father, R. Ila'i , a pupil of R. Eliezer. Similarly, Sifra, Emor , 17:4 et seq. agrees with R. Eliezer's view. Aside from R. Judah's midrash, R. Ḥiyya may have used also R. Simeon's midrash, although some of

2140-556: Is not corporeal. This was central to his thinking about the sin of idolatry . Maimonides insisted that all of the anthropomorphic phrases pertaining to God in sacred texts are to be interpreted metaphorically . A related tenet of Maimonidean theology is the notion that the commandments , especially those pertaining to sacrifices , are intended to help wean the Israelites away from idolatry. Maimonides also argued that God embodied reason , intellect , science , and nature , and

2247-493: Is not non-existent. One should not say that "God is wise"; but it can be said that "God is not ignorant," i.e., in some way, God has some properties of knowledge. One should not say that "God is One," but it can be stated that "there is no multiplicity in God's being." In brief, the attempt is to gain and express knowledge of God by describing what God is not, rather than by describing what God "is." Maimonides argued adamantly that God

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2354-453: Is often determined by factors outside of one's control, human beings have free will to choose to behave in ways that build character. He wrote, "One is obligated to conduct his affairs with others in a gentle and pleasing manner." Maimonides advised that those with antisocial character traits should identify those traits and then make a conscious effort to behave in the opposite way. For example, an arrogant person should practice humility. If

2461-527: Is possible to harmonize the apparently conflicting sentences and thereby show that they may be assigned to the same authority. Many errors have crept into the text through the practice of repeating one and the same midrash in similar passages. The Sifra is usually still cited according to the Weiss edition of 1862 . The editions of the Sifra are as follows: Venice , 1545; with commentary by RABaD , Constantinople , 1552; with Ḳorban Aharon, Venice, 1609; with

2568-579: The Mishneh Torah was written in Hebrew. In addition to Mishneh Torah, his Jewish texts were: Maimonides' achievements in the medical field are well known, and are cited by many medieval authors. One of his more important medical works is his Guide to Good Health ( Regimen Sanitatis ), which he composed in Arabic for the Sultan al-Afdal , son of Saladin , who suffered from depression . The work

2675-578: The Cordoban " ( أَبُو عَمْرَان مُوسَى بْن مَيْمُون بْن عُبَيْد ٱللّٰه ٱلْقُرْطُبِيّ , Abū ʿImrān Mūsā bin Maimūn bin ʿUbaydallāh al-Qurṭubī ), or more often simply "Moses, son of Maimon" ( موسى بن ميمون ). In Greek, the Hebrew ben ('son of') becomes the patronymic suffix -ides , forming Μωησής Μαϊμονίδης "Moses Maimonides". He is sometimes known as "The Great Eagle" (Hebrew: הנשר הגדול , romanized:  haNesher haGadol ). Maimonides

2782-512: The Geonim (post-Talmudic early Medieval scholars, mainly from Mesopotamia ). It is also known as Yad ha-Chazaka or simply Yad ( יד ) which has the numerical value 14, representing the 14 books of the work. The Mishneh Torah made following Jewish law easier for the Jews of his time, who were struggling to understand the complex nature of Jewish rules and regulations as they had adapted over

2889-544: The God of Abraham to what philosophers refer to as the Necessary Being . God is unique in the universe, and the Torah commands that one love and fear God ( Deut 10:12) on account of that uniqueness. To Maimonides, this meant that one ought to contemplate God's works and to marvel at the order and wisdom that went into their creation. When one does this, one inevitably comes to love God and to sense how insignificant one

2996-681: The Jewish medical ethicist Fred Rosner into contemporary English. Lectures, conferences and research on Maimonides, even recently in the 21st century, have been done at medical universities in Morocco . The Oath of Maimonides is a document about the medical calling and recited as a substitute for the Hippocratic Oath . It is not to be confused with a more lengthy Prayer of Maimonides . These documents may not have been written by Maimonides, but later. The Prayer appeared first in print in 1793 and has been attributed to Markus Herz ,

3103-895: The Middle Ages . In his time, he was also a preeminent astronomer and physician , serving as the personal physician of Saladin . He was born and lived in Córdoba in al-Andalus (now in Spain) within the Almoravid Empire on Passover eve 1138 or 1135, until his family was expelled for refusing to convert to Islam. Later, he lived in Morocco and Egypt and worked as a rabbi, physician and philosopher. During his lifetime, most Jews greeted Maimonides' writings on Jewish law and ethics with acclaim and gratitude, even as far away as Iraq and Yemen. Yet, while Maimonides rose to become

3210-696: The Nasi of the Sanhedrin and put an end to the practice of semikhah (formal scholarly ordination). The redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud was done to codify the laws of the Sanhedrin as the redaction of the Mishnah had similarly done during the time of Judah ha-Nasi . It was thought that the compilers of the Jerusalem Talmud worked to collect the rulings of the Sanhedrin and lacked the time to produce

3317-474: The Scholastic philosophers, especially on Albertus Magnus , Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus . He was a Jewish Scholastic. Educated more by reading the works of Arab Muslim philosophers than by personal contact with Arabian teachers, he acquired an intimate acquaintance not only with Arab Muslim philosophy, but with the doctrines of Aristotle. Maimonides strove to reconcile Aristotelianism and science with

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3424-524: The Sudanese port of ʿAydhab . After a long, arduous trip through the desert, however, David was unimpressed by the goods on offer there. Against his brother's wishes, David boarded a ship for India, since great wealth was to be found in the East. Before he could reach his destination, David drowned at sea sometime between 1169 and 1177. The death of his brother caused Maimonides to become sick with grief. In

3531-638: The Talmud of the Land of Israel , is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century Jewish oral tradition known as the Mishnah . Naming this version of the Talmud after Palestine or the Land of Israel —rather than Jerusalem —is considered more accurate, as the text originated mainly from Galilee in Byzantine Palaestina Secunda rather than from Jerusalem, where no Jews lived at

3638-579: The Tosafot and the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides . The Babylonian Talmud has traditionally been studied more widely and has had a greater influence on the halakhic tradition than the Jerusalem Talmud. However, some traditions associated with the Jerusalem Talmud are reflected in certain forms of the liturgy, particularly those of the Italian Jews and Romaniotes . Following the formation of

3745-575: The Vatican Library is a late 13th-century – early 14th-century copy of Tractate Sotah and the complete Zeraim for the Jerusalem Talmud ( Vat. ebr. 133 ): Berakhot , Peah , Demai , Kilayim , Sheviit , Terumot , Maaserot , Maaser Sheni , Ḥallah and Orlah (without the Mishnah for the Tractates, excepting only the Mishnah to the 2nd chapter of Berakhot). L. Ginzberg printed variant readings from this manuscript on pp. 347–372 at

3852-462: The region of Palestine – or the Land of Israel – is considered more accurate, as the text originated mainly from Galilee in Byzantine Palaestina Secunda rather than from Jerusalem, where no Jews lived at the time. The use of the parallel terms dates to the period of the geonim (6th–11th century CE), alongside other terms such as "Talmud of the Land of Israel," "Talmud of the West," and "Talmud of

3959-659: The rishonim (i.e. the early exponents of the Torah). In addition, the Jerusalem Talmud remains an indispensable source of knowledge of the development of the Jewish Law in the Holy Land. It was also an important resource in the study of the Babylonian Talmud by the Kairouan school of Chananel ben Chushiel and Nissim ben Jacob , with the result that opinions ultimately based on the Jerusalem Talmud found their way into both

4066-403: The 6th or 7th century. In the initial Venice edition, the Jerusalem Talmud was published in four volumes, corresponding to separate sedarim of the Mishnah. Page numbers are by volume as follows: Each page was printed as a folio , thus it contains four sub-pages (i.e., 7a, 7b, 7c, 7d), in contrast to the Babylonian Talmud which only has two sub-pages (7a, 7b). In addition, each chapter of

4173-525: The Babylonian . The Jerusalem Talmud is often fragmentary and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the Babylonian Talmud, on the other hand, is more careful and precise. The traditional explanation for this difference was the idea that the redactors of the Jerusalem Talmud had to finish their work abruptly. A more probable explanation is the fact that the Babylonian Talmud wasn't redacted for at least another 200 years, in which

4280-640: The Babylonian Talmud has been far greater than that of the Jerusalem Talmud. In the main, this is because the influence and prestige of the Jewish community of Israel steadily declined in contrast with the Babylonian community in the years after the redaction of the Talmud and continuing until the Gaonic era . Furthermore, the editing of the Babylonian Talmud was superior to that of the Jerusalem version, making it more accessible and readily usable. Hai ben Sherira , on

4387-507: The Gemara is reproduced alongside his commentary in the Vilna and Mutzal Mi'Eish editions of the Jerusalem Talmud. Another 16th century commentary on the Yerushalmi is Rabbi Elazar ben Moshe Azikri 's commentary to Tractates Berakhot and Betzah. Today's modern printed editions almost all carry the commentaries, Korban ha-Eida , by David ben Naphtali Fränkel (c. 1704–1762) of Berlin on

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4494-581: The Hebrew versions, the Treatise is called The words of Logic which describes the bulk of the work. The author explains the technical meaning of the words used by logicians. The Treatise duly inventories the terms used by the logician and indicates what they refer to. The work proceeds rationally through a lexicon of philosophical terms to a summary of higher philosophical topics, in 14 chapters corresponding to Maimonides' birthdate of 14 Nissan. The number 14 recurs in many of Maimonides' works. Each chapter offers

4601-577: The Jerusalem Talmud (paralleling a chapter of Mishnah) is divided into "halachot"; each "halacha" is the commentary on a single short passage of Mishnah. Passages in the Jerusalem Talmud are generally references by a combination of chapter and halacha (i.e., Yerushalmi Sotah 1:1), by a page in the Venice edition (i.e., Yerushalmi Sotah 15a), or both (Yerushalmi Sotah 1:1 15a). In addition to the sedarim of Tohorot (except part of Niddah ) and Kodashim , several tractates and parts of tractates are missing from

4708-578: The Jerusalem Talmud are the commentaries to Tractate Shekalim of Menachem Meiri , Meshulam ben David and Shemuel ben Shniur . All three of these commentaries are reprinted in the Mutzal Mi'Eish edition of the Jerusalem Talmud Tractate Shekalim. Many Acharonim , however, wrote commentaries on all or major portions of the Jerusalem Talmud, and as with the Babylonian Talmud, many also wrote on individual tractates of

4815-472: The Jerusalem Talmud's continued importance for the understanding of arcane matters, Hai ben Sherira wrote: Whatever we find in the Jerusalem Talmud and there is nothing that contradicts it in our own Talmud (i.e. the Babylonian Talmud), or which gives a nice explanation for its matters of discourse, we can hold-on to it and rely upon it, for it is not to be viewed as inferior to the commentaries of

4922-664: The Jerusalem Talmud), which was published from his manuscript by the Mutzal Me-esh Institute. A modern edition and commentary, known as Or Simchah , is currently being prepared in Arad ; another edition in preparation, including paraphrases and explanatory notes in modern Hebrew, is Yedid Nefesh . The Jerusalem Talmud has also received some attention from Adin Steinsaltz , who planned a translation into modern Hebrew and accompanying explanation similar to his work on

5029-481: The Jerusalem Talmud, Rash Sirilio appears only for tractates Berakhot and Pe'ah but the commentary for the entire Seder Zeraim appears in the Mutzal Mi'Eish edition of the Jerusalem Talmud and is reprinted in the Oz Vehadar edition. In addition to his commentary, Sirilio worked to remove mistakes made by manuscript copyists that over time had slipped into the text of the Jerusalem Talmud and his amended text of

5136-522: The Jerusalem Talmud, which was quoted by other rishonim but has now been lost. Kaftor VaFerach , by Rabbi Ishtori Haparchi (1280–1355), a disciple of Rabbi Asher ben Jehiel , the Rosh , is one of the few surviving compositions of the Rishonim about all of Seder Zeraim . However it is a Halachic work and not per se a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud. The only surviving commentaries of Rishonim on

5243-403: The Jerusalem Talmud. Neither the Jerusalem nor the Babylonian Talmud covers the entire Mishnah: for example, a Babylonian Gemara exists only for 37 out of the 63 tractates of the Mishnah. In particular: The Babylonian Talmud records the opinions of the rabbis of Israel as well as of those of Babylonia, while the Jerusalem Talmud seldom cites the Babylonian rabbis. The Babylonian version contains

5350-622: The Jerusalem Talmud. One of the first of the Acharonim to write a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud was Solomon Sirilio (1485–1554), also known as Rash Sirilio , whose commentaries cover only the Seder Zeraim and the tractate Shekalim of Seder Moed . Sirilio's commentary remained in manuscript form until 1875, when it was first printed in Mainz by Meir Lehmann. In the Vilna edition of

5457-708: The Jerusalem Talmud. The last four chapters of Shabbat , and the last chapter of Makkot , are missing. Niddah ends abruptly after the first lines of chapter 4. Tractates Avot and Eduyot are missing from both the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds. Tractate Shekalim from the Jerusalem Talmud is printed in printings of both the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia , Yerushalmi has not been preserved in its entirety; large portions of it were entirely lost at an early date, while other parts exist only in fragments. The editio princeps (ed. Bomberg, Venice, 1523 et seq.), based on

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5564-477: The Jewish and Islamic worlds . Maimonides referred to himself as "Moses, son of Rabbi Maimon the Spaniard " ( Hebrew : משה ברבי מימון הספרדי ). In Medieval Hebrew, he was usually called ר״ם , short for "our Rabbi Moshe", but mostly he is called רמב״ם , short for "our Rabbi, Moshe son of Maimon" and pronounced Rambam . In Arabic, he is sometimes called "Moses ' son of Amram ' son of Maimon, of Obadiah,

5671-576: The Jewish communities of Lower Egypt asking them to pool money together to pay the ransom . The money was collected and then given to two judges sent to Palestine to negotiate with the Crusaders. The captives were eventually released. Following this success, the Maimonides family, hoping to increase their wealth, gave their savings to his brother, the youngest son David ben Maimon, a merchant. Maimonides directed his brother to procure goods only at

5778-445: The Judge. Maimonides studied Torah under his father, who had in turn studied under Joseph ibn Migash , a student of Isaac Alfasi . At an early age, Maimonides developed an interest in sciences and philosophy. He read ancient Greek philosophy accessible via Arabic translations and was deeply immersed in the sciences and learning of Islamic culture . Maimonides, who was revered for his personality as well as for his writings, led

5885-458: The Leiden manuscript and on which all later editions are based, terminates with the following remark: "Thus far we have found what is contained in this Talmud; and we have endeavored in vain to obtain the missing portions." Of the four manuscripts used for this first edition (comp. the note at the conclusion of Shab. xx. 17d and the passage just cited), only one is now in existence; it is preserved in

5992-407: The Palestinian Talmud corresponds to a Roman official also named Proclus , who became the governor of Palestine around 380 and eventually climbed to the position of praefectus urbi Constantinopolis (Prefect of Constantinople) which he held between 388–392. The dating of the Palestinian Talmud is definitively prior to that of the Babylonian Talmud, which heavily relies on it. The Babylonian Talmud

6099-473: The Palestinian Talmud is dated at some time from the second half of the fourth century to the first half of the fifth century. Christine Hayes has argued that a lack of evidence for Amoraim activity in Syria Palaestina after the 370s implies that the text was closed by around 370. However, reference to historical events from around or even slightly after 370 may push the earliest possible date to

6206-567: The Rambam to follow any other decisor [of Jewish law], early or late? [...] The Rambam is the greatest of the decisors, and all the communities of the Land of Israel and the Arabistan and the Maghreb practice according to his word, and accepted him as their rabbi." An oft-cited legal maxim from his pen is: " It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put

6313-401: The Western Lands." The Jerusalem Talmud probably originated in Tiberias in the School of Johanan bar Nappaha as a compilation of teachings of the schools of Tiberias, Caesarea, and Sepphoris . It is written largely in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic , a Western Aramaic language that differs from its Babylonian counterpart . This Talmud is a synopsis of the analysis of the Mishnah that

6420-399: The antechambers filled with gentiles and Jews [...] I would go to heal them, and write prescriptions for their illnesses [...] until the evening [...] and I would be extremely weak." As he goes on to say in this letter, even on Shabbat he would receive members of the community. Still, he managed to write extended treatises, including not only medical and other scientific studies but some of

6527-415: The authorities of fake conversions, the new converts had to wear identifying clothing that set them apart and made them subject to public scrutiny. Maimonides' family, along with many other Jews , chose exile. For the next ten years, Maimonides moved about in southern Spain and North Africa, eventually settling in Fez, Morocco . Some say that his teacher in Fez was Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Cohen Ibn Susan , until

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6634-522: The cardinal principles of faith for Orthodox Jews . Two poetic restatements of these principles ( Ani Ma'amin and Yigdal ) eventually became canonized in many editions of the Siddur (Jewish prayer book). The omission of a list of these principles as such within his later works, the Mishneh Torah and The Guide for the Perplexed , has led some to suggest that either he retracted his earlier position, or that these principles are descriptive rather than prescriptive. Maimonides equated

6741-477: The circumstances of one's environment are such that it is impossible to behave ethically, one must move to a new location. Maimonides agreed with "the Philosopher" (Aristotle) that the use of logic is the "right" way of thinking. He claimed that in order to understand how to know God, every human being must, by study, and meditation attain the degree of perfection required to reach the prophetic state. Despite his rationalistic approach, he does not explicitly reject

6848-405: The daughter of Mishael ben Yeshayahu Halevi, had one child who survived into adulthood, Abraham Maimonides , who became recognized as a great scholar. He succeeded Maimonides as Nagid and as court physician at the age of eighteen. Throughout his career, he defended his father's writings against all critics. The office of Nagid was held by the Maimonides family for four successive generations until

6955-411: The end of his Fragments of the Yerushalmi (New York 1909). Saul Lieberman printed variants at the end of his essay, ʿAl ha-Yerushalmi (Hebrew), Jerusalem 1929. Both editors noted that this manuscript is full of gross errors but also retains some valuable readings. Traditionally, the redaction of this Talmud was thought to have been brought to an abrupt end around 425, when Theodosius II suppressed

7062-406: The end of the 14th century. A statue of Maimonides was erected near the Córdoba Synagogue . Maimonides is sometimes said to be a descendant of King David , although he never made such a claim. With Mishneh Torah , Maimonides composed a code of Jewish law with the widest-possible scope and depth. The work gathers all the binding laws from the Talmud , and incorporates the positions of

7169-430: The human race (מבחר המין האנושי)', so that instead it read 'the excommunicated heretic (מוחרם ומין)'. But later, after the provocateurs had repented of their act, and praised this great man, a student repaired the gravestone to read 'choicest of the Israelites (מבחר המין הישראלי)'". Today, Tiberias hosts the Tomb of Maimonides , on which is inscribed "From Moses to Moses arose none like Moses." Maimonides and his wife,

7276-416: The introduction to his Sifra edition that Hiyya bar Abba was the redactor of the Sifra . There are no less than 39 passages in Jerusalem Talmud and the midrashim in which expositions found also in the Sifra are quoted in the name of Ḥiyya, and the fact that no tannaim after Judah ha-Nasi are mentioned in the Sifra supports the view that the book was composed during the time of that scholar. If Ḥiyya

7383-419: The introduction, he gave the impression of wanting to "cut out" study of the Talmud, to arrive at a conclusion in Jewish law, although Maimonides later wrote that this was not his intent. His most forceful opponents were the rabbis of Provence (Southern France), and a running critique by Rabbi Abraham ben David (Raavad III) is printed in virtually all editions of Mishneh Torah . Nevertheless, Mishneh Torah

7490-426: The late 4th century. For example, the Roman general Ursicinus , who had a public role between 351 and 359, is mentioned several times in a legendary context, suggesting that these references are somewhat later than his public career. Furthermore, there is also a reference to the Persian campaign of the Roman emperor Julian from 363. While less clear, there is also confidence that the Roman official "Proclus" named by

7597-432: The latter was killed in 1165. During this time, he composed his acclaimed commentary on the Mishnah , during the years 1166–1168. Following this sojourn in Morocco, he lived in Palestine with his father and brother, before settling in Fustat in Fatimid Caliphate -controlled Egypt by 1168. There is mention that Maimonides first settled in Alexandria, and moved to Fustat only in 1171. While in Cairo , he studied in

7704-470: The leadership he displayed during the ransoming of the Crusader captives led to this appointment. However he was replaced by Sar Shalom ben Moses in 1173. Over the controversial course of Sar Shalom's appointment, during which Sar Shalom was accused of tax farming , Maimonides excommunicated and fought with him for several years until Maimonides was appointed Nagid in 1195. A work known as "Megillat Zutta"

7811-504: The library of the University of Leyden (see below ). Of the six orders of the Mishnah, the fifth, Ḳodashim, is missing entirely from the Palestinian Talmud, while the sixth, Ṭohorot, contains only the first three chapters of the treatise Niddah (iv. 48d–51b). There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the Jerusalem Talmud is Jewish Aramaic, a Western Aramaic dialect which differs from that of

7918-467: The literature of the Rishonim. Most significantly, Rabbi Samson ben Abraham of Sens (c. 1150 – c. 1230), known as the Rash , excerpts and explains many sections of the Jerusalem Talmud in his commentary to the Mishnah of Seder Zeraim. His work, however, is focused on the Mishnah and is not a comprehensive commentary on the entire Jerusalem Talmud. Judah ben Yakar (died c.1210) wrote a commentary to much of

8025-520: The modern state of Israel , there was some interest in restoring Jerusalem Talmud's traditions. For example, David Bar-Hayim of the Machon Shilo institute has issued a siddur reflecting the practices found in the Jerusalem Talmud and other sources. There is no comprehensive commentary to the Jerusalem Talmud by any of the Rishonim , but explanations of many individual passages can be found in

8132-615: The most systematically thought-through and influential treatises on halakha (rabbinic law) and Jewish philosophy of the Middle Ages. In 1172–74, Maimonides wrote his famous Epistle to Yemen . It has been suggested that his "incessant travail" undermined his own health and brought about his death at 69 (although this is a normal lifespan). Maimonides died on 12 December 1204 (20th of Tevet 4965) in Fustat. A variety of medieval sources beginning with Al-Qifti maintain that his body

8239-414: The opinions of more generations because of its later date of completion. For both these reasons, it is regarded as a more comprehensive collection of the opinions available. On the other hand, because of the centuries of redaction between the composition of the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud, the opinions of early amoraim might be closer to their original form in the Jerusalem Talmud. The influence of

8346-609: The orders of Moed, Nashim and parts of Nezikin, and Pnei Moshe , by Moses Margolies (c.1710?–1781) of Amsterdam on the entire Talmud. The Vilna edition also includes the Ridvaz by Rabbi Yaakov Dovid Wilovsky on most of the Talmud. The goal of all three of these commentaries is to explain the simple meaning of the Talmud similar to Rashi 's commentary on the Bavli, and the authors each wrote an additional commentary— Sheyarei ha-Korban , Marei ha-Panim and Tosefot Rid respectively—that

8453-568: The passages mentioned there seem to prove little. More doubtful is the relation to R. Ishmael 's midrash; and in this connection must be considered the question whether the citation of certain explanations of Leviticus introduced by the formula תנא דבי ר"י and actually found in Sifra is not in part due to confusion. But to R. Ishmael 's school undoubtedly belong the later additions to "'Arayot," which (according to Ḥag. 1:1 and Yer. 1b) were not publicly taught in R. Akiva 's school; i.e., Aḥare, 13:3-15; Ḳedoshim, 9:1-7, 11:14, and finally, of course,

8560-432: The patient's autonomy . Although he frequently wrote of his longing for solitude in order to come closer to God and to extend his reflections—elements considered essential in his philosophy to the prophetic experience—he gave over most of his time to caring for others. In a famous letter, Maimonides describes his daily routine. After visiting the Sultan's palace, he would arrive home exhausted and hungry, where "I would find

8667-497: The preeminence of the Babylonian Talmud, wrote: Anything that has been decided halachically in our Talmud (i.e. the Babylonian Talmud), we do not rely on [any contradictory view found in] the Jerusalem Talmud, seeing that many years have passed since instruction coming from there (i.e. the Land of Israel) had ceased on account of persecution, whereas here (i.e. in Babylonia ) is where the final decisions were clarified. However, on

8774-457: The present Sifra, and, on the other hand, there are probably passages in the present Sifra which were not known to the Babylonian Talmud. The Sifra frequently agrees with the Judean rather than with the Babylonian tradition; and Tosefta , Sheḳ. 1:7 likewise agrees with the Sifra. In the few cases where the agreement is with the Babylonian Talmud, it must not be assumed that the text of the Sifra

8881-461: The previous ideas (as portrayed, for example, by Rabbi Yehuda Halevi in his Kuzari ) that in order to become a prophet, God must intervene. Maimonides teaches that prophecy is the highest purpose of the most learned and refined individuals. Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud ( Hebrew : תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי , romanized :  Talmud Yerushalmi , often Yerushalmi for short) or Palestinian Talmud , also known as

8988-402: The required beliefs of Judaism: Maimonides is said to have compiled the principles from various Talmudic sources. These principles were controversial when first proposed, evoking criticism by Rabbis Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo , and were effectively ignored by much of the Jewish community for the next few centuries. However, these principles have become widely held and are considered to be

9095-686: The revered head of the Jewish community in Egypt , his writings also had vociferous critics, particularly in Spain. He died in Fustat , Egypt, and, according to Jewish tradition, was buried in Tiberias . His tomb in Tiberias is a popular pilgrimage and tourist site. He was posthumously acknowledged as one of the foremost rabbinic decisors and philosophers in Jewish history , and his copious work comprises

9202-443: The same commentary, Dessau , 1742; with commentary by J.L. Rapoport , Wilna , 1845; with commentary by Judah Jehiel , Lemberg , 1848; with commentary by Malbim (Meir Loeb b. Yehiel Michael), Bucharest , 1860; with commentary by RABaD and Massoret ha-Talmud by I. H. Weiss , Vienna , 1862 (Reprint New York: Om Publishing Company 1946); with commentary by Samson of Sens and notes by MaHRID , Warsaw , 1866. A Latin translation

9309-602: The so-called Baraita de-Rabbi Yishma'el (beginning). The so-called "Mekilta de-Millu'im" or "Aggadat Millu'im" to Leviticus 8:1-10 is similarly to be distinguished from the remainder of the Sifra. It exists in two recensions, of which the second, covering mishnayot 14-16 and 29-end, is cited by Rashi as "Baraita ha-Nosefet 'al Torat Kohanim she-Lanu." The tannaim quoted most frequently in Sifra are R. Akiva and his pupils, also R. Eliezer , R. Ishmael, R. Jose ha-Gelili , Rebbi , and less often R. Jose bar Judah , R. Eleazar bar R. Simeon , and R. Simeon b. Eleazar . The Sifra

9416-683: The teachings of the Torah . In his Guide for the Perplexed , he often explains the function and purpose of the statutory provisions contained in the Torah against the backdrop of the historical conditions. The book was highly controversial in its day, and was banned by French rabbis, who burnt copies of the work in Montpellier . In his commentary on the Mishnah ( Tractate Sanhedrin , chapter 10), Maimonides formulates his "13 principles of faith"; and that these principles summarized what he viewed as

9523-465: The teachings of the great Islamic philosophers such as Avicenna and, above all, Al-Farabi , "the Second Master," the "First Master" being Aristotle . In his work devoted to the Treatise, Rémi Brague stresses the fact that Al-Farabi is the only philosopher mentioned therein. This indicates a line of conduct for the reader, who must read the text keeping in mind Al-Farabi's works on logic. In

9630-632: The time. The Jerusalem Talmud predates its counterpart, the Babylonian Talmud (known in Hebrew as the Talmud Bavli ), by about a century, written primarily in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic . It was compiled between the late fourth century to the first half of the fifth century. Both versions of the Talmud have two parts, the Mishnah (of which there is only one version), which was finalized by Judah ha-Nasi around

9737-556: The year 200 CE, and either the Babylonian or the Jerusalem Gemara . The Gemara is what differentiates the Jerusalem Talmud from its Babylonian counterpart. The Jerusalem Gemara contains the written discussions of generations of rabbis of the Talmudic academies in Syria Palaestina at Tiberias and Caesarea . This version of the Talmud is frequently named the Jerusalem Talmud or the Palestinian Talmud. The latter name, after

9844-410: The years. Later codes of Jewish law, e.g. Arba'ah Turim by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and Shulchan Aruch by Rabbi Yosef Karo , draw heavily on Mishneh Torah : both often quote whole sections verbatim. However, it met initially with much opposition. There were two main reasons for this opposition. First, Maimonides had refrained from adding references to his work for the sake of brevity; second, in

9951-443: Was omnipotent and indescribable. He said that science, the growth of scientific fields, and discovery of the unknown by comprehension of nature was a way to appreciate God. Maimonides taught about the developing of one's moral character . Although his life predated the modern concept of a personality , Maimonides believed that each person has an innate disposition along an ethical and emotional spectrum. Although one's disposition

10058-490: Was appointed court physician to al-Qadi al-Fadil , the chief secretary to Sultan Saladin , then to Saladin himself; after whose death he remained a physician to the Ayyubid dynasty . In his medical writings, Maimonides described many conditions, including asthma , diabetes , hepatitis , and pneumonia , and he emphasized moderation and a healthy lifestyle. His treatises became influential for generations of physicians. He

10165-673: Was born 1138 (or 1135) in Córdoba in the Muslim -ruled Almoravid Caliphate , at the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula after the first centuries of Muslim rule. His father, Maimon ben Joseph , was a dayyan or rabbinic judge. Aaron ben Jacob ha-Kohen later wrote that he had traced Maimonides' descent back to Simeon ben Judah ha-Nasi from the Davidic line . His ancestry, going back four generations,

10272-510: Was composed at some time between the mid-sixth century to the early-seventh century, but prior to the onset of the Arab conquests. This provides an upper absolute boundary as to when the Palestinian Talmud could have been compiled. To further push down the upper boundary, some lines ( Demai 2:1; Shevi'it 6:1) of the Palestinian Talmud are also extant in the Tel Rehov inscription which dates to

10379-607: Was copied in 1289 by Jehiel ben Jekuthiel Anav and shows elements of a later recension. The additions which are added in the biblical glosses of the Leiden manuscript do not appear in extant fragments of the same Talmudic tractates found in Yemen, additions which are now incorporated in every printed edition of the Jerusalem Talmud. These Yemenite fragments, a consequence of isolation the Yemenite community, are important as source material (as evidenced below). The Leiden manuscript

10486-448: Was developed for nearly 200 years by the Talmudic academies in Syria Palaestina (principally those of Tiberias and Caesarea ). Because of their location, the sages of these Academies devoted considerable attention to the analysis of the agricultural laws of the Land of Israel . The Leiden Jerusalem Talmud (Or. 4720) is today the only extant complete manuscript of the Jerusalem Talmud and available at Leiden University Libraries . It

10593-416: Was divided, according to an old arrangement, into 9 "dibburim" and 80 "parashiyyot" or smaller sections. As it exists today it is divided into 14 larger sections and again into smaller peraḳim, parashiyyot, and mishnayot. As the commentators point out, it varies frequently from the Sifra which the Talmudic authors knew; furthermore, entire passages known to the authors of the Babylonian Talmud are missing in

10700-461: Was emended in agreement with the Babylonian Talmud, but that it represents the original version. The Babylonian Talmud, as compared with Yerushalmi , cites Sifra less accurately, sometimes abbreviating and sometimes amplifying it. The Babylonian Talmud occasionally makes use, in reference to the Sifra, of the rule "mi she-shanah zu lo shanah zu" (i.e., the assigning of different parts of one halakah to different authorities), but unnecessarily, since it

10807-461: Was interred near Lake Tiberias , though there is no contemporary evidence for his removal from Egypt. Gedaliah ibn Yahya records that "He was buried in the Upper Galilee with elegies upon his gravestone. In the time of [David] Kimhi , when the sons of Belial rose up to besmirch [Maimonides] . . . they did evil. They altered his gravestone, which previously had been inscribed 'choicest of

10914-427: Was its author, the title Sifra debbe Rav is to be explained as indicating that Sifra was among the midrashim accepted by his school and which came into general use. Traces of R. Judah bar Ilai 's influence are less evident. The fact that the views expressed in some "setamot" agree with R. Judah's views has little significance. Such seṭamot may be opposed by others that contradict R. Judah's views. All this, however,

11021-485: Was knowledgeable about Greek and Arabic medicine, and followed the principles of humorism in the tradition of Galen . He did not blindly accept authority but used his own observation and experience. Julia Bess Frank indicates that Maimonides in his medical writings sought to interpret works of authorities so that they could become acceptable. Maimonides displayed in his interactions with patients attributes that today would be called intercultural awareness and respect for

11128-626: Was not the author at all, based on a report of two Arabic-language manuscripts, unavailable to Western investigators in Asia Minor. Rabbi Yosef Kafih maintained that it is by Maimonides and newly translated it to Hebrew (as Beiur M'lekhet HaHiggayon ) from the Judeo-Arabic. Through The Guide for the Perplexed and the philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the Mishna, Maimonides exerted an important influence on

11235-448: Was recognized as a monumental contribution to the systemized writing of halakha . Throughout the centuries, it has been widely studied and its halakhic decisions have weighed heavily in later rulings. In response to those who would attempt to force followers of Maimonides and his Mishneh Torah to abide by the rulings of his own Shulchan Aruch or other later works, Rabbi Yosef Karo wrote: "Who would dare force communities who follow

11342-524: Was translated into Latin, and published in Florence in 1477, becoming the first medical book to appear in print there. While his prescriptions may have become obsolete, "his ideas about preventive medicine, public hygiene, approach to the suffering patient, and the preservation of the health of the soul have not become obsolete." Maimonides wrote ten known medical works in Arabic that have been translated by

11449-535: Was written by Abraham ben Hillel , who writes a scathing description of Sar Shalom while praising Maimonides as "the light of east and west and unique master and marvel of the generation." With the loss of the family funds tied up in David's business venture, Maimonides assumed the vocation of physician, for which he was to become famous. He had trained in medicine in both Spain and in Fez. Gaining widespread recognition, he

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