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88-612: Banksia marginata , commonly known as the silver banksia , is a species of tree or woody shrub in the family Proteaceae found throughout much of southeastern Australia. It ranges from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia to north of Armidale, New South Wales , and across Tasmania and the islands of Bass Strait . It grows in various habitats, including Eucalyptus forest, scrub , heathland and moorland . Banksia marginata varies widely in habit , ranging from

176-470: A Periconiella species, Satchmopsis australiensis , Tryssglobulus aspergilloides , and a species of Veronaea . All banksias have developed proteoid or cluster roots in response to the nutrient-poor conditions of Australian soils (particularly lacking in phosphorus ). The root system of the suckering forms of Banksia marginata in Victoria and South Australia have a characteristic pattern with

264-727: A family of flowering plants predominantly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere . The family comprises 83 genera with about 1,660 known species . Australia and South Africa have the greatest concentrations of diversity. Together with the Platanaceae (plane trees), Nelumbonaceae (the sacred lotus) and in the recent APG IV system the Sabiaceae , they make up the order Proteales . Well-known Proteaceae genera include Protea , Banksia , Embothrium , Grevillea , Hakea , and Macadamia . Species such as

352-831: A morphological cladistic analysis published in 1994, Kevin Thiele placed it as the most basal member of a newly described subseries Integrifoliae , within the series Salicinae . However, this subgrouping of the Salicinae was not supported by George. George did concede that major work is needed on Banksia marginata , which shows such a high degree of variability over its range. B. marginata 's placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows: Since 1998, American botanist Austin Mast and co-authors have been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for

440-595: A 12-metre-high (39 ft) tree. Unusually large trees of 15 to possibly 30 m (50–100 ft) have been reported near Beeac in Victoria's Western District as well as several locations in Tasmania, while compact shrubs limited to 20 cm (7.9 in) high have been recorded on coastal heathland in Tasmania (such as at Rocky Cape National Park ). Shrubs reach only 2 m (6.6 ft) high in Gibraltar Range National Park . The bark

528-482: A 20-centimetre (7.9 in) shrub to a 12-metre (40 ft) tree. The narrow leaves are linear and the yellow inflorescences occur from late summer to early winter. These flower spikes fade to brown and then grey and develop woody follicles bearing the winged seeds. Originally described by Antonio José Cavanilles in 1800, further collections of B. marginata were designated as several separate species by Robert Brown in 1810. However, all were reclassified as

616-563: A Southern Hemisphere family, with its main centres of diversity in Australia and South Africa. It also occurs in Central Africa, South and Central America , India , eastern and south eastern Asia , and Oceania . Only two species are known from New Zealand, although fossil pollen evidence suggests there were more previously. It is a good example of a Gondwanan family, with taxa occurring on virtually every land mass considered

704-563: A combination of brachy-paracytic stomata and the unusual trichome bases or, in other cases, the unusual structure of pollen tetrads. Xylocaryon was identified as a member of the Proteaceae from the similarity of its fruit to the extant genus Eidothea . Fossils attributable to this family have been found on the majority of areas that formed the Gondwana supercontinent. A wide variety of pollen belonging to this family dating back to

792-407: A deep tap root, and an extensive system of thick lateral roots 7.5–15 cm (3.0–5.9 in) below the surface. During the winter months, segments around 30 cm (0.98 ft) in length develop vegetative buds capable of forming suckers. Clusters of fine proteoid roots up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long arise from these lateral roots. The response of Banksia marginata to fire is variable. In

880-720: A further four varieties all now sunk into B. marginata in series Salicinae . In 1870, George Bentham published a thorough revision of Banksia in his landmark publication Flora Australiensis . In Bentham's arrangement , the number of recognised Banksia species was reduced from 60 to 46. Bentham observed that the characteristics Brown used to define B. australis , B. depressa , B. patula , and B. insularis were unable to distinguish separate forms as more specimens came to light, and hence declared them synonyms of B. marginata . Meissner's four series were replaced by four sections based on leaf, style and pollen-presenter characters. B. marginata

968-630: A glasshouse at Kew was described as a tree 24 feet (7.3 m) high with a trunk girth of two feet (60 cm) at 40 years of age. B. marginata is generally fairly easy to grow in a well-drained sunny or partly-shaded position in the garden. It can be leggy in shadier positions, or a more compact bushy shrub in full sun. Some varieties from drier areas seem to do poorly in areas of summer humidity. The flowers are not prominent unless they are numerous. Established plants can withstand drought, coastal exposure and temperatures as low as −10 °C (14 °F). Propagation of plants can be by seed or cuttings ;

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1056-502: A greater biodiversity for Proteaceae than currently exists, which supports the fact that the distribution of many taxa has changed drastically with the passage of time and that the family has suffered a general decline, including high levels of extinction during the Cenozoic . First described by French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu , the family Proteaceae is a fairly large one, with around 80 genera, but less than 2,000 species. It

1144-473: A low shrub which suckers (grows shoots from lateral roots) after fire. Plants do not appear to live longer than 25 years; after this time the ageing plants begin to die and are succeeded by younger plants arising from suckers around the parent. A field study in Gippsland found counting the nodes of Banksia marginata plants to be accurate in indicating age within a year up to 21 years since the last fire. There

1232-678: A remnant of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, except Antarctica . The family and subfamilies are thought to have diversified well before the fragmentation of Gondwana, implying all of them are well over 90 million years old. Evidence for this includes an abundance of proteaceous pollen found in the Cretaceous coal deposits of the South Island of New Zealand . It is thought to have achieved its present distribution largely by continental drift rather than dispersal across ocean gaps. No conclusive studies have been carried out on

1320-490: A single flower spike. In many populations, only a few follicles develop. Small and elliptic, they measure 0.7–1.7 cm (0.3–0.7 in) long, 0.2–0.5 cm (0.1–0.2 in) high, and 0.2–0.4 cm (0.1–0.2 in) wide. In coastal and floodplain populations, these usually open spontaneously and release seed, while they generally remain sealed until burnt by fire in plants from heathland and montane habitats. Each follicle contains one or two fertile seeds, between which lies

1408-468: A single species by George Bentham in 1870. No distinct subspecies have been recognised by Banksia expert Alex George , who nonetheless concedes that further work is needed. Many species of bird, in particular honeyeaters , forage at the flower spikes, as do native and European honeybees. The response to bushfire varies. Some populations are serotinous : they are killed by fire and regenerate from large stores of seed, which have been held in cones in

1496-456: A source of dyes, firewood and as wood for construction. Aboriginal Australians eat the fruit of Persoonia , and the seeds of species from other genera, including Gevuina and Macadamia , form part of the diet of the indigenous peoples but are also sold throughout the world. The tender shoots of Helicia species are used in Java, and the nectar from the inflorescences of a number of species

1584-682: A striking example of adaptive radiation in plants. This variability makes it impossible to provide a simple, diagnostic identification key for the family, although individual genera may be easily identified. Plant stems with two types of radii, wide and multi-serrated or narrow and uni-serrated, phloem stratified or not, trilacunar nodes with three leaf traces (rarely unilacunar with one trace), sclereids frequent; bark with lenticels frequently horizontally enlarged, cork cambium present, usually superficial. Roots lateral and short, often grouped in bundles ( proteoid roots ) with very dense root hairs, rarely with mycorrhiza . Generally speaking,

1672-792: A thick rootstock buried in the ground that shoots up new stems after a fire, and others are reseeders , meaning the adult plants are killed by the fire, but disperse their seeds, which are stimulated by the smoke to take root and grow. The heat was previously thought to have stimulated growth, but the chemicals in the smoke have now been shown to cause it. There are four dioecious genera ( Aulax , Dilobeia , Heliciopsis and Leucadendron ), 11 andromonoecious genera and some other genera have species that are cryptically andromonoecious: two species are sterile and only reproduce vegetatively ( Lomatia tasmanica , Hakea pulvinifera ). The species vary between being autocompatible and autoincompatible, with intermediate situations; these situations sometimes occur in

1760-555: A vast number of filaments; which, being shed, leave a fruit like a pine top." The genus Banksia was named in honor of Sir Joseph Banks , a botanist who was with Captain Cook during his first voyage (1768–1771) in which he circumnavigated the world, including stops in New Zealand and Australia ( Botany Bay ). The species marginata was first collected by Luis Née in 1793, from somewhere between Sydney and Parramatta . In 1800,

1848-772: A woody dark brown separator of similar shape to the seeds. Measuring 0.9–1.5 cm (0.4–0.6 in) in length, the seed is egg- to wedge-shaped ( obovate to cuneate ) and composed of a dark brown 0.8–1.1 cm (0.3–0.4 in) wide membranous "wing" and wedge- or sickle-shaped (cuneate– falcate ) seed proper, which measures 0.5–0.8 cm (0.2–0.3 in) long by 0.3–0.4 cm (0.1–0.2 in) wide. The seed surface can be smooth or covered in tiny ridges, and often glistens . The resulting seedling first grows two obovate cotyledon leaves, which may remain for several months as several more leaves appear. The cotyledons of Banksia marginata , B. paludosa and B. integrifolia are very similar in appearance. Banksia marginata

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1936-701: Is also cultivated for its edible nuts, in Chile and New Zealand , and they are also used in the pharmaceutical industry for their humectant properties and as an ingredient in sunscreens . It is the most cold-resistant of the tree families that produce nuts. It is also planted in the British Isles and on the Pacific coast of the United States for its tropical appearance and its ability to grow in cooler climates . Many Proteaceae species are cultivated by

2024-475: Is anecdotal evidence of plants reaching 150 years old in this region. Plant species from communities dependent on fire are thought to self-select to be more flammable; Banksia marginata tested from a dry sclerophyll community in southeastern Tasmania was shown to burn readily, and fire would spread easily through it. Tasmanian forms are frost tolerant at any time of year, which might explain some of their success in spreading and growing in different habitats around

2112-617: Is carried out by bees , beetles , flies , moths , birds ( honeyeaters , sunbirds , sugarbirds and hummingbirds ) and mammals (rodents, small marsupials , elephant shrews and bats ). The latter two means were evolutionarily derived from entomophily in different, independent events. The dispersion of some species exhibit serotiny , which is associated with their pyrophytic behaviour. These trees accumulate fruits on their branches whose outer layers or protective structures ( bracts ) are highly lignified and resistant to fire. The fruit only release their seeds when they have been burnt and when

2200-579: Is commonly called the silver banksia, because the white undersides of its leaves contrast with the otherwise green foliage and give the plant a 'silvery' look. Alternate common names include honeysuckle and dwarf honeysuckle. The aboriginal name in the Jardwadjali language of western Victoria was warock , while the Kaurna name from the Adelaide Plains was pitpauwe and the local name in

2288-452: Is drunk in Australia. Traditional medicines can be obtained from infusions of the roots, bark, leaves, or flowers of many species that are used as topical applications for skin conditions or internally as tonics, aphrodisiacs, and galactogens to treat headaches, cough, dysentery, diarrhea, indigestion, stomach ulcers, and kidney disease. The wood from the trees of this family is widely used in construction and for internal uses such as decoration;

2376-535: Is found from Baradine and Gibraltar Range National Park in northern New South Wales , southwards into Victoria and South Australia , as well as across Tasmania . It is found on the major islands of Bass Strait , including King, Flinders and Cape Barren Islands . There is one report of a collection from the Springbrook Mountains southwest of Southport in southeastern Queensland. It is extremely rare in southwestern New South Wales. In Victoria, it

2464-706: Is generally a shrub which regenerates from a lignotuber or suckers after bushfire and sets few seed. It has been recorded as a low spreading shrub in Croajingolong National Park in East Gippsland. In the Wombat State Forest west of Melbourne, it grows as a 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) high shrub on less fertile soils, and as a large tree to 8 m (26 ft) on more fertile soils. Few trees remain, having been cleared for agriculture or for fuel. Similarly, further west in

2552-432: Is highly specialised. It usually involves the use of a "pollen-presenter", an area on the style -end that presents the pollen to the pollinator. Proteaceae flower parts occur in fours. The four tepals are fused into a long, narrow tube with a closed cup at the top, and the filaments of the four stamens are fused to the tepals in such a way that the anthers are enclosed within the cup. The pistil initially passes along

2640-634: Is no macrofossil record for the species, so it is unclear whether it is a recent introduction from the mainland or has only recently evolved, although its presence on both the mainland and Tasmania suggests it has been present since the Pleistocene . It grows in coastal habitats that would be occupied by Banksia integrifolia on the mainland. Banksia marginata grows on a variety of soil types, from clay loams , shale and peaty loams to sandy or rocky soils composed of quartzite , sandstone , limestone or granite , although sandier soils predominate. It

2728-622: Is pale grey and initially smooth before becoming finely tessellated with age. The new branchlets are hairy at first but lose their hairs as they mature, with new growth a pale or pinkish brown. The leaves are alternately arranged on the stems on 2–5 mm long petioles , and characteristically toothed in juvenile or younger leaves, which are 3–7 cm (1.2–2.8 in) long. The narrow adult leaves are dull green in colour and generally linear, oblong or wedge-shaped (cuneate) and measure 1.5–6 cm (0.6–2.4 in) long and 0.3–1.3 cm (0.1–0.5 in) wide. The margins become entire with age, and

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2816-570: Is placed in B.  subg. Spathulatae . Hybridisation with Banksia conferta subsp. penicillata at the site of an old abandoned railway between Newnes and Clarence in the Blue Mountains has been recorded; a single B. marginata plant was surrounded by plants with intermediate features but more strongly resembling B. conferta subsp. penicillata . B. marginata can also interbreed with B. paludosa where they are found together. A hybrid with B. saxicola

2904-684: Is predominantly coastal or near-coastal east of Traralgon , but in New South Wales it is absent from coastal areas in the Sydney region. Banksia marginata often grew as a large tree on the basalt plains west of Melbourne, but has almost disappeared. In the vicinity of Adelaide, it was common in the western suburbs on old sand dunes behind the beach foredunes. It remains common in the Adelaide foothills. The annual rainfall over its distribution ranges from 400 to 1,000 mm (16 to 39 in). In

2992-469: Is recognised by virtually all taxonomists . Firmly established under classical Linnaean taxonomy , it is also recognised by the cladistics -based APG and APG II systems. It is placed in the order Proteales , whose placement has itself varied. A classification of the genera within Proteaceae was made by Lawrie Johnson and Barbara Briggs in their influential 1975 monograph " On the Proteaceae:

3080-1558: Is restricted to sandy soils in the Adelaide region. The soil types are of a wide range of pH , from highly acidic soils in the Grampians to alkaline soils in South Australia. Plants have been recorded at altitudes ranging from sea level to as high as 1,200 m (3,900 ft) AHD at Mount Field National Park . Numerous species of birds have been observed foraging and feeding at the flowers; these include rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus moluccanus ), musk lorikeet ( Glossopsitta concinna ), purple-crowned lorikeet ( Parvipsitta porphyrocephala ), double-eyed fig-parrot ( Cyclopsitta diophthalma ), red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ), little wattlebird ( A. chrysoptera ), yellow wattlebird ( A. paradoxa ), spiny-cheeked honeyeater ( Acanthagenys rufogularis ), yellow-faced honeyeater ( Caligavis chrysops ), singing honeyeater ( Gavicalis virescens ), white-plumed honeyeater ( Ptilotula penicillata ), black-chinned honeyeater ( Melithreptus gularis ), brown-headed honeyeater ( M. brevirostris ), white-naped honeyeater ( M. lunatus ), crescent honeyeater ( Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus ), New Holland honeyeater ( P. novaehollandiae ), tawny-crowned honeyeater ( Gliciphila melanops ), eastern spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ), noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ), silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) and thornbills ( Acanthiza species). In addition,

3168-463: Is the banksia longicorn beetle ( Paroplites australis ) which bores holes in the base of banksia plants which then weaken and fall or blow over with wind and die. Several species of fungus have been recorded growing on the foliage, including Acrospermum gaubae , Argopericonia elegans , Asterina systema-solare , Botryosphaeria banksiae , a species of Cladosporium , Cooksonomyces banksiae , Dimerium banksiae , Episphaerella banksiae ,

3256-525: Is thought to be extinct. The species of this family are particularly susceptible to the destruction or fragmentation of their habitat , fire, parasitic diseases, competition from introduced plants, soil degradation and other damage provoked by humans and their domesticated animals. The species are also affected by climate change . The Proteaceae have a rich fossil record, despite the inherent difficulties in identifying remains that do not show diagnostic characteristics. Identification usually comes from using

3344-444: Is valued for its vivid yellow flowers and grape-like fruit. Adenanthos sericeus (woolly bush) is planted for its attractive soft leaves and its small red or orange flowers. Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia (beef nut, red bauple nut) is commonly planted for its foliage and edible nuts. The Proteaceae are particularly susceptible to certain parasites, in particular the oomycete Phytophthora cinnamomi , which causes severe root rot in

3432-476: Is widespread as an understory species in medium rainfall eucalypt forests across Victoria, occurring in association with manna gum ( Eucalyptus viminalis ), narrow-leaf peppermint ( E. radiata ), messmate ( E. obliqua ), swamp gum ( E. ovata ) and brown stringybark ( E. baxteri ). It is a common shrub, sometimes small tree, in heathy and shrubby forests as well as coastal scrub and heath in part of its range. In South Gippsland , it

3520-576: The Corangamite region, it is either a tree or suckering shrub. In Tasmania, Banksia marginata occupies a wide range of habitats, in mixed forest (where it grows as a small tree), buttongrass moorlands, flood plains of the Loddon, Franklin and Huon Rivers , as well as coastal regions. In parts of the west and southwest of Tasmania, the species is dominant within the threatened native vegetation community known as Banksia marginata wet scrub. There

3608-462: The Faroe Islands at a latitude of 62° north. Among the banksias , many of which grow in temperate and Mediterranean climates, the vast majority are shrubs; only a few are trees that are valued for their height. Among the tallest species are: B. integrifolia with its subspecies B. integrifolia subsp. monticola , which is noteworthy as the plants that form the subspecies are

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3696-611: The Macquarie Harbour region in Tasmania was tangan . A widely distributed and diverse plant, B. marginata was described independently and given many different names by early explorers. During his third voyage in January ;1777, Captain James Cook reported a "most common tree [...] about ten feet high, branching pretty much, with narrow leaves, and a large, yellow, cylindrical flower, consisting only of

3784-661: The Wilsons Promontory topodeme , he noted that it colonised sand dunes, had leaves similar to but narrower than integrifolia , and had persisting flowers on old spikes but not as persistent as marginata . He had collected this form from Revesby in New South Wales as well as Cape Paterson, and had received reports of similar plants at Marlo and Bemm Rivers . Stands of plants intermediate between B. integrifolia and B. marginata have been recorded near Mallacoota in East Gippsland . Banksia marginata

3872-417: The nursery industry as barrier plants and for their prominent and distinctive flowers and foliage. Some species are of importance to the cut flower industry , especially some Banksia and Protea species. Sugarbushes ( Protea ), pincushions ( Leucospermum ) and conebushes ( Leucadendron ), as well as others like pagodas ( Mimetes ), Aulax and blushing brides ( Serruria ), comprise one of

3960-415: The plant canopy and are released after a fire. Others regenerate from underground lignotubers or suckers from lateral roots. Although it has been used for timber , Banksia marginata is most commonly seen as a garden plant, with dwarf forms being commercially propagated and sold. Banksia marginata is a highly variable species, usually ranging from a small shrub around a metre (3 ft) tall to

4048-539: The yellow-tailed black cockatoo ( Zanda funerea ) feeds on the seed. The agile antechinus ( Antechinus agilis ), bush rat ( Rattus fuscipes ), feathertail glider ( Acrobates pygmaeus ), and sugar glider ( Petaurus breviceps ) have been recorded visiting flower spikes. Both pollen and nectar are consumed by the southwestern pygmy possum ( Cercarteus concinnus ). Ants, bees (both native and European honeybees), blowflies and brown butterflies have been recorded as visitors to flower spikes. The wasp Mesostoa kerri of

4136-937: The Gibraltar Range National Park, it is a dominant shrub of open heathland and a non-dominant shrub of closed heath, mostly found in swampy heath associated with sedges. Plants here have some degree of self-compatibility. In the Sydney region, it grows in association with heath banksia ( Banksia ericifolia ), old man banksia ( B. serrata ), mountain devil ( Lambertia formosa ), lance-leaved geebung ( Persoonia lanceolata ) and dwarf apple ( Angophora hispida ) in heathland, and with silvertop ash ( Eucalyptus sieberi ), Blue Mountains ash ( E. oreades ), Sydney peppermint ( E. piperita ), scribbly gum ( E. haemastoma ), Blue Mountains mallee ash ( E. stricta ), brittle gum ( E. mannifera ), snow gum ( E. pauciflora ) and red bloodwood ( Corymbia gummifera ) in forested areas. It

4224-545: The Gibraltar Range and Sydney regions, plants are killed by fire and regenerate from seed. They are serotinous , storing their seed in old cones, forming a seedbank in their canopy which is released after bushfire. A field study found that seeds were dispersed short distances, generally 8 m (26 ft) or less, with those closest to the parent plant faring the best. In Little Desert National Park in northwestern Victoria and also eastern South Australia, it grows as

4312-561: The Gibraltar Range. Cylindrical in shape, they are composed of a central woody spike or axis, perpendicularly from which a large number of compact floral units arise. The flower spikes measure 5–10 cm (2–4 in) tall and 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4 in) wide. Pale yellow in colour, they are composed of up to 1,000 individual flowers (784 recorded in the Gibraltar Range) and arise from nodes on branchlets that are at least three years old. Sometimes two may grow from successive nodes in

4400-419: The New South Wales waratah ( Telopea speciosissima ), king protea ( Protea cynaroides ), and various species of Banksia , Grevillea , and Leucadendron are popular cut flowers . The nuts of Macadamia integrifolia are widely grown commercially and consumed, as are those of Gevuina avellana on a smaller scale. The name Proteaceae was adapted by Robert Brown from the name Proteae coined in 1789 for

4488-432: The Proteaceae are one of few flowering plant families that do not form symbioses with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. They exude large amounts of organic acids ( citric acid and malic acid ) every 2–3 days in order to aid the mobilization and absorption of phosphate. Many species are fire-adapted ( pyrophytes ), meaning they have strategies for surviving fires that sweep through their habitat. Some are resprouters , and have

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4576-605: The Spanish botanist Antonio José Cavanilles gave the species the binomial name it still bears today. The species name is the Latin adjective marginatus ('bordered') and refers to appearance of the lower surface of the recurved margins of the leaves when viewed from underneath. Cavanilles also described another specimen collected by Née in the same locality as a different species, Banksia microstachya Cav. A smaller shrub with dentate leaves, this turned out to be an immature plant of

4664-609: The Upper Cretaceous ( Campanian - Maastrichtian ) from the south east of Australia and pollen from the Middle Cretaceous ( Cenomanian - Turonian ) from northern Africa and Peru described as Triorites africaensis . The first macrofossils appear twenty million years later in the Palaeocene of South America and the north east of Australia. The fossil record of some areas, such as New Zealand and Tasmania, show

4752-826: The chemical substances present in this broad family. The genera Protea and Faurea are unusual as they use xylose as the main sugar in their nectar and as they have high concentrations of polygalactol, while sucrose is the main sugar present in Grevillea . Cyanogenic glycosides , derived from tyrosine , are often present, as are proanthocyanidines ( delphinidin and cyanidin ), flavonols ( kaempferol , quercetin and myricetin ) and arbutin . Alkaloids are usually absent. Iridoids and ellagic acid are also absent. Saponins and sapogenins can be either present or absent in different species. Many species accumulate aluminium . Many traditional cultures have used Proteaceae as sustenance, medicine, for curing animal hides, as

4840-415: The cup splits apart, and the pistil is released to spring more or less upright. Many of the Proteaceae have specialised proteoid roots , masses of lateral roots and hairs forming a radial absorptive surface, produced in the leaf litter layer during seasonal growth, and usually shrivelling at the end of the growth season. They are an adaptation to growth in poor, phosphorus-deficient soils, greatly increasing

4928-413: The diagnostic feature of Proteaceae is the compound pseudanthium . In many genera, the most obvious feature is the large and often very showy inflorescences , consisting of many small flowers densely packed into a compact head or spike. This character does not occur in all Proteaceae, however; Adenanthos species, for example, have solitary flowers. In most Proteaceae species, the pollination mechanism

5016-426: The evolution and classification of a southern family ", until it was largely superseded by the molecular studies of Peter H. Weston and Nigel Barker in 2006. Proteaceae are now divided into five subfamilies: Bellendenoideae , Persoonioideae , Symphionematoideae , Proteoideae and Grevilleoideae . In 2008 Mast and colleagues updated Macadamia and related genera in tribe Macadamieae. Furthermore, Orites megacarpus

5104-510: The extension of the style far beyond the upper perianth parts. Anthesis of flowers is sequential within an inflorescence , so when the style and perianth are different colours, the result is a striking colour change that gradually sweeps along the inflorescence. Flowers with diurnal anthesis generally are brightly colored in order to attract diurnal insects, such as butterflies. Flowers with nocturnal anthesis generally are white or less colorful, and as such, they contrast more strongly with

5192-471: The family by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu , based on the genus Protea , which in 1767, Carl Linnaeus derived from the name of the Greek god Proteus , a deity who was able to change between many forms. This is an appropriate image, seeing as the family is known for its astonishing variety and diversity of flowers and leaves. The genera of Proteaceae are highly varied, with Banksia in particular providing

5280-455: The genus Banksia by merging Dryandra into it, and published B.  subg. Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon-shaped cotyledons; thus B.  subg. Banksia was redefined as encompassing taxa lacking spoon-shaped cotyledons. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete. In the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. marginata

5368-504: The ground has been fertilized with ashes from the fire and is free from competitors. Many species have seeds with elaiosomes that are dispersed by ants ; the seeds with wings or thistledown exhibit anemochory , while the drupes and other fleshy fruit exhibit endozoochory as mammals and birds ingest them. Some African and Australian rodents are known to accumulate fruit and seeds of these plants in their nests in order to feed on them, although some manage to germinate. Proteaceae are mainly

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5456-417: The inside of the perianth tube, so the stigma, too, is enclosed within the cup. As the flower develops, the pistil grows rapidly. Since the stigma is trapped, the style must bend to elongate, and eventually it bends so far, the perianth is split along one seam. The style continues to grow until anthesis , when the nectaries begin to produce nectar . At this time, the perianth splits into its component tepals,

5544-549: The island. This attribute might have allowed them to survive cold periods in Tasmania during the Pleistocene. A trial in Western Australia showed Banksia marginata to be mildly sensitive to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback. At Brisbane Ranges National Park west of Melbourne, which was invaded by Phytophthora cinnamomi in the 1970s, Banksia marginata (along with such species as Grevillea steiglitziana )

5632-435: The latter is essential if trying to replicate plants of particular habit (such as dwarf specimens). Some Banksia marginata seeds of subalpine provenance require stratification , namely keeping at 5 °C (41 °F) for 60 days before germination takes place over 6 to 25 days. Salkin proposed this was necessary so that seed released in a summer or autumn bushfire would lie dormant over the winter months before germinating in

5720-403: The location of the collection as Port Phillip Bay in Victoria in 1802 (having crossed out Van Diemen's Land 1804). Brown's other collections which were reduced to synonymy with B. marginata were Banksia depressa R.Br., a prostrate shrub from Margate Rivulet in southeastern Tasmania, Banksia insularis R.Br., from Flinders and King Island , and Banksia patula R.Br., a shrub from

5808-409: The nectar-feeders act as pollinators. The downside of this pollination strategy is that the probability of self-fertilisation is greatly increased; many Proteaceae counter this with strategies such as protandry , self-incompatibility, or preferential abortion of selfed seed. The systems for presenting pollen are usually highly diverse, corresponding to the diversification of the pollinators. Pollination

5896-624: The plants that grow in Mediterranean climates. Fusarium oxysporum causes a disease called fusariosis in roots that causes a yellowing and wilting, with serious ecological damages to woodland plants and economic losses in plants of commercial interest. Other common infections are caused by species of Botryosphaeria , Rhizoctonia , Armillaria , Botrytis , Calonectria and other fungi. The IUCN considers that 47 Proteaceae species are threatened, of which one species, Stenocarpus dumbeensis Guillaumin , 1935, from New Caledonia,

5984-548: The plants' access to scarce water and nutrients by exuding carboxylates that mobilise previously unavailable phosphorus. They also increase the root's absorption surface, but this is a minor feature, as it also increases competition for nutrients against its own root clusters. However, this adaptation leaves them highly vulnerable to dieback caused by the Phytophthora cinnamomi water mould , and generally intolerant of fertilization . Due to these specialized proteoid roots,

6072-415: The same flowering season. They can have a grey or golden tinge in late bud. As with most banksias, anthesis is acropetal ; the opening of the individual buds proceeds up the flower spike from the base to the top. Over time the flower spikes fade to brown and then grey, and the old flowers generally persist on the cone. The woody follicles grow in the six months after flowering, with up to 150 developing on

6160-439: The same species with juvenile leaves. Robert Brown described 31 species of Banksia in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen , including six taxa ( B. marginata α and β plus four further species) now attributable to B. marginata . He split the genus into two subgenera, placing these species in subgenus Banksia verae , the "True Banksias". He described Banksia australis R.Br., giving

6248-425: The same species. The flowers are usually protandrous. Just before anthesis, the anthers release their pollen , depositing it onto the stigma, which in many cases has an enlarged fleshy area specifically for the deposition of its own pollen. Nectar-feeders are unlikely to come into contact with the anthers themselves, but can hardly avoid contacting the stigma; thus, the stigma functions as a pollen-presenter , ensuring

6336-448: The species of this genus, around 170 species, are shrubs, although some of them are valued for their flowers. Another species that is cultivated in some parts of the world, although it is smaller, is Telopea speciosissima (Waratah), from the mountains of New South Wales , Australia . Some temperate climate species are cultivated more locally in Australia for their attractive appearance: Persoonia pinifolia (pine-leaved geebung )

6424-473: The spring. Banksia saxicola and Banksia canei seed also share this trait. Some dwarf forms have been commercially available in Australian nurseries, although some selections do not maintain their dwarf status in cultivation. Banksia 'Mini Marg' is a small form selected from the northeastern coast of Tasmania which reaches 30 cm (12 in) high and 1 m (3.3 ft) wide. 'Mallacoota Dwarf'

6512-417: The subfamily Mesostoinae within the family Braconidae causes stem galls on B. marginata in southeastern South Australia. The galls are either round to a diameter of 3.3 cm (1.3 in), or cigar-shaped to 15 cm (5.9 in). Their effect on the plant is unclear. B. marginata is a host plant for the larval and adult stages of the buprestid beetle Cyrioides imperialis . Much more pathological

6600-429: The subtribe Banksiinae , which then comprised genera Banksia and Dryandra . Their analyses suggest a phylogeny that differs greatly from George's taxonomic arrangement. Banksia marginata resolves as the closest relative, or "sister", to B. saxicola , the two taxa part of a larger group containing B. paludosa and the three subspecies of B. integrifolia . Early in 2007, Mast and Thiele rearranged

6688-439: The tallest trees of the banksias and they are more frost-resistant than other banksias, B. seminuda , B. littoralis , B. serrata ; among those that can be considered small trees or large shrubs: B. grandis , B. prionotes , B. marginata , B. coccinea and B. speciosa ; all of these are planted in parks and gardens and even along roadsides because of their size. The rest of

6776-808: The three main plant groups of fynbos , which forms part of the Cape Floral Kingdom , the smallest but richest plant kingdom for its size and the only kingdom contained within a single country. The other main groups of plants in fynbos are the Ericaceae and the Restionaceae . South African proteas are thus widely cultivated due to their many varied forms and unusual flowers. They are popular in South Africa for their beauty and their usefulness in wildlife gardens for attracting birds and useful insects. The species most valued as ornamentals are

6864-533: The tip is most commonly truncate or emarginate , but can be acute or mucronate . The cellular makeup of the leaves shows evidence of lignification , and the leaves themselves are somewhat stiff. Leaves also have sunken stomates . The leaf undersurface is white with a prominent midrib covered in brownish hairs. The complex flower spikes, known as inflorescences , appear generally from late summer to early winter (February to June) in New South Wales and Victoria, although flowering occurs in late autumn and winter in

6952-529: The trees that grow in southern latitudes as they give landscapes in temperate climates a tropical appearance; Lomatia ferruginea (Fuinque), Lomatia hirsuta (Radal) have been introduced in Western Europe and to the western United States . Embothrium coccineum (Chilean Firetree or Notro ) is highly valued in the British Isles for its dark red flowers and can be found as far north as

7040-623: The vicinity of Port Lincoln, South Australia . The French naturalist Aimé Bonpland in 1816 called it Banksia marcescens Bonpl., deemed an illegitimate name , as by that time the name Banksia marginata already had been published. Still more synonyms are Banksia ferrea Vent. ex Spreng. and Banksia gunnii Meisn. By the time Carl Meissner published his 1856 arrangement of the genus, there were 58 described Banksia species. Meissner divided Brown's Banksia verae , which had been renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847, into four series based on leaf properties. He listed six species and

7128-463: The western district of Victoria used the spent flower cones to strain water by placing the cones in their mouths and using them like a straw. The red-hued heartwood is coarse-grained and soft. It is sometimes used for turning , but requires careful drying before use to avoid warping. A sample was prepared in Victoria in 1885 as part of a collection of local timber species under the direction of Government botanist Ferdinand von Mueller . The collection

7216-590: The wood from species of Protea , Leucadendron and Grevillea is especially popular. Many species are used in gardening, particularly genera of Banksia , Embothrium , Grevillea , and Telopea . This use has resulted in the introduction of exotic species that have become invasive; examples include the hakea willow ( Hakea salicifolia ) and the silky hakea ( Hakea sericea ) in Portugal. Two species of Macadamia are cultivated commercially for their edible nuts. Gevuina avellana (Chilean hazel)

7304-731: Was displayed in various exhibitions, including the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1889, and is housed at the Melbourne Museum . Banksia marginata was first cultivated in England in 1802 (and was also listed as B. australis , B. insularis and B. marcescens ). It was grown at Kew , Cambridge Botanic Gardens , Woburn Abbey and private gardens in Chelsea , Hackney and Harringay House . One specimen grown in

7392-423: Was found not to be within the genus Orites , nor in the tribe Roupaleae, instead in the tribe Macadamieae, hence given the new species name Nothorites megacarpus . The full arrangement, according to Weston and Barker (2006) with the updates to genera from Mast et al. (2008), is as follows: Anthesis The onset of anthesis is spectacular in some species. In Banksia species, for example, anthesis involves

7480-446: Was part of a secondary regrowth of understory species after more resistant shrubs, such as grasses and sedges, had grown back. The plant was often used by many indigenous clans and tribes throughout the east coast of Australia. The sweet nectar from the flowers was sucked or drained by soaking in water and in some cases mixed with some wattle gum to make a sweet lolly. The wood was also used to make needles. The Gunditjmarato peoples of

7568-603: Was placed in section Eubanksia along with B. integrifolia and B. dentata . The current taxonomic arrangement of the genus Banksia is based on botanist Alex George 's 1999 monograph for the Flora of Australia book series. In this arrangement, B. marginata is placed in Banksia subgenus Banksia , because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia 's characteristic flower spikes, section Banksia because of its straight styles , and series Salicinae because its inflorescences are cylindrical. In

7656-556: Was recorded from Mount William during the Banksia Atlas project. A purported hybrid with B. integrifolia , thought to be from Cape Paterson on Victoria's south coast, was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities. It forms an attractive hardy low-growing plant to 1 m (3.3 ft). Salkin observed an intermediate form which occurred in coastal areas where Banksia marginata and B. integrifolia are found together. Calling it

7744-441: Was selected from a natural population at Mallacoota, Victoria . Alf Salkin reported a form from Kanangra Walls with a peach-tinged limb as having horticultural potential, as well as a prostrate form from Cape Liptrap in Victoria. Banksia marginata , and the dwarf cultivar 'Mini Marg', have also been used in bonsai . Proteaceae About 80, see text The Proteaceae / ˌ p r oʊ t i ˈ eɪ s iː / form

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