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64-451: The prison was built in 1896–1897 by the authorities of the Kingdom of Hungary . Following Austrian practice, it was situated close to the courthouse in order to facilitate prisoner transport. From its opening until 1944, it housed common criminals with sentences of six months to two years. T-shaped, the building had a ground and two upper floors. Of the 108 cells, 36 were individual and

128-637: A bureaucratic political machine that maintained control through corruption and manipulation of a woefully unrepresentative electoral system. In addition, Tisza's government had to withstand both dissatisfied nationalities and Hungarians who thought Tisza too submissive to the Austrians. The Liberals argued that the Dual Monarchy improved Hungary's economic position and enhanced its influence in European politics. Tisza's government raised taxes, balanced

192-600: A large majority in the parliament. Tisza became prime minister for a second time in 1912 after labor strife erupted over an unsuccessful attempt to expand voting rights. In the Treaty of Bucharest (1918) , Austria-Hungary gained its last extensions. Romania ceded 5,513 km to Austria-Hungary, of which 3,249 km went to Hungary. At the end of the First World War , the existence of Transleithania came to an end. The Croats, with other South Slav nations, had wanted

256-402: A month, generally towards midnight. Prisoners would be rousted from bed with insults and blows, the entire guard corps carrying out a minute search. Prisoners performed menial tasks: peeling potatoes, washing clothes, chopping wood, sweeping. Some of these, such as washing apples or cleaning bathrooms, were done for their humiliation and for the guards’ amusement. Once or twice a week, a prisoner

320-638: A museum, called the "Memorial to the Victims of Communism and Resistance." On June 20, 1997, the first halls were opened and a prayer and silence space was inaugurated in the small prison courtyard, meant as a tribute to all political prisoners who died in detention in Communist Romania . The larger courtyard features the statuary group called "Sacrifice Parade," made by the sculptor Aurel Vlad  [ ro ] . [REDACTED] Media related to Sighet Prison at Wikimedia Commons Lands of

384-598: A separate state and status equal to the Austrians and the Hungarians in the monarchy since the beginning of the union in 1867 and 1868. After many attempts which were always vetoed by the Hungarian side, the Hungarian Council of Ministers, led by Hungarian prime minister Sándor Wekerle and Count István Tisza, finally signed the trialist manifest on 22 October 1918, a day after King Charles did so. Since it

448-661: A similar compromise in 1868 , the Nagodba , giving Croatia a special status in the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown. In fact, this half of Austria-Hungary was officially defined (art. 1) as "a state union of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia ". The agreement recognized Croatia's distinct identity and granted Croatia autonomy over its internal affairs, exercised by

512-600: A unified, Magyarized state. Ignoring the Nationalities Law, they enacted laws that required the Hungarian language to be used in local government and increased the number of school subjects taught in that language. After 1890 the government succeeded in Magyarizing educated Slovaks, Germans, Croats, and Romanians and co-opting them into the bureaucracy, thus robbing the minority nationalities of an educated elite. Most minorities never learned to speak Hungarian, but

576-448: Is barley that has been processed to remove its fibrous outer hull and polished to remove some or all of the bran layer. It is the most common form of barley for human consumption because it cooks faster and is less chewy than other, less-processed forms of the grain such as "hulled barley" (or "barley groats ", also known as "pot barley" and "Scotch barley"). Fine barley flour is prepared from milled pearl barley. Pearl barley

640-621: Is believed that the prison was chosen for its geographic isolation and proximity to the Soviet Union; in the event of an anti-communist revolt, the prisoners could be whisked across the border. Another advantage was its division into cells, facilitating isolation. On May 26, the group of Romanian Greek-Catholic bishops and priests arrested in October 1948, previously held at Dragoslavele and Căldărușani  [ ro ] Monasteries, arrived. In August 1951, they were joined from Galați by

704-476: The Sabor (assembly) of the former Kingdom of Croatia . The Sabor gained partial authority to legislate in the areas of justice, education and religious matters, and interior affairs. In practice, however, this autonomy was fairly limited. The Croatian Ban would now be nominated by the Hungarian prime minister and appointed by the king. Areas of common policies included finance, currency matters, commercial policy,

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768-536: The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and followed a laissez-faire economic policy. Guilds were abolished, workers were permitted to bargain for wages, and the government attempted to improve education and construct roads and railroads. Between 1850 and 1875, Hungary's farms prospered: grain prices were high, and exports tripled. But Hungary's economy accumulated capital too slowly, and the government relied heavily on foreign credits. In addition,

832-500: The Bărăgan Plain . A third category, numbering around 60, were sent to other prisons, especially Râmnicu Sărat . A new set of prisoners arrived from Făgăraș , Galați and Suceava . These were common criminals sentenced to life imprisonment, henceforth its main occupants. Their recalcitrant behavior, including an uprising and a joint escape by five, caused problems for the rest of the year. Occasionally, political prisoners, not part of

896-704: The Iron Guardist Frățiile de Cruce associations. From the latter category, among the earliest arrivals were eighteen pupils from Dragoș Vodă High School , accused of demonstrating against the new communist regime ; they were incarcerated in August 1948 and kept until May 1949, after which they were tried in Cluj and sent to prisons in Pitești , Gherla , and Târgșor , or to the Danube–Black Sea Canal . On

960-769: The Kingdom of Hungary and the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia ". Though Dalmatia actually lay outside the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, being part of Cisleithania , the Austrian half of the empire, it was nevertheless included in its name, due to a long political campaign seeking recognition of the Triune Kingdom , which consisted of a united Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. Transleithania ( Hungarian : Lajtántúl , German : Transleithanien , Croatian : Translajtanija , Polish : Zalitawia , Czech : Zalitavsko , Slovak : Zalitavsko )

1024-637: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes ). The city of Fiume became the short-lived Free State of Fiume until 1924, when it was ceded to Italy . The territories of the southern Hungarian counties in Banat , Bácska and Baranya (the west of Temes County , Torontál County , Bács-Bodrog County and Baranya County ) as a Province of Banat, Bačka and Baranja became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . In desperation, Charles appointed Mihály Károlyi , who advocated looser ties between Austria and Hungary, as prime minister. Under Károlyi's prodding,

1088-502: The Long Depression at the end of the 19th century. The rural population grew, and the size of the peasants' farm plots shrank as land was divided up by successive generations. By 1900 almost half of the country's landowners were scratching out a living from plots too small to meet basic needs, and many farm workers had no land at all. Many peasants chose to emigrate, and their departure rate reached approximately 50,000 annually in

1152-540: The historic coronation crown of Hungary , known as the Crown of Saint Stephen of Hungary , which had a symbolic importance to the Kingdom of Hungary . According to the First Article of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868, this territory, also called Arch-Kingdom of Hungary ( Archiregnum Hungaricum , pursuant to Medieval Latin terminology), was officially defined as "a state union of

1216-491: The "common" ministry of defense administered the imperial and royal armies, the emperor acted as their commander in chief, and German remained the language of command in the military as a whole. The compromise designated that commercial and monetary policy, tariffs, the railroad, and indirect taxation were "common" concerns to be negotiated every ten years. The compromise also returned Transylvania to Hungary's jurisdiction. At Franz Joseph's insistence, Hungary and Croatia reached

1280-624: The "national" opposition that forced a coalition with the Liberals in 1905. The Party of Independence resigned itself to the existence of the Dual Monarchy and sought to enhance Hungary's position within it; the Party of Forty-Eight, however, deplored the Compromise of 1867, argued that Hungary remained an Austrian colony, and pushed for formation of a Hungarian national bank and an independent customs zone. Franz Joseph refused to appoint members of

1344-465: The 1870s and about 200,000 annually by 1907. The peasantry's share of the population dropped from 72.5 percent in 1890 to 68.4 percent in 1900. The countryside also was characterized by unrest, to which the government reacted by sending in troops, banning all farm-labor organizations, and passing other repressive legislation. In the late 19th century, the Liberal Party passed laws that enhanced

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1408-598: The Austrian and Hungarian coats-of-arms only, the Croatian government protested, since it was a breach of the Nagodba . Vienna responded quickly and included the Croatian coat of arms . The Nationalities Law enacted in 1868 defined Hungary as a single Hungarian nation comprising different nationalities whose members enjoyed equal rights in all areas except language. Although non-Hungarian languages could be used in local government, churches, and schools, Hungarian became

1472-418: The Compromise of 1867, the Hungarian government also launched an education reform in an effort to create a skilled, literate labor force. As a result, the literacy rate had climbed to 80 percent by 1910. Literacy raised the expectations of workers in agriculture and industry and made them ripe for participation in movements for political and social change. The plight of the peasantry worsened drastically during

1536-467: The Crown of Saint Stephen The Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen ( Hungarian : a Szent Korona Országai ), informally Transleithania (meaning the lands or region "beyond" the Leitha River ), were the Hungarian territories of Austria-Hungary , throughout the latter's entire existence (30 March 1867 – 16 November 1918), and which disintegrated following its dissolution . The name referenced

1600-542: The Hungarian government more control of its domestic affairs than it had possessed at any time since the Battle of Mohács (see fig. 4). However, the new government faced severe economic problems and the growing restiveness of ethnic minorities. The First World War led to the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, and in the aftermath of the war, a series of governments—including a communist regime—assumed power in Buda and Pest (in 1872

1664-585: The Hungarian parliament terminated the Austro-Hungarian Compromise as of 31 October 1918. On 13 November, Charles announced that he accepted Hungary's right to determine the form of the state, and relinquished his right to take part in Hungary's politics. He also released the officials in the Hungarian half of the monarchy from their oath of loyalty to him. Although it is sometimes reckoned as an abdication, Charles deliberately avoided using

1728-456: The Liberal government until 1890, and for fourteen years thereafter a number of Liberal prime ministers held office. Agricultural decline continued, and the bureaucracy could no longer absorb all of the pauperized lesser nobles and educated people who could not find work elsewhere. This group gave its political support to the Party of Independence and the Party of Forty-Eight, which became part of

1792-424: The budget within several years of coming to power, and completed large road, railroad, and waterway projects. Commerce and industry expanded quickly. After 1880 the government abandoned its laissez-faire economic policies and encouraged industry with loans, subsidies, government contracts, tax exemptions, and other measures. Between 1890 and 1910, the proportion of Hungarians employed in industry doubled to 24.2%, while

1856-583: The century as a result of fear of economic competition. In 1840 a partial emancipation of the Jews allowed them to live anywhere except certain depressed mining cities. The Jewish Emancipation Act of 1868 gave Jews equality before the law and effectively eliminated all bars to their participation in the economy; nevertheless, informal barriers kept Jews from careers in politics and public life. Franz Joseph appointed Gyula Andrássy —a member of Ferenc Deák 's party—prime minister in 1867. His government strongly favored

1920-484: The cities of Buda and Pest united to become Budapest). The Transleithanian lands were under the rule of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I as Apostolic King of Hungary and King of Croatia and Slavonia. He was succeeded by his grand-nephew Emperor Charles I (King Charles IV) in 1916. Once again a Habsburg emperor became king of Hungary, but the compromise strictly limited his power over

1984-428: The city cemetery or on the hospital grounds in graves that remain anonymous. The deaths were recorded in a report signed by the doctor and warden; no death certificates were issued. Coffins were used in 1950–1951, then stopped being used due to a lack of wood. Interior Ministry officials gave orders that strict secrecy be preserved as to the individual gravesites. Death certificates were finally issued in 1957 and placed in

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2048-419: The coalition to the government until they renounced their demands for concessions from Austria concerning the military. When the coalition finally gained power in 1906, the leaders retreated from their opposition to the compromise of 1867 and followed the Liberal Party's economic policies. Istvan Tisza—Kalman Tisza's son and prime minister from 1903 to 1905—formed the new National Party of Work , which in 1910 won

2112-671: The country's internal affairs, and the Hungarian government assumed control over its domestic affairs. The Hungarian government consisted of a prime minister and cabinet appointed by the emperor but responsible to the Diet of Hungary , a bicameral parliament elected by a narrow franchise. The Diet was convened by Minister-President Count Gyula Andrássy on 18 February 1867, Joint Austro-Hungarian affairs were managed through "common" ministries of foreign affairs, defense, and finance. The respective ministers were responsible to delegations representing separate Austrian and Hungarian parliaments. Although

2176-540: The detainees’ personal files. They were not sent to the families, who were notified on a case-by-case basis. Prisoners were awakened at five in the morning and had to be in their cells at eight in the evening. Lights were turned off at night in multi-prisoner cells but left on in single cells, in order to enhance surveillance. The prisoners were under constant watch, each cell visited every ten minutes, day and night; guards wore noiseless shoes so their approach would not be heard. Inspections were carried out at least three times

2240-496: The door locked, forbidden from looking out the window. When taken out in the morning, they remained silent, not allowed to know their neighbors. Memoirists agree that the greatest torture at Sighet was hunger, which began to grip them days after arrival. Rations never exceeded 1,300 calories per day, sometimes falling below 700. This extermination regime often gave rise to serious illnesses. Food included bread, boiled corn flour, beans, cabbage with occasional bits of meat and, for most of

2304-580: The education system made them aware of their political rights, and their discontent with Magyarization mounted. Bureaucratic pressures and heightened fears of territorial claims against Hungary after the creation of new nation-states in the Balkans forced Tisza to outlaw "national agitation" and to use electoral legerdemain to deprive the minorities of representation. Nevertheless, in 1901 Romanian and Slovak national parties emerged undaunted by incidents of electoral violence and police repression. Tisza directed

2368-423: The end of World War II, ethnic German war prisoners passed through Sighet, some on their way to forced labor in the Soviet Union, others returning home from there. Between 1947 and 1950, common criminals formed the majority of detainees. However, political prisoners began to appear: peasants from the surrounding Maramureș region who refused to hand over food quotas to the state, and local youth who had been active in

2432-405: The first three years as a main meal, pearl barley . In the summer of 1953, the food began to improve as milk and more meat appeared. However, the warden and guards habitually stole these two items, as well as sour cream, smoked bones and vegetables. A report noted that the warden would daily bring home three or four buckets full of food for his pigs. The warden was lieutenant Vasile Ciolpan, who held

2496-458: The former Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar ), the internally self-governed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia , and the free port of Rijeka (Fiume) . The Military Frontier was under separate administration until 1873–1882, when it was abolished and incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. The Compromise of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy, gave

2560-598: The former elite, were held at Sighet for very short periods. The prison was closed in August 1977. The building was turned into a depot run by the town hall, and slowly fell into disrepair. In the aftermath of the Romanian Revolution of 1989, that saw the dismantlement of the communist regime, poet Ana Blandiana presented in January 1993 to the Council of Europe a project to transform the former prison into

2624-501: The government's power at the expense of the Roman Catholic Church. The parliament won the right to veto clerical appointments, and it reduced the church's nearly total domination of Hungary's education institutions. Additional laws eliminated the church's authority over a number of civil matters and, in the process, introduced civil marriage and divorce procedures. The Liberal Party also worked with some success to create

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2688-472: The joint Hungarian-Croatian Parliament held a session, the Croatian flag and Hungarian flag were both hoisted on the parliament building in Budapest . In Vienna, in front of Schönbrunn Palace , a black and yellow flag was flown for Cisleithania , but both Croatian and Hungarian flags were flown for Transleithania. When in 1915 a new small official coat of arms of Austria-Hungary was released, composed of

2752-447: The middle class had grown in size and complexity and had become predominantly Jewish. In fact, Jews created the modern economy that supported Tisza's bureaucratic machine. In return, Tisza not only denounced anti-Semitism but also used his political machine to check the growth of an anti-Semitic party. In 1896 his successors passed legislation securing the Jews' final emancipation. By 1910 about 900,000 Jews made up approximately 5 percent of

2816-449: The national and local bureaucracies began to grow immediately after the compromise became effective. Soon the cost of the bureaucracy outpaced the country's tax revenues, and the national debt soared. After an economic downturn in the mid-1870s, Deák's party succumbed to charges of financial mismanagement and scandal. As a result of these economic problems, Kálmán Tisza 's Liberal Party, created in 1875, gained power in 1875. Tisza assembled

2880-667: The night of May 5/6, 1950, a Securitate secret police operation led to the arrest of some 80 high-ranking politicians from the 1918–1945 period, largely from the National Peasants' Party and the National Liberal Party . The operation involved 228 agents acting in 38 teams of six. After a brief stay at the Interior Ministry in Bucharest, they were taken to Sighet in vans, arriving on May 7. It

2944-588: The official language of the central government and universities. Many Hungarians thought the act too generous, while minority-group leaders rejected it as inadequate. Slovaks in northern Hungary, Romanians in Transylvania, and Serbs in Vojvodina all wanted more autonomy, and unrest followed the act's passage. The government took no further action concerning nationalities, and discontent about Magyarization fermented. Anti-Semitism appeared in Hungary early in

3008-426: The party and union rolls listed more than 200,000 hard-core members, making it the largest secular organization the country had ever known. The diet passed laws to improve the lives of industrial workers, including providing medical and accident insurance, but it refused to extend them voting rights, arguing that broadening the franchise would give too many non-Hungarians the vote and threaten Hungarian domination. After

3072-401: The population and about 23 percent of Hungary's citizenry. Jews accounted for 54 percent of commercial business owners, 85 percent of financial institution directors and owners, and 62 percent of all employees in commerce. The rise of a working class came naturally with industrial development. By 1900 Hungary's mines and industries employed nearly 1.2 million people, representing 13 percent of

3136-533: The population. The government favored low wages to keep Hungarian products competitive on foreign markets and to prevent impoverished peasants from flocking to the city to find work. The government recognized the right to strike in 1884, but labor came under strong political pressure. In 1890 the Social Democratic Party was established and secretly formed alliances with the trade unions. The party soon enlisted one-third of Budapest's workers. By 1900

3200-474: The position from May 1, 1950 until August 31, 1955, when he was dismissed for cause. When the detainees arrived in May 1950, the prison was in poor condition; repairs lasted until the following spring. Cold was a problem the first winter: the stoves did not burn properly, and the warden stole, both for making furniture and for burning in his own house. The cells stopped being heated at all from March 1954. Medical care

3264-436: The post office, and the railroads. Croatian became the official language of Croatia's government, and Croatian representatives discussing "common" affairs before the Hungarian diet were permitted to speak Croatian. Transleithania did not have its own flag. According to the Nagodba (art. 62 and 63), in all joint Croatian and Hungarian affairs symbols of both Croatia and Hungary respectively had to be used. For instance, whenever

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3328-769: The prisoners sentenced at the Maniu – Mihalache trial. Other imprisoned politicians and Greek-Catholic clerics arrived until 1952; detainees at Sighet numbered 89 by that August. Only the Maniu–Mihalache prisoners were at Sighet following a public trial, held in November 1947. The rest were there on orders from the Interior Ministry or the Securitate; no charges were filed, and their status was that of temporary pre-trial arrest. At least 53 detainees died at Sighet between 1950 and 1955. They were buried at night by common criminals in

3392-436: The proportion dependent on agriculture dropped from 82% to 62%. However, the 1880s and 1890s were depression years for the peasantry. Rail and steamship transport gave North American farmers access to European markets, and Europe's grain prices fell by 50 percent. Large landowners fought the downturn by seeking trade protection and other political remedies; the lesser nobles, whose farms failed in great numbers, sought positions in

3456-399: The rest fit four or six people. It was built of brick and reinforced concrete, with doors of fir wood. The thick walls were some six meters high and topped by guard towers. While Northern Transylvania was under Soviet military administration from November 1944 to March 1945, the building was used for interning Soviet deserters and delinquents, subsequently returned to the Soviet Union. After

3520-520: The still-burgeoning bureaucracy. By contrast, the peasantry resorted to subsistence farming and worked as laborers to earn money. Hungary's population rose from 13 million to 20 million between 1850 and 1910. After 1867 Hungary's feudal society gave way to a more complex society that included the magnates, lesser nobles, middle class, working class, and peasantry. However, the magnates continued to wield great influence through several conservative parties because of their massive wealth and dominant position in

3584-585: The term in the event the Hungarian people recalled him. However, Károlyi and his government were unwilling to wait; they proclaimed the Hungarian Democratic Republic on 16 November. However, King Charles IV never abdicated, and from 1920 until 1944 the nominally restored Kingdom of Hungary was governed by Miklós Horthy as a regent . 47°28′N 19°03′E  /  47.467°N 19.050°E  / 47.467; 19.050 Pearl barley Pearl barley , or pearled barley ,

3648-446: The upper chamber of the diet. They fought modernization and sought both closer ties with Vienna and a restoration of Hungary's traditional social structure and institutions, arguing that agriculture should remain the mission of the nobility. They won protection from the market by reestablishment of a system of entail and also pushed for restriction of middle-class profiteering and restoration of corporal punishment. The Roman Catholic Church

3712-661: The west (on "this" side) of the Leitha River. The territory reached from the arc of the Carpathian Mountains in present-day Slovakia to the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea . The capital of Transleithania was Budapest . After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , Transleithania consisted of the Kingdom of Hungary (which included Hungary proper as well as the territories of the former Principality of Transylvania ( Erdélyi Fejedelemség ) and

3776-407: Was a major ally of the magnates. Some lesser-noble landowners survived the agrarian depression of the late 19th century and continued farming. Many others turned to the bureaucracy or to the professions. In the mid-19th century, Hungary's middle class consisted of a small number of German and Jewish merchants and workshop owners who employed a few craftsmen. By the turn of the 20th century, however,

3840-417: Was allowed a ten-minute walk in one of the two courtyards. Hands behind his back and head down, so as not to be recognized by other inmates, any violation was punished by solitary confinement. The cell used for this purpose had no windows or light, and rations were reduced by half. The cold, hungry prisoner, if not chained, had to stand all day. Prisoners not in solitary also spent most of the day in their cells,

3904-620: Was an unofficial term for the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The Latin name Transleithania referred to the parts of the empire "beyond" ( trans ) the Leitha (or Lajta ) River, as most of its area lay to the east of that river – or "beyond" it, from an Austrian perspective. Cisleithania , the Habsburg lands of the Dual Monarchy that had been part of the Holy Roman Empire , along with Galicia and Dalmatia , lay to

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3968-431: Was practically absent. Weekly doctor’s visits were perfunctory, perhaps resulting in the distribution of a few aspirins. Terminally ill inmates were isolated on the ground floor, left to die alone. The most common diseases were rapid weight loss, ulcers and liver, heart, kidney problems. They were caused by malnutrition and old age. The conditions also caused mental illnesses such as psychosis, delirium and insomnia. Isolation

4032-573: Was severe. Besides the warden and his superiors, no one knew the detainees’ whereabouts. The only news came from new arrivals or pilfering guards’ newspapers. No correspondence was permitted. Circulation was restricted on the streets around the prison: from some distance away, signs warned people away, and the sidewalk was patrolled by armed guards. In July 1955, the political prisoners were moved out of Sighet. Some were freed and allowed to return to their families, although to other homes, since their property had been confiscated. Others were forced to live on

4096-758: Was too late to reform the Imperial and Royal monarchy, on 29 October 1918 the Croatian Parliament (Sabor) in Zagreb unified the Croatian lands and ended the union and all ties with Austria and Hungary (particularly Article 1 of the Nagodba of 1868) and decided to join the National Council of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (on 1 December 1918 it united with the Kingdom of Serbia to form

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