Sijilmasa ( Arabic : سجلماسة ; also transliterated Sijilmassa , Sidjilmasa , Sidjilmassa and Sigilmassa ) was a medieval Moroccan city and trade entrepôt at the northern edge of the Sahara in Morocco . The ruins of the town extend for five miles along the River Ziz in the Tafilalt oasis near the town of Rissani . The town's history was marked by several successive invasions by Berber dynasties . Up until the 14th century, as the northern terminus for the western trans-Sahara trade route , it was one of the most important trade centres in the Maghreb during the Middle Ages .
34-620: According to al-Bakri 's Book of Routes and Places , Sufrite Kharijites first settled the town in the wake of the Berber revolts against the Umayyads . Al-Bakri recounts that others joined these early settlers there, until they numbered around four thousand, at which point they laid the groundwork for the city. They elected a leader, 'Isa bin Mazid al-Aswad (the Black), to handle their affairs during
68-472: A list of place names mostly within the Arabian peninsula with an introduction giving the geographical background. His most important work is his Kitāb al-Masālik wa-al-Mamālik (" Book of Highways and of Kingdoms ") (كتاب المساليك والمماليك). This was composed in 1068, based on literature and the reports of merchants and travellers, including Muhammad ibn Yūsuf al-Warrāq (904–973) and Abraham ben Jacob . It
102-545: A myth, given the predominant Berber Y haplogroup is E, and the predominant Arab Y haplogroup is J . The historian Al-Idrīsī presents one example of the Himyarite myth as following: He then traced the origin of the Ṣanhādja and Lamṭa tribes to their common male ancestor Lamṭ, son of Za‘zā‘, who was from the children (min awlād) of Ḥimyar, and thus attributed to both of them the South Arabian roots. The similar origin
136-507: A plain" and that "One of these towns, which is inhabited by Muslims, is large and possesses twelve mosques in one of which they assemble for the Friday prayer. There are salaried imams and muezzins , as well as jurists and scholars." His works are noted for the relative objectivity with which they present information. For each area, he describes the people, their customs, as well as the geography, climate and main cities. Similar information
170-578: Is also ascribed to the “brother” of Ṣanhādj and Lamṭ by maternal line, Hawwār, whose forefather was al-Muṣawwir, son of al-Muthannā, son of Kalā‘, son of Ayman, son of Sa‘īd, son of Ḥimyar. According to a legend, his and his tribe’s abode was in Hejaz, but they left it in search of lost camels, so that crossed the Nile and reached the Maghrib, where al-Muṣawwir married Tāzikāy, the mother of Ṣanhādj and Lamṭ. After
204-478: Is evidenced by Ibn Hawqal's story about a bill issued to a trader in Awdaghust for forty-two thousand dinars from another merchant based out of Sijilmasa. Ibn Hawqal explains that he has never heard of such a large sum of money in all of his travels. Not only was Ibn Hawqal impressed with the volume of trade with the Maghrib and Egypt, Al-Masudi noted gold from Sudan was minted here. On account of its wealth,
238-554: Is one of the most important sources for the history of West Africa and gives crucial information on the Ghana Empire , the Almoravid dynasty and the trans-Saharan trade . Although the material borrowed from al-Warraq dated from the 10th century, he also included information on events that occurred close to the time that he wrote. Al-Bakri mentions the earliest urban centres in the trans-Saharan trade to embrace Islam, late in
272-640: The 10th century, Gao was one of the very few along the Niger River to have native Muslim inhabitants. Other centres along the serpentine bends of the great river eventually followed: Takrur ( Mauritania , Senegal ); Songhay ( Mali ); Kanem-Bornu ( Chad ); and Hausa territories ( Nigeria ). By the 11th century, reports on these and other flourishing Islamic cities made their way north to Al-Andalus in southern Iberia , enabling Al-Bakri to write in his Kitab al-Masalik wa al-Mamalik (Book of Highways and Kingdoms): "The city of Ghana consists of two towns situated on
306-625: The Abbasids in Baghdad, warning him to close his frontiers and be wary of 'Abd Allah. Yasa' was forced to imprison the men he had previously patronized. 'Abd Allah's servant escaped to Kairouan , which at the time was a stronghold for Isma'ilis. The leader of the Isma'ilis in Ifriqiya was Abu 'Abdallah; he quickly mustered an army to rescue his compatriot. On his way to Sijilmasa, he subdued Tahert ,
340-655: The Almoravid's first conquest. It remained under their control until 1146, when the Almohad Caliphate took control of the city. During the Almoravid's rule, the city shared in the centralized governing structure of the Almoravid Empire. Around this time the nearby mountain fortress of Jebel Mudawwar was established. When the Almohads took the city in the mid-12th century, they also took advantage of
374-643: The Cordoban caliphate, the city retained its role as a trade centre. It also became a center for the Maghrawan leadership and its campaign against other tribes in Morocco proper. After 60 years of Maghrawa rule, the elders of Sijilmasa appealed to the Sanhaja Berber confederation, which was just beginning its transformation into the Almoravid dynasty . According to al-Bakri, in 1055, Abdallah ibn Yasin ,
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#1732764778318408-527: The Maghreb in 905. 'Abd Allah and his son made their way to Sijilmasa, fleeing persecution by the Abbasids, who not only belonged to the Isma'ili Shi'ite interpretations, but also threatened the status quo of Abbasid caliphate. According to legend, 'Abd Allah and his son fulfilled a prophecy that the madhi would come from Mesopotamia to Sijilmasa. They hid among the population of Sijilmasa for four years under
442-744: The Sanhaja as a grouping made up of three separate confederations, not as a single confederation. The distinction is usually made with a diacritical point placed above or below that is present in the Arabic text and often lost in English. Berber tribes such as the Sanhadja or Kutama are often attributed Himyarite origins by Arab historians (which the Sanhadja likely adopted themselves for political legitimacy), but other genealogical sources and modern genetic testing reveal this supposed origin to likely be
476-466: The account in his Kitab Surat al-Ard , completed around 988 AD, Sijilmasa grew in economic power due to shifting trade routes. At one time trade between Egypt and the Ghana Empire took a direct route across the desert, but because of the harsh conditions, this route was abandoned. Instead caravans passed through the Maghreb to Sijilmasa, then headed south across the Sahara. Sijilmasa's economic wealth
510-575: The additional feminine singular circumfix ta--t , or Iẓnagen or Iẓnajen with the additional masculine plural circumfix i--en , or Tiẓnagen or Tiẓnajen with the additional feminine plural circumfix ti--en ) are thought to be a romanized distortion of Zenata and Sanhaja from Arabic. The descendants of the Sanhaja and their languages are still found today in the Middle Atlas mountains, eastern Morocco, northern Morocco (Rif), western Algeria, Kabylia and Kabyle territories. The Zenaga,
544-515: The area before the arrival of the Arab Maqil tribes in the 12th century, which was finally subjected to domination by Arab-descended warrior castes in the 17th century Char Bouba war . According to Mercer, the words Zenaga or Znaga (from the Berber root ẓnag or ẓnaj , giving the noun Aẓnag or Aẓnaj with the additional masculine singular prefix a- , or Taẓnagt or Taẓnajt with
578-926: The arrival of the religion of Islam, the Sanhaja spread out to the borders of the Sudan as far as the Senegal River and the Niger. Sanhaja Berbers were a large part of the Berber population. From the 9th century, Sanhaja tribes were established in the Middle Atlas range, in the Rif Mountains and on the Atlantic coast of Morocco as well as large parts of the Sanhaja, such as the Kutâma, were settled in central and eastern parts Algeria ( Kabylia , Setif, Algiers, Msila) and also in northern Niger. The Kutama created
612-422: The city and water wheels that drew water out of the river Ziz. Leo Africanus says that since the city was destroyed, former residents had moved into outlying villages and castles. He stayed in this area for seven months, saying that it was temperate and pleasant. According to Leo Africanus, the city was destroyed when its last prince was assassinated by the citizens of Sijilmasa, after which the populace spread across
646-745: The city was able to assert its independence under the Midrarid dynasty, freeing itself from the Abbasid Caliphate as early as 771. Shifting alliances with the Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimids of Ifriqiya destabilized the city during the 10th century, beginning with Abd Allah al-Mahdi Billah 's visit to the city, the man who was later known as the founder of the Fatimid dynasty. 'Abd Allah, accompanied by his son al-Qa'im , arrived in
680-464: The countenance of the Midrar rulers, specifically one Prince Yasa'. Al-Qasim, the son of 'Abd Allah, had miraculous powers and caused a spring to gush forth outside of the city. A Jewish resident of the city witnessed this, and spread the word throughout Sijilmasa that 'Abd Allah was going to attempt to take over the city. At or around the same time, Prince Yasa', the Midrarid ruler, received a letter from
714-466: The countryside. Ibn Khaldun says in his Muqaddimah that the city fell due to a lack of resources. Lightfoot and Miller cite several facts from their findings on site: they say that oral tradition preserved by those in the Tafilalt says that the " Black Sultan ", a malevolent dictator, was overthrown by the populace. The city was rebuilt in the 18th century under the orders of Sultan Moulay Ismail . It
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#1732764778318748-666: The earliest first few years after the town's establishment. However, after ruling for 14 years, he was accused by his companions of corruption and executed. Abu al-Qasim Samgu bin Wasul al-Miknasi, chief of a branch of the Miknasa tribe, became the leader of the town. This Abu al-Qasim and his descendants are known as the Midrar dynasty. The Arab geographer Ibn Hawqal visited Spain and the Maghreb between 947 and 951 A.D. According to
782-616: The empire of the Fatimids conquering all North African countries and parts of the Middle East. The Sanhaja dynasties of the Zirids and Hammâdids controlled Ifriqiya until the 12th century and established their rule in all of the countries in the Maghreb region. In the mid-11th century, a group of Sanhaja chieftains returning from the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) invited the theologian Ibn Yasin to preach among their tribes. Ibn Yasin united
816-680: The geographer al-Udri and the historian Ibn Hayyan . He spent his entire life in Al-Andalus, most of it in Seville and Almeria . While in Seville, he was there when El Cid arrived to collect tributes from Alfonso VI . He died in Córdoba without ever having travelled to the locations of which he wrote. Al-Bakri wrote about Europe, North Africa, and the Arabian peninsula. Only two of his works have survived. His Mu'jam mā ista'jam contains
850-508: The largest Berber tribal confederations, along with the Zanata and Masmuda confederations. Many tribes in Algeria, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Tunisia and Western Sahara bore and still carry this ethnonym, especially in its Berber form. Other names for the population include Zenaga , Znaga , Sanhája , Sanhâdja and Senhaja . Ibn Khaldun and others defined
884-744: The latest Berber dynasty. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta stayed in Sijilmasa on his journey to visit the Mali Empire in 1352–1353. He wrote: "I reached the city of Sijilmasa, a very beautiful city. It has abundant dates of good quality. The city of al-Basra is like it in the abundance of dates, but those of Sijilmasa are superior." Ibn Battuta also mentions Sijilmasa when describing the Chinese town of Quanzhou : "In this city, as in all cities in China, men have orchards and fields and their houses in
918-475: The middle, as they are in Siljimasa in our country. This is why their towns are so big." Leo Africanus , who travelled to Morocco in the early 16th century, goes to the Tafilalt oasis and finds Sijilmasa destroyed. He remarks on the "most stately and high walls", which were apparently still standing. He continues to describe the city as "gallantly builte," writing there were many stately temples and colleges in
952-616: The nearby Ibadi Kharijite stronghold under the Rustamid dynasty. The army arrived in the Tafilalt in the latter half of 909, and laid siege to the city. After Yasa' was killed in that year or the next, the Midrar dynasty began a long process of fragmentation that eventually resulted in a hostile takeover by the Maghrawa Berbers , former clients of the Cordoban caliphate. Under the Maghrawa, who later declared independence from
986-413: The spiritual leader of the Almoravid movement, responded by bringing his new army to Sijilmasa and killed the leader of the Maghrawa, Mas'ud ibn Wanudin al-Maghrawi. The Almoravid imposed an extremely strict interpretation of Islam, smashing music instruments and closing down wine shops throughout the city. While the city would rebel against the Almoravid garrison on more than one occasion, Sijilmasa became
1020-578: The tribes in the alliance of the Almoravids in the middle of the 11th century. This confederacy subsequently established Morocco, and conquered western Algeria and Al-Andalus (part of present-day Spain). The Sanhaja tribes would remain in roles as either exploited semi-sedentary agriculturalists and fishermen, or higher up on the social ladder, as religious (Marabout or Zawiya) tribes. Though often Arabized in culture and language, they are believed to be descended from Sanhaja Berber population present in
1054-703: The wealth of trade going through Sijilmasa. However, the strict philosophy imposed by the Almoravids at the beginning of their reign of Sijilmasa was overshadowed by the extremely violent practices of the Almohads. This culminated in the massacre of many of the Jews living in Sijilmasa. Amid the fall of the Almohad dynasty to the Zenata Berber confederation under the Marinids , Sijilmasa once again played host to
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1088-650: Was also contained in his written geography of the Arabian Peninsula, and in the encyclopedia of the world in which he wrote. He also presented various anecdotes about each area. Unfortunately, parts of his main work have been lost, and of the surviving parts, some have never been published. The crater Al-Bakri on the Moon is named after him. Sanhaja The Sanhaja ( Arabic : صنهاجة , Ṣanhaja or زناگة Znaga ; Berber languages : Aẓnag , pl. Iẓnagen , and also Aẓnaj , pl. Iẓnajen ) were once one of
1122-601: Was an Arab Andalusian historian and a geographer of the Muslim West . Al-Bakri was born in Huelva , the son of the sovereign of a short-lived principality established there by his family when the Caliphate of Cordoba fell in 1031. Al-Bakri belonged to the Arab tribe of Bakr . When his father was deposed by al-Mu'tadid (1042–1069) of the ruler of Taifa of Seville , he then moved to Córdoba , where he studied with
1156-667: Was conquered and destroyed by the nomadic tribes of Ait Atta in 1818. Today, the ruins of Sijilmasa, located one km north of the town of Rissani , are recognized by the World Monuments Fund as an endangered site. They are preserved by the Moroccan Ministry of Culture . other political entities Al-Bakri Abū ʿUbayd ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Muḥammad ibn Ayyūb ibn ʿAmr al-Bakrī ( Arabic : أبو عبيد عبد الله بن عبد العزيز بن محمد بن أيوب بن عمرو البكري ), or simply al-Bakrī (c. 1040–1094)
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