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58-614: Augustus II the Strong of the Saxon House of Wettin was elected to the throne of Poland in 1697. The Wettins, used to absolute rule , attempted to govern through intimidation and the use of force, which led to a series of conflicts between Wettin supporters and opponents (including another pretender to the Polish throne, King Stanisław Leszczyński ). Those conflicts often took the form of confederations  – legal rebellions against

116-714: A brilliant strategist who attained the highest military ranks in the Kingdom of France . In the War of the Polish Succession he remained loyal to his employer Louis XV , who was married to the daughter of Augustus's rival Stanisław I Leszczyński . Augustus' granddaughter, Maria Josepha of Saxony , later became Dauphine of France through her marriage to the Dauphin Louis , and the mother of three Kings of France ( Louis XVI , Louis XVIII and Charles X ). Augustus

174-526: A certain feeling for art, the king began to transform Dresden into a renowned cultural center with one of Germany's finest art collections, though most of the city's famous sights and landmarks were completed during the reign of his son Augustus III. The most famous building started under Augustus the Strong was the Zwinger . Also known are Pillnitz Castle , his summer residence, Moritzburg Castle and Hubertusburg Castle, his hunting lodges. He greatly expanded

232-692: A delegation headed by prince Grigori Dolgorukov (1657—1723). A peace treaty between the Confederates and the Augustus was signed on 3 or 4 November 1716, as relations between the Confederates and the Russians deteriorated. The Russians made it increasingly apparent that their goals were not wholly benign to the Commonwealth. Finally, a Sejm session was called for 1 February 1717. To prevent the use of liberum veto from disrupting Sejm proceedings,

290-618: A fury", complaining about being not allowed to voice his position in the discussion. Augustus II the Strong Augustus II the Strong (12 May 1670 – 1 February 1733), was Elector of Saxony from 1694 as well as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1697 to 1706 and from 1709 until his death in 1733. He belonged to the Albertine branch of the House of Wettin . Augustus' great physical strength earned him

348-608: A new wave of reforms led to the Constitution of the 3 May , soon followed by partitions of Poland and loss of Polish sovereignty for 123 years. a Through some sources claim that the entire Sejm was silent, or that only Ledóchowski spoke, in fact several people spoke during the Sejm. Józef Szujski notes that the Sejm begun with a long speech by Ledóchowski, that other marshals of provincial confederations were allowed to speak in order to renounce their positions, that

406-426: A series of mistresses: Some contemporary sources, including Wilhelmine of Bayreuth , claimed that Augustus had as many as 365 or 382 children. The number is extremely difficult to verify. Perhaps the number refers not to the king's children but to the nights that he spent with his mistresses. Augustus officially recognised only a tiny fraction of that number as his bastards (the mothers of these "chosen ones", with

464-550: Is regarded as one of the first precedents for the Russian Empire dictating Polish internal policy, and a precursor to the partitions of Poland , which erased the Commonwealth from world maps by 1795. Historian Norman Davies wrote that this Sejm "effectively terminated the independence of Poland and Lithuania". The system created by the Silent Sejm dominated the Polish political scene until the late 18th century, when

522-464: The Battle of Kliszów (July 1702), and took Kraków . He defeated another of Augustus' armies under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Adam Heinrich von Steinau at the Battle of Pułtusk in spring 1703, and besieged and captured Toruń . By this time, Augustus was certainly ready for peace, but Charles felt that he would be more secure if he could establish someone with whom he had more influence on

580-560: The Dresden Cathedral . His only legitimate son, Augustus III of Poland , became king in 1733. Augustus was born in Dresden on 12 May 1670, the younger son of John George III, Elector of Saxony and Princess Anna Sophie of Denmark . As the second son, Augustus had no expectation of inheriting the electorate, since his older brother, John George IV , assumed the post after the death of their father on 12 September 1691. Augustus

638-605: The Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister . From 1687 to 1689, Augustus toured France and Italy. The extravagant court in Versailles —perfectly tailored to fit the needs of an absolute monarch —impressed him deeply. In accordance with the spirit of the baroque age, Augustus invested heavily in the representative splendor of Dresden Castle , his major residence, to advertise his wealth and power. With strict building regulations, major urban development plans, and

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696-585: The Großsedlitz estate near Dresden, and after expanding the palace and garden complex, in 1727 he organized there the first ever festivities of the Order of the White Eagle. Augustus II was called "the Strong" for his bear-like physical strength and for his numerous offspring (only one of them his legitimate child and heir). The most famous of the king's children born out of wedlock was Maurice de Saxe ,

754-870: The Imperial vicar of the Holy Roman Empire . His reigns brought Poland some troubled times. He led the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Great Northern War , which allowed the Russian Empire to strengthen its influence in Europe, especially within Poland. His main pursuit was bolstering royal power in the Commonwealth, characterized by broad decentralization in comparison with other European monarchies. In order to reduce

812-905: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Augustus converted to Roman Catholicism . As a Catholic, he received the Order of the Golden Fleece from the Holy Roman Emperor and established the Order of the White Eagle , Poland's highest distinction. As elector of Saxony , he is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the arts and architecture. He transformed the Saxon capital of Dresden into a major cultural centre, attracting artists from across Europe to his court. Augustus also amassed an impressive art collection and built lavish baroque palaces in Dresden and Warsaw. In 1711 he served as

870-827: The Saxon Palace in Warsaw with the adjacent Saxon Garden , which became the city's oldest public park and one of the first publicly accessible parks in the world. Following the devastation of the Great Northern War he also had the Royal Castle, Warsaw restored and enlarged. He also expanded the Wilanów Palace . He granted composer Johann Adolph Hasse the title of the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Kapellmeister in 1731. A man of pleasure,

928-428: The chancellor Jan Sebastian Szembek was able to reply to them, and that the deputy and commissar Michał Potocki read the constitution and relevant treaties. At the same time, the sources agree that most of the deputies were prevented from speaking; Szujski notes that hetman Stanisław Mateusz Rzewuski was refused the right to speak. Archbishop of Gniezno and primate of Poland , Stanisław Szembek , "stormed out in

986-414: The Commonwealth's own army. The Russians entered the country, but did not participate in any major engagements. They bided their time, as Peter posed as the mediator between the Commonwealth's king and its szlachta. Crucially, the Russians did not support the Confederates as promised, and instead insisted on bringing both sides to the negotiating table. The civil war lasted for a year and the outcome hung in

1044-496: The Commonwealth. Faced with both internal and foreign opposition, however, he achieved little. In 1729 he established the Grand Musketeers Company in Dresden, one of the oldest Polish officers' schools, which in 1730 was relocated to Warsaw. Augustus died at Warsaw in 1733. Although he had failed to make the Polish throne hereditary in his house, his eldest son, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, succeeded him to

1102-606: The Great seized on the opportunity to pose as mediator, threatened the Commonwealth militarily, and in 1717 forced Augustus and the nobility to sign an accommodation favorable to Russian interests, at the Silent Sejm ( Sejm Niemy ). For the remainder of his reign, in an uneasy relationship, Augustus was more or less dependent on Russia (and to a lesser extent, on Austria) to maintain his Polish throne. He gave up his dynastic ambitions and concentrated instead on attempts to strengthen

1160-677: The Polish throne as Augustus III of Poland although he had to be installed by the Imperial Russian Army during the War of the Polish Succession . Augustus is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the arts and architecture. He had beautiful palaces built in Dresden , a city that became renowned for extraordinary cultural brilliance. He introduced the first public museums, such as the Green Vault in 1723, and started systematic collection of paintings that are now on display in

1218-611: The Polish throne to Leszczyński by the Treaty of Altranstädt (October 1706). Meanwhile, Russia's Tsar Peter had reformed his army, and he dealt a crippling defeat to the Swedes at the Battle of Poltava (1709). This spelled the end of the Swedish Empire and the rise of the Russian Empire . The weakened Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth soon came to be regarded as almost a protectorate of Russia. In 1709 Augustus II returned to

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1276-561: The Polish throne under Russian auspices . Once again he attempted to establish an absolute monarchy in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but was faced with opposition from the nobility ( szlachta , see Tarnogród Confederation ). He was handicapped by the mutual jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle broke out in Poland which was only ended when the king promised to limit the number of his army in that country to 18,000 men. Peter

1334-580: The Polish throne. In 1704 the Swedes installed Stanisław Leszczyński and tied the commonwealth to Sweden , which compelled Augustus to initiate military operations in Poland alongside Russia ( an alliance was concluded in Narva in summer 1704). The resulting civil war in Poland (1704–1706) and the Grodno campaign (1705–1706) did not go well for Augustus. Following the Battle of Fraustadt , on 1 September 1706, Charles invaded Saxony , forcing Augustus to yield

1392-521: The Russians at Narva in 1700, thereby allowing him to focus on the struggle with Augustus. However, this war ultimately proved as disastrous for Sweden as for Poland. Charles defeated Augustus' army at Riga in July 1701, forcing the Polish-Saxon army to withdraw from Livonia, and followed this up with an invasion of Poland. He captured Warsaw on 14 May 1702, defeated the Polish-Saxon army again at

1450-513: The Sejm in the English language include Dumb or Muted. The terms themselves were significantly designed by Peter the Great. The Sejm lasted for one day only, or more precisely, six hours. This settlement stipulated that: Sources vary whether Russia was recognized as the power that would guarantee the settlement; this claim is made by Jacek Jędruch and Norman Davies , but rejected by Jacek Staszewski and explicitly noted as erroneous in

1508-502: The autonomy of the Commonwealth's subjects he was using foreign powers leading to destabilization of the country. Augustus ruled Poland with an interval; in 1704 the Swedes installed nobleman Stanisław Leszczyński as king, who officially reigned from 1706 to 1709 and after Augustus' death in 1733 which sparked the War of the Polish Succession . Augustus' body was buried in Poland's royal Wawel Cathedral in Kraków , but his heart rests in

1566-435: The balance. Saxon forces under the command of Jacob Heinrich von Flemming enjoyed military superiority, advanced south-eastwards and took Zamość (this victory was however accomplished less through military tactics than through diplomacy and a treachery). The confederates then pushed back, entered Wielkopolska , and took Poznań . They gained some support from a local Wielkopolska confederation and from Lithuania. Neither side

1624-581: The breakthrough that had eluded European potters for a century. By the king's decree, the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Porcelain Manufactory was established in Meissen in 1709. The manufacture of fine porcelain continues at the Meissen porcelain factory. In November 1705 in Tykocin , Augustus founded the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's first and preeminent order of chivalry . In 1723 he bought

1682-457: The death of Polish King John III Sobieski and having converted to Catholicism, Augustus won election as King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697 with the backing of Russia and Austria , which financed him through the banker Issachar Berend Lehmann . At the time, some questioned the legality of Augustus' elevation, since another candidate, François Louis, Prince of Conti , had received more votes. Each candidate, Conti and Augustus,

1740-571: The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, despite the fact that all remaining Electors of Saxony were Catholic. The wife of Augustus, the Electress Christiane Eberhardine, refused to follow her husband's example and remained a staunch Protestant. She did not attend her husband's coronation in Poland and led a rather quiet life outside Dresden, gaining some popularity for her stubbornness. Following

1798-415: The edited work by Zbigniew Wójcik . The Silent Sejm marked the end of Augustus II's attempts to create an absolute monarchy in Poland; he subsequently focused his efforts on securing the succession of his son to the Polish throne. While some beneficial reforms were passed (such as the establishment of standing taxes for the military), the Sejm is regarded negatively by modern historians. The reduction in

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1856-522: The electorate faced a hereditary Catholic succession instead of a return to a Protestant Elector upon Augustus's death. When the conversion became public in 1717, Brandenburg-Prussia and Hanover attempted to oust Saxony from the directorship and appoint themselves as joint directors, but they gave up the attempt in 1720. Saxony would retain the directorship of the Protestant body in the Reichstag until

1914-520: The empire and the two remaining Protestant electors (of Hanover and Prussia ) were anxious to keep Saxony well-integrated in their camp. According to the Peace of Augsburg , Augustus theoretically had the right to re-introduce Roman Catholicism (see Cuius regio, eius religio ), or at least grant full religious freedom to his fellow Catholics in Saxony, but this never happened. Saxony remained Lutheran and

1972-554: The end of his sling by just one finger, with two of the strongest men in his court on the other end. From 1 to 26 June 1730 he held the Zeithain Encampment after reorganizing and reequipping his army. The Prussian king Frederick William I was present, as well as 48 invited European princes with their military officers and envoys of the European powers. It was not only the largest troop show in Europe but also one of

2030-468: The few Roman Catholics residing in Saxony lacked any political or civil rights. In 1717, it became clear just how awkward the situation was: to realize his ambitious dynastic plans in Poland and Germany, it was necessary for Augustus' heirs to become Roman Catholic. After five years as a convert, his son—the future Augustus III—publicly avowed his Roman Catholicism. The Saxon Estates were outraged and revolted as it became clear that his conversion to Catholicism

2088-441: The growing conflict between Augustus II and the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) was used by the powerful Russian Tsar Peter the Great , victor of the Great Northern War. At the time Russia was not yet strong enough to conquer and absorb the Commonwealth outright, nor could it easily and openly assume control of it, despite the Commonwealth's dysfunctional politics; the " Polish anarchy" was not to be easily governed. Hence Peter's goal

2146-612: The imperial troops against the Ottoman Empire in 1695 and 1696 without very much success, Augustus continued the war of the Holy League against Turkey, and during a campaign against the Ottomans, his Polish army defeated a Tatar expedition in the Battle of Podhajce in 1698. Unfortunately on 22 September a conflict between Polish and Saxon troops was narrowly avoided, causing the campaign to end. Victory at Podhajce had

2204-475: The king permitted under the Golden Freedoms . Augustus II wanted to strengthen royal power in the Commonwealth and to that end he brought in troops from Saxony (by the summer of 1714 more than 25,000 Saxon troops were inside Commonwealth's borders). This produced dissent within the Commonwealth. Meanwhile, in the aftermath of the Great Northern War , which marked the rise of the Russian Empire (1721),

2262-427: The king sponsored lavish court balls, Venetian-style balli in maschera , and luxurious court gatherings, games, and garden festivities. His court acquired a reputation for extravagance throughout Europe. He held a famous animal-tossing contest in Dresden at which 647 foxes, 533 hares , 34 badgers and 21 wildcats were tossed and killed. Augustus himself participated, reportedly demonstrating his strength by holding

2320-467: The most gigantic baroque festivals of its time, showcasing the high level of Saxon art and culture. Augustus II successfully sponsored efforts to discover the secret of manufacturing porcelain . In 1701 he rescued the young alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger , who had fled from the court of King Frederick I of Prussia , who had expected that he produce gold for him as he had boasted he could. Augustus imprisoned Böttger and tried to force him to reveal

2378-469: The nicknames "the Strong", "the Saxon Hercules" and "Iron-Hand". He liked to show that he lived up to his name by breaking horseshoes with his bare hands and engaging in fox tossing by holding the end of his sling with just one finger while two of the strongest men in his court held the other end. He is also notable for fathering a very large number of children . In order to be elected king of

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2436-471: The political impact of forcing the Ottoman Empire to return Podolia and Kamieniec Podolski in Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. An ambitious ruler, Augustus hoped to make the Polish throne hereditary within his family, and to use his resources as elector of Saxony to impose some order on the chaotic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was, however, soon distracted from his internal reform projects by

2494-466: The possibility of external conquest. He formed an alliance with Frederick IV of Denmark and Peter I of Russia to strip the young King Charles XII of Sweden (Augustus' cousin) of his possessions. Poland's reward for participation in the Great Northern War was to have been Swedish Livonia . Charles proved an able military commander, however, quickly forcing the Danes out of the war and then driving back

2552-407: The possible exception of Fatima and Henriette Rénard, were all aristocratic ladies): Confederated sejm Confederated sejm ( Polish : sejm skonfederowany ) was a form of sejm in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 18th century. After 1764, sejms were frequently confederated . Under rules of confederation , decisions were made by the majority of deputy votes cast, and so

2610-511: The prince-elector guaranteed Saxony's religious status quo, Augustus' conversion alienated many of his Protestant subjects. As a result of the enormous expenditure of money used to bribe the Polish nobility and clergy, Augustus' contemporaries derisively referred to the Saxon elector's royal ambitions as his "Polish adventure". His church policy within the Holy Roman Empire followed orthodox Lutheranism and ran counter to his new-found religious and absolutist convictions. The Protestant princes of

2668-604: The reduction of power of the hetmans (Polish military commanders in chief), as well as the occurrence of a bad harvest and some Polish-French negotiations, to stir opposition to Augustus. The nobles, spurred by Russian promises of support, formed the Tarnogród Confederation on 26 November 1715. The Confederation's marshal was Stanisław Ledóchowski . The Tarnogród Confederation was only the last and most notable of several confederations formed against Augustus at that time. The Confederates were supported by most of

2726-409: The right to form confederations, the nobility and the king had less power to fight one another – or, not coincidentally, to resist outside forces. Russian troops remained in the Commonwealth for two years, supporting opposition to Augustus, and Russia soon reached an agreement with other powers to put an end to further attempts at the reform and strengthening of the Commonwealth. Thus the Silent Sejm

2784-521: The secret of manufacturing gold. Böttger's transition from alchemist to potter was orchestrated as an attempt to avoid the impossible demands of the king. Being an alchemist by profession rather than a potter, gave Böttger an advantage. He realised that the current approaches, which involved mixing fine white substances like crushed egg shells into clay, would not work. Rather, his approach was to attempt to bake clay at higher temperatures than had ever before been attained in European kilns. That approach yielded

2842-421: The session was turned into a confederated sejm . (It was also a pacification sejm ). Threatened by a strong Russian army, with Russian soldiers "guarding" the proceedings, the Silent Sejm was known as such because only the speaker ( marshal of the Sejm ) Stanisław Ledóchowski ( podkomorzy krzemienicki), and a few selected other deputies were allowed a voice, outlining the terms of the settlement. Other names for

2900-426: The size of the army and the establishment of Russia's position as the settlement's proposed (even if rejected) guarantor reinforced Commonwealth military inferiority compared to its neighbors, and unofficially, put it in the position of a Russian protectorate . The Russian tsar, as the proposed guarantor, now had a convenient excuse to intervene in Polish politics at will. With a reduced army, removal of Saxon troops and

2958-541: The throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697, Augustus had to convert to Roman Catholicism . The Saxon electors had traditionally been called "champions of the Reformation ". Christian August of Saxe-Zeitz baptized him and announced his conversion. Saxony had been a stronghold of German Protestantism and Augustus' conversion was therefore considered shocking in Protestant Europe . Although

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3016-493: Was 1.76 meters (5 ft 9 in) tall, above average height for that time, but despite his extraordinary physical strength, he did not look big. In his final years he suffered from diabetes mellitus and became obese , at his death weighing some 110 kilograms (240 lb). Augustus II's body was interred in the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków —all but his heart, which rests at the Dresden Cathedral . In 1936 Augustus

3074-539: Was however posed to achieve victory, and the Russian pressure mounted; eventually the Russians declared that they would consider any side that refused to enter into negotiations an enemy, and open hostilities against them. Unable to defeat the Confederates, many of whom still saw Peter as the protector of their rights (and some of whom hoped for Augustus to be deposed), Augustus agreed to open the negotiations with Russians acting as arbitrators. The Russians were represented by

3132-583: Was not only a matter of form, but of substance as well. Since the Peace of Westphalia , the elector of Saxony had been the director of the Protestant body in the Reichstag . To placate the other Protestant states in the Empire, Augustus nominally delegated the directorship of the Protestant body to Johann Adolf II , Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels . However, when the Elector's son also converted to Catholicism,

3190-545: Was proclaimed as king by a different ecclesiastical authority: (the Primate Michał Stefan Radziejowski proclaimed Conti and the bishop of Kujawy, Stanisław Dąmbski proclaimed Augustus, with Jacob Heinrich von Flemming swearing to the pacta conventa as Augustus's proxy). However, Augustus hurried to the Commonwealth with a Saxon army, while Conti stayed in France for two months. Although he had led

3248-520: Was the subject of a Polish-German film Augustus the Strong directed by Paul Wegener . Augustus was portrayed by the actor Michael Bohnen . The Electress Christiane, who remained Protestant and refused to move to Poland with her husband, preferred to spend her time in the mansion in Pretzsch on the Elbe , where she died. Augustus, a voracious womanizer, never missed his wife, spending his time with

3306-416: Was to weaken both sides, and to prevent Augustus from strengthening his position, which he feared would lead to a resurgent Commonwealth that could threaten Russia's recent gains and growing influence. He succeeded in forcing through conditions (such as reduction of the Commonwealth army's size) that decreased the Commonwealth's political status relative to Russia. Peter used Augustus' recent policies, aiming at

3364-839: Was well educated, and spent some years in travel and in fighting against France. Augustus married Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth in Bayreuth on 20 January 1693. They had a son, Frederick Augustus II (1696–1763), who succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony and King of Poland as Augustus III. While in Venice during the carnival season, his older brother, the Elector John George IV, contracted smallpox from his mistress Magdalena Sibylla of Neidschutz . On 27 April 1694, Johann Georg died without legitimate issue and Augustus became elector of Saxony , as Friedrich Augustus I. To be eligible for election to

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