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75-602: Since fully developed Sinagua sites emerged in central Arizona around 650 CE, it is believed they migrated from east-central Arizona, possibly emerging from the Mogollon culture . The name Sinagua was coined in 1939 by archaeologist Harold S. Colton, founder of the Museum of Northern Arizona , from the Spanish words sin meaning "without" and agua meaning "water", referring to the name originally given by Spanish explorers to

150-585: A Hopi language term with specific meaning, has generally been applied to Northern Pueblo populations. It may be a poor term in discussing the Mogollon in their broadest contexts) are dug deeply into the ground and often include distinctive ceremonial features such as foot drums and log grooves. Classic Mimbres phase (AD 1000–1130) pueblos can be quite large, with some composed of clusters of communities, each containing up to 150 rooms and all grouped around an open plaza . Ceremonial structures were different from

225-609: A national monument on 16 November 1907. It contains several archaeological sites attributed to the Mimbres branch. At the headwaters of the Gila, Mimbres populations adjoined another more northern branch of the Mogollon culture. The TJ Ruin, for example, is a Classic Mimbres phase pueblo, however the cliff dwellings are Tularosa phase. The Hueco Tanks State Historic Site is approximately 32 mi (51 km) northeast of El Paso, Texas . Mimbres may, depending on its context, refer to

300-460: A 40 square miles (100 km ) reservation in 1903, but by 1910, the Office of Indian Affairs was attempting to relocate the residents, to open up the area, and water rights to other interests. A delegation of Yavapai testified to a Congressional Committee against this, and won. Today, the tribal community consists of 900 members, 600 of whom live on the reservation and the remaining 300 who live off

375-492: A matter of speculation. One theory is that the Mogollon emerged from a Desert Archaic tradition linked to the first (late Pleistocene ) prehistoric human occupations of the area (around 9000 BC). In this theory, cultural distinctions emerged in the larger region when populations grew enough to establish villages and larger communities. An alternative theory is that the Mogollon descended from migrants from farming regions in central Mexico around 3500 BC, and displaced descendants of

450-532: A tradition within a subregion of the Mogollon culture area (the Mimbres branch or the Mimbres Mogollon) or to an interval of time, the "Classic Mimbres phase" (also known as the "Mimbres culture"; 1000–1130 CE, roughly) within the Mimbres branch. The Mimbres branch is a subset of the larger Mogollon culture area, centered in the Mimbres Valley and encompassing the upper Gila River and parts of

525-528: A variety of game from antelope, bear, rabbit, to turtles and ducks. They used amaranth , ricegrass , cactus fruit, beeweed flowers, and cattails for flour. Sunflowers, hackberry fruit, yucca, wild grapes, walnuts, pine nuts , and acorns were also important sources of food. Sinagua farmers cultivated maize beginning in the eighth century. They learned irrigation techniques from their southern Hohokam neighbors and added beans and squash to their crops. The 1064 and 1066 eruptions of Sunset Crater covered

600-646: A white background. Some of these images suggest familiarity and relationships with cultures in northern and central Mexico . The elaborate decoration suggests the Mimbres Mogollons enjoyed a rich ceremonial life. Early Mimbres black-on-white pottery, called Mimbres Style I (formerly "Boldface Black-on-White"), is primarily characterized by bold geometric designs, although some early examples feature human and animal figures. Both geometric and figurative designs grew increasingly sophisticated and diverse over time. Classic Mimbres Black-on-White pottery (Style III)

675-553: Is an archaeological culture of Native American peoples from Southern New Mexico and Arizona , Northern Sonora and Chihuahua , and Western Texas . The northern part of this region is Oasisamerica , while the southern span of the Mogollon culture is known as Aridoamerica . The Mogollon culture is one of the most well known prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico . The culture flourished from

750-461: Is characterized by elaborate geometric designs, refined brushwork, including very fine linework, and may include figures of one or more animals, humans, or other images bounded either by simple rim bands or by geometric decoration. Bird figures are common on Mimbres pots, including images such as turkeys feeding on insects and a man trapping birds in a garden. Fish figures are also depicted on Mimbres pottery, and some are marine species typically found in

825-715: Is particularly famous pottery , and Classic Mimbres pottery designs (mainly drawn from the Swarts Ruin excavations of 1924–1927) were imitated on Santa Fe Railroad "Mimbreños" china dinnerware from 1936 to 1970. Three Circle phase (825/850–1000) pithouse villages within the Mimbres branch are distinctive. Houses are " quadrilateral ", usually with sharply-angled corners; plastered floors and walls; and average about 17 m (180 sq ft) in floor surface area. Local pottery styles include early forms of Mimbres black and white ("boldface"), red-on-cream, and textured plainware. Large ceremonial structures (often called " kivas ",

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900-559: The Akimel O'odham and Maricopa bands from the south. Because of the greater strength of the Akimel O'odham/Maricopa, Yavapai/Apache raids generally conducted small-scale quick raids, followed by a retreat to avoid counter-attack. The Yavapai defended their lands against Akimel O'odham incursions when the Akimel O'odham would invade to harvest saguaro fruits. To the north and northwest, Wi:pukba and Yavbe' bands had off-and-on relations with

975-559: The Colorado River region to become Upland Yumans. Archeological and linguistic evidence suggests that they split off to develop as the Yavapai somewhere around 1300 CE. The first recorded contact with Yavapai was in 1583, when Hopi guides led Spanish explorer Antonio de Espejo , to Jerome Mountain. De Espejo sought gold and was disappointed to find only copper. In 1598, Hopi brought Marcos Farfán de los Godos and his group to

1050-604: The Gulf of California . Mimbres bowls are often found associated with burials, typically with a hole punched out of the center, known as kill holes . Bowls with kill holes have been commonly found covering the face of the interred person. However, archaeological evidence suggests that most potteries were not buried with the dead. Wear marks on the insides of bowls show they were actually used, not just produced as burial items. The distinctive style, which includes "diamond-shaped eyes and receding chins for human figures", created demand on

1125-500: The Pai people throughout most of their history. Though Pai and Yavapai both spoke Upland Yuman dialects, and had a common cultural history, each people had tales of a dispute that separated them from each other. According to Pai oral history , the dispute began with a "mudball fight between children." Scholars believe this split occurred around 1750. In the intervening time, through contact with other tribes that had more European contact,

1200-635: The Pueblo architecture practiced by other contemporaneous cultural groups occupying the southwestern United States . Besides ceremonial kivas , their pueblos had large "community rooms" and some featured ballcourts and walled courtyards, similar to those of the Hohokam culture . The last known evidence of Sinagua occupation for any site comes from Montezuma Castle , a limestone cliff dwelling by Beaver Creek in Verde Valley. This 65-room structure

1275-838: The San Carlos Apache . Therefore, they formed bilingual mixed-tribal bands . Outsiders, such as the Spanish, Mexicans and Americans distinguished the peoples primarily by language, but often referred to them as one name. The Apache spoke the Tonto dialect of the Western Apache language ( Ndee biyati' / Nnee biyati ' ), and the Yavapai spoke the Yavapai language , a branch of Upland Yuman . Living together in common rancherias, families identified as Apache or Yavapai based on their “ Mother tongue .” Both groups had matrilineal kinship systems, with children considered born into

1350-616: The San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, the "Sierra Sin Agua". The name reflects the surprise the Spanish felt that such large mountains did not have perennial rivers flowing from them, as is common in Spain. Colton also distinguished between two different Sinagua cultures. The Northern Sinagua were loosely centered in the highlands around Flagstaff, with Walnut Canyon National Monument , Wupatki National Monument , and Elden Pueblo

1425-637: The San Francisco Peaks to the north, the Pinaleno Mountains and Mazatzal Mountains to the southeast, and the Colorado River to the west, and almost to the Gila River and the Salt River to the south. The Yavapai historically were divided into geographically distinct bands or subtribes: The name Yavapai comes from the Mojave language term Enyaéva Pai , translating as "People of

1500-897: The Verde River and most of the Yavapai bands lived west of it. The Wi:pukba tribal areas in the San Francisco Peaks , along the Upper Verde River , Oak Creek Canyon and Fossil Creek , overlapped with those of the Northern Tonto Apache . Likewise the Guwevkabaya shared hunting and gathering grounds east of the Verde River, along Fossil Creek, East Verde River , Salt River, and in the Superstition Mountains , Sierra Ancha and Pinaleno Mountains with Southern Tonto Apache and bands of

1575-572: The archaic period , c.  200 CE , to either 1450 or 1540 CE, when the Spanish arrived . The name Mogollon comes from the Mogollon Mountains , which were named after Don Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollón , Spanish Governor of New Spain (including what is now New Mexico) from 1712 to 1715. The name was chosen and defined in 1936 by archaeologist Emil W. Haury . The distinct facets of Mogollon culture were recorded by Emil Haury, based on his excavations in 1931, 1933, and 1934 at

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1650-625: The " three sisters " (maize, squash, and beans) in fertile streambeds. In particular, the Tolkepaya, who lived in lands that were less supportive of food gathering, turned to agriculture more than other Yavapai. They had to work to cultivate crops, as their land was also less supportive of agriculture. In turn, Tolkepaya often traded items such as animal skins, baskets, and agave to Quechan groups for food. The main plant foods gathered were walnuts, saguaro fruits , juniper berries , acorns, sunflower seeds, manzanita berries and apples , hackberries ,

1725-465: The 10th through 12th centuries CE. The nature and density of Mogollon villages changed over time. The earliest villages consist of several pithouses—houses dug into the ground, with stick and thatch roofs supported by a network of posts and beams, and faced on the exterior with earth. Villages grew and by the 11th century surface pueblos became common. They had ground-level houses with walls of rock and earth and roofs supported by post and beam networks. In

1800-478: The 13th and 14th centuries, cliff-dwellings became common. Research on Mogollon culture has led to the recognition of regional variants, of which the most widely recognized in popular media is the Mimbres culture (Mimbres Mogollon branch). Others include the Jornada, Forestdale, Reserve, Point of Pines (or "Black River"), San Simon, and Upper Gila branches. Although the Mimbres culture is the best-known subset of

1875-562: The Apaches were shaped with pointed toes. Both groups were hunter-gatherers. They left campsites so similar that scholars are seldom able to distinguish between them. After being relocated to the Camp Verde Reservation , on the Verde River near Camp Verde , the Yavapai there began to construct irrigation systems (including a five-mile (8 km) long ditch) that functioned well enough to reap sufficient harvests, making

1950-704: The Camp Verde Yavapai–Apache tribe. Today, the reservation spans 665 acres (2.7 km ), in four separate locales. Tourism contributes greatly to the economy of the tribe, due largely to the presence of many preserved sites, including the Montezuma Castle National Monument . The Yavapai–Apache Nation is the amalgamation of two historically distinct Tribes both of whom occupied the Upper Verde prior to European arrival. The Tonto Apache , calling themselves Dilzhe'e, utilized

2025-558: The Colorado River area, Tolkepaya built Uwađ a'mađva, a rectangular hut, that had dirt piled up against its sides for insulation, and a flat roof. They also sought shelter in caves or abandoned pueblos to escape the cold. The Yavapai main sociopolitical organization were local groups of extended families, which were identified with certain geographic regions in which they resided. These local groups would form bands in times of war, raiding or defense. For most of Yavapai history,

2100-607: The Desert Archaic peoples. A third theory is that Mogollon descended from the Cochise culture (the early pithouse, late Desert Archaic) who had arrived around 5000 BC, and were not linked to the earlier inhabitants, but adopted farming from Central Mexico. Initially, the Mogollon were foragers who augmented their subsistence by farming. But during the first millennium CE, dependence on farming probably increased. Water control features are common among Mimbres branch sites from

2175-638: The Foot of the Red Rock". The Yavapé lived in the northwestern Yavapai territory from Williamson (Williamson Valley) south of the Bradshaw Mountains to the Agua Fria River . They were also called Northwestern Yavapai, Yavbe, Central Yavapai, or the "real Yavapai", because they were little culturally influenced by neighboring peoples. A fifth Yavapai band, no longer in existence, was

2250-589: The Four Peaks and Mazatzal Mountains in south-western Arizona. They intermarried with the Tonto Apache and San Carlos Apache and spoke their language in addition to their own. They were also called the Guwevkabaya, Kwevkepaya, Kwevikopaya, or Southern Yavapai. The Tolkepaya lived in the western Yavapai territory along the Hassayampa River in southwestern Arizona. They maintained close ties to

2325-878: The Harris Village in Mimbres, New Mexico , and the Mogollon Village on the upper San Francisco River in New Mexico Haury recognized differences between architecture and artifacts from these sites as compared with sites in the Hohokam archaeological culture area and the Ancestral Pueblo archaeological culture area. Key differences included brown-paste, coil-and-scrape pottery, deeply excavated semi-subterranean pit-houses and different ceremonial architecture. Eight decades of subsequent research have confirmed Haury's initial findings. Today,

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2400-670: The Kewevkepaya (southeastern), Tolkepaya (western), Wipukepa (northeastern), Yavepé (northwestern) The Kewevkepaya lived in the southeast, along the Verde River south of the Mazatzal Mountains and the Salt River to the Superstition Mountains and the western Sierra Estrella Mountains , including the southern and western slopes of the Pinal Mountains, the McDowell Mountains , Dripping Springs,

2475-691: The March of Tears. After only 25 years, their population of 1,500 plummeted to only 200 survivors. By 1900, most Yavapai left the San Carlos Reservation to return to the Verde Valley and neighboring homelands. Before being confined to reservations , the Yavapai were mainly hunter-gatherers , following an annual migration to different areas to follow the ripening of different edible plants and movement of game animals. Some communities supplemented this diet with small-scale cultivation of

2550-567: The Maricopa, the Yavapai left. A group of Akimel O'odham, supplied with guns and horses from US troops, arrived and routed the remaining Mohave and Quechans. In 1851, a group of Yavapai attacked American settlers, the Oatman family. Roys Oatman and his wife were killed, along with four of their seven children. The son, Lorenzo, was left for dead but survived, while sisters Olive Oatman and Mary Ann were later sold to Mojaves as slaves. The story

2625-622: The Mađqwarrpaa or "Desert People." Members of this band intermarried with the Mojave and Quechan peoples. The Yavapai have much in common with their linguistic relatives to the north, the Havasupai and the Hualapai . The Wi:pukba ("People from the Foot of the Red Rock") and Guwevkabaya lived alongside the Tonto Apache of central and western Arizona. The Tonto Apache lived usually east of

2700-406: The Mogollon archaeological culture-area, the entire Mogollon occupation spans a greater interval of time (roughly one millennium) and a vastly larger area than is encompassed by the Mimbres culture. Mogollon culture is often divided into five periods proposed by Joe Ben Wheat in 1955: Another way to divide Mogollon history is in three periods of housing types: Archaeological sites attributed to

2775-667: The Mogollon culture are found in the Gila Wilderness , Mimbres River Valley , along the Upper Gila river, Paquime and Hueco Tanks , an area of low mountains between the Franklin Mountains to the west and the Hueco Mountains to the east, and Three Rivers Petroglyph Site , 17 miles north of Tularosa , New Mexico . Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument in southwestern New Mexico was established as

2850-593: The Mogollon culture was eventually filled by the unrelated Apache people, who moved in from the north. However, contemporary Pueblo people in the southwest claim descent from the Mogollon and other related cultures. Archaeologists believe that the Western Pueblo villages of the Hopi and Zuni people are potentially related to the Mogollon. Ceramics traditions and oral history link the Acoma , Hopi, and Zuni, to

2925-569: The Mogollon. Yavapai people The Yavapai ( / ˈ j æ v ə ˌ p aɪ / YAV -ə-py ) are a Native American tribe in Arizona . Their Yavapai language belongs to the Upland Yuman branch of the proposed Hokan language family . Today Yavapai people are enrolled in the following federally recognized tribes : The Yavapai historically controlled about 10 million acres of land in west-central Arizona. Their lands bordered

3000-683: The Mountain Spirit Dance, War Dances, Victory Dances and Social Dances. The Mountain Spirit dance was a masked dance, which was used for guidance or healing of a sick person. The masked dancers represented Mountain Spirits, who dwell in Four Peaks , McDowell Mountains , Red Mountain (near Fort McDowell), Mingus Mountain -( Black Hills ) near Camp Verde, and Granite Mountain near present-day Prescott. The Mountain Spirits also dwell in

3075-682: The Quechan and Mojave. They were also called Ɖo:lkabaya, Tulkepaia, or Western Yavapai. The Wipukepa lived in the northeast, in Oak Creek Canyon and along Fossil Creek and Rio Verde, Arizona , in north-central Arizona. They often intermarried with the Tonto Apache and spoke their language as well as Yavapai. They were also called the Wipukpaya or Wi:pukba, which translates as "Foot of the Mountain (Red Buttes) People" or "People from

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3150-1041: The Sinagua people. Melanie O'Brien, acting manager of the National NAGPRA Program, writes of Montezuma Castle: Evidence demonstrating continuity between the people of the Verde Valley during A.D. 1125–1425 and the Hopi Tribe includes archaeological, anthropological, linguistic, folkloric, and oral traditions. Ceramic vessels made only on the Hopi mesas are found at the sites and are similar to items made by historic and modern Hopi people. Additionally, plain woven and painted textiles, coiled basketry, and woven matting are similar to items made and used by modern Hopi people. Living Hopi clan members also have ancestral names and traditional stories about specific events and people at each site. Mogollon culture Mogollon culture ( / ˌ m oʊ ɡ ə ˈ j oʊ n / )

3225-725: The Sun". American settlers often mistakenly called the Yavapai "Mohave-Apache," "Yuma-Apache," or "Tonto-Apache". The Yavapai language is one of three dialects of the Upland Yuman language , itself a member of the Pai branch of the Yuman language family. Their Upland Yuman language may be part of the proposed Hokan language family . The language includes three dialects known as Kwevkepaya (Southern), Tolkepaya (Western), Wipukepa (Verde Valley), and Yavepe (Prescott). The Yavapai population

3300-505: The Tolkepaya joined with their Quechan neighbors to defend against Major Samuel Heintzelman over a Quechan ferry crossing on the Colorado River. The Quechan used the ferry to transport settlers over the river, into California. After they killed a group led by John Glanton , who had taken over the crossing, the US government retaliated by burning the fields of the Quechans, and taking control of

3375-451: The Tonto Apache were slight and less muscular, smaller of stature and finely featured. The Yavapai women were described as stouter and having "handsomer" faces than the Yuma, in a historic Smithsonian Institution report. The Yavapai often acquired tattoos , but the Apache seldom used tattoos. They created different painted designs on faces. They also had different funeral practices. In clothing, Yavapai moccasins were rounded, whereas those of

3450-464: The Tonto and Pinal. From 366 to 489 Yavapai were killed in massacres, and 375 perished in Indian Removal deportations out of 1,400 remaining Yavapai. When in early 1863, the Walker Party discovered gold in Lynx Creek (near present-day Prescott, Arizona ), it set off a chain of events that would have White settlements along the Hassayampa and Agua Fria Rivers , the nearby valleys, as well as in Prescott, and Fort Whipple would be built, all by

3525-417: The Yavapai Apache or Yuma Apache. The Europeans referred to the Tolkepaya, the western group of Yavapai, and the Hualapai (who belonged to the Upland Yuma Peoples ), as Yuma Apache or Mohave Apache. Ethnological writings describe some major physical differences between Yavapai and Tonto Apache peoples. The Yavapai were described as taller, of more muscular build, well-proportioned and thickly featured, while

3600-414: The Yavapai and Apache together as Tonto Apache. The peoples raided and warred together against enemy tribes such as the Tohono O'odham and the Akimel O'odham . Scholars cannot tell from records whether the writers of the time, when using the term Tonto Apache, were referring to Yavapai or Apache, or those mixed bands. In addition, the Europeans often referred to the Wi:pukba and Guwevkabaya incorrectly as

3675-399: The Yavapai began to adopt certain European practices. They raised some livestock and planted crops, also adopting some metal tools and weaponry. In a syncretic way, they adopted elements of Christianity . An estimated quarter of the population died as a result of smallpox in the 17th and 18th centuries, smaller losses than for some tribes, but substantial enough to disrupt their societies. With

3750-495: The Yavapai in 1776. In the 1820s, American beaver trappers, having depleted the beaver population of the Rocky Mountains , began entering Yavapai territory. They trapped beaver along the Salt, Gila , and Bill Williams rivers. When Kit Carson and Ewing Young led a trapping group through the territory in 1829, the group was "nightly harassed..." Traps were stolen and some of their horses and mules killed. The first fighting between US troops and Yavapai came in early 1837, when

3825-494: The area in ash, which greatly enriched the soil for farming. Around 700 CE, they became active in the region's long-distance trade which reached the Gulf of California and Mesoamerica . They traded their baskets and woven cotton cloth for copper, macaws , marine shells, salt, and rare pigments. Early Sinagua sites consist mostly of large pit houses , similar to the ones built by the Hohokam people of southern Arizona, and wooden buildings. Later structures more closely resemble

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3900-472: The best-known publicly accessible sites. The Southern Sinagua inhabited lower elevations across the Verde Valley of central Arizona; Montezuma Castle National Monument , Montezuma Well , Tuzigoot National Monument , Palatki and Honanki Archaeological Sites, and the V Bar V Heritage Site are notable localities open to the public. The Sinagua economy was based on a combination of hunter-gatherer foraging and subsistence agriculture . They hunted

3975-692: The black market beginning in the 1960s. Vandalism and looting of grave-sites took place and has continued into the present day. Mimbres pottery is so distinctive that until fairly recently, the end of its production around 1130 to 1150 was equated with the "disappearance" of the people who made it. More recent research indicates that substantial depopulation did occur in the Mimbres Valley, but some remnant populations persisted there. Both there and in surrounding areas, people changed their pottery styles to more closely resemble those of neighboring culture areas, and dispersed into other residential sites with different types of architecture. The area originally settled by

4050-601: The bulbs of the Quamash , and the greens of the Lamb's quarters , Scrophularia , and Lupinus plants. Agave was the most crucial harvest, as it was the only plant food available from late fall through early spring. The hearts of the plant were roasted in stone-lined pits, and could be stored for later use. Primary animals hunted were deer, rabbit, jackrabbit , quail, and woodrat . Fish and water-borne birds were eschewed by most Yavapai groups. Some groups of Tolkepaya began eating fish after contact with their Quechan neighbors. The Yavapai practiced traditional dances such as

4125-436: The camp and advise others on the selection of campsites, work ethics, and food production. The Yavapai have never been unified by a single central government. Historically they were four separate autonomous bands, connected through kinship and shared cultures and language, which were in turn composed of clans. The bands or subtribes allied with and traded with external tribes independently of each other. These four subtribes are

4200-546: The caves of Montezuma Castle and Montezuma Well in the Verde Valley. Yavapai also participate in dances and singing shared with neighboring tribes such as the Apache Sunrise Dance and the Bird Singing and Dancing of the Mojave people . The Yavapai built brush shelter dwellings called Wa'm bu nya:va (Wom-boo-nya-va). In summer, they built simple lean-tos without walls. During winter months, closed huts (called uwas ) would be built of ocotillo branches or other wood and covered with animal skins, grasses, bark, and/or dirt. In

4275-468: The crossing. According to Thomas Sweeney, the Tolkepaya would tell US officers encountered in Quechan territory, that they had a 30-day march to their own territory. They wanted to discourage US encroachment on their land. Following the declaration of war against Mexico in May 1845 and especially after the claim by the US of southwest lands under the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo , US military incursions into Yavapai territory greatly increased. After gold

4350-487: The distinctiveness of the Mogollon pottery manufacture, architectural construction, ground-stone tool design, habits and customs of residence location, and mortuary treatment is generally recognized. The earliest Mogollon pithouses were deep and either circular or oval-shaped. Over time, Mogollon people built rectangular houses with rounded corners with them not as deep. Their villages also had kivas, or round, semi-subterranean ceremonial structures. Mogollon origins remain

4425-447: The early 20th century, Yavapai were moving away from the San Carlos Reservation, and were requesting permission to live on the grounds of the original Camp Verde Reservation. In 1910, 40 acres (161,874 m ) was set aside as the Camp Verde Indian Reservation, and in the following decade added 248 acres (1,003,620 m ) in two parcels, which became the Middle Verde Indian Reservation. These two reservations were combined in 1937, to form

4500-413: The end of the year, and all in traditional Yavapai territory. The Americans, led by General George Crook , fought against the Yavapai and Tonto Apache in 1872–73. Aided by Pai scouts, the Americans killed many of the Yavapai and forced them onto a reservation at Camp Verde, where a third of the surviving Yavapai died from disease. In 1875, they were forcibly relocated to the San Carlos Reservation in

4575-596: The end of winter, in time for the spring harvest. Government among the Yavapai tended to be informal. There were no tribal and hand chiefs. Certain men became recognized leaders based on others choosing to follow them, heed their advice, and support their decisions. Men who were noted for their skills as warriors were called mastava ("not afraid") or bamulva ("person who goes forward"). Other warriors were willing to follow such men into combat. Some Yavapai men were noted for their wisdom and speaking ability. Called bakwauu ("person who talks"), they would settle disputes within

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4650-540: The family was the focal group, be it the nuclear family, or extended. This is partly because most food-providing sites were not large enough to support larger populations. However, exceptions are known. Near Fish Creek, Arizona , was Ananyiké (Quail's Roost), a Guwevkabaya summer camp that supported upwards of 100 people at a time. It supported a prickly pear fruit harvest, and hunting of rabbits and woodrats. In winter, camps were formed of larger groups, consisting of several families. They separated into smaller groups at

4725-444: The lands to the north, east and south; while the Wi:pukba or Northeastern Yavapai were using country to the north, the west and the south. It was the Upper Verde where they overlapped. The Yavapai reservation in Prescott was established in 1935, originally consisting of just 75 acres (300,000 m ) of land formerly occupied by the Fort Whipple Military Reserve. In 1956, an additional 1,320 acres (5 km ) were added. Succeeding

4800-423: The mother's family and clan, with inheritance and property figured through the maternal line. Most of the people in these mixed groups spoke both languages. The headman of each band usually had two names, one from each culture. Therefore, the enemy Navajo to the north called both, the Tonto Apache and their allies, the Yavapai, Dilzhʼíʼ dinéʼiʼ – "People with high-pitched voices." The ethnic Europeans referred to

4875-549: The previous pithouse periods. Most common were ceremonial rooms within roomblocks. Smaller square or rectangular semi-subterranean kivas with roof openings are also found. ) The largest Classic Mimbres sites are located near wide areas of well-watered floodplain suitable for maize agriculture, although smaller villages exist in upland areas. Ceramics, especially bowls, produced in the Mimbres region are distinct in style and painted with geometric designs and representational images of animals, people, and cultural icons in black paint on

4950-520: The same mines, to their excitement. Farfán referred to the Yavapai as cruzados because of the crosses painted on their heads. Juan de Oñate led another group through Yavapai lands in 1598 and again in 1604–1605, looking for a route to the sea which Yavapai had told them about. Warfare was not uncommon in the Yavapai world, and they made changing alliances for security. Wi:pukba (Wipukepa) and Guwevkabaya (Kwevkepaya) bands formed alliances with Western Apache bands, to attack and defend against raids by

5025-559: The southwest, the Sinagua apparently abandoned their permanent settlements around this time, though the precise reasons for such a large-scale abandonment are not yet known; resource depletion , drought, and clashes with the newly arrived Yavapai people have been suggested. Several contemporary Hopi clans trace their ancestry to immigrants from the Sinagua culture, who they believe left the Verde Valley for religious reasons. Pima , Tohono O'odham , Yavapai , and Zuni also potentially have cultural, linguistic, and historical connections to

5100-402: The tribe relatively self-sufficient. But contractors that worked with the government to supply the reservations were disappointed, and petitioned to have the reservation revoked. The government complied, and in March 1875, the government closed the reservation, and marched the residents 180 miles (290 km) to the San Carlos reservation . More than 100 Yavapai died during the winter trek. By

5175-441: The tribe's first chief, Sam Jimulla, his wife Viola became the first female chieftess of a North American tribe. Today, the tribe consists of 159 official members. The population consists mainly of the Yavbe'/Yavapé Group of Yavapais. The Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation is located within Maricopa County approximately 20 miles northeast of Phoenix. The reservation came into existence when Theodore Roosevelt had Fort McDowell declared

5250-504: The upper San Francisco River in southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona as well as the Rio Grande Valley and its western tributaries in southwest New Mexico. Differentiation between the Mimbres branch and other areas of the Mogollon culture area is most apparent during the Three Circle (825–1000 CE roughly) and Classic Mimbres (1000–1150) phases, when architectural construction and black and white painted pottery assume locally distinctive forms and styles. Classic Mimbres phase pottery

5325-418: The use of guns and other weapons, they began to change methods of warfare, diplomacy, and trade. They used livestock raiding, either from other tribes such as the Maricopa, or from Spanish settlements to their south, to supplement their economy. They often acquired human captives in raids, whom they traded as slaves to Spaniards in exchange for European goods. Spanish missionary Francisco Garcés lived among

5400-424: Was about 1,550 in 1992. In 1500 CE, there were an estimated 1,500 Yavapai. Their creation story explains that Yavapai people originated "in the beginning," or "many years ago," when either a tree or a maize plant sprouted from the ground in what is now Montezuma Well , bringing the Yavapai into the world. Western archeologists believe the Yavapai derived from Patayan ( Hakataya ) peoples who migrated east from

5475-422: Was believed to be built by Sinagua women between 1100 and 1350 CE. Known as Alameda Brown Ware, their plain pottery was built using the paddle-and-anvil method. Their clay was grey or brown, tempered with crushed potsherds, and painted with buff, brown, and red slips. They carved with imported red argillate. Sinagua peoples left the Verde Valley by the early 15th century. Like other pre-Columbian cultures in

5550-622: Was discovered in California in 1849, more Euro-American emigrants passed through Yavapai territory than ever had before. Despite the thousands of emigrants passing through their territory, the Yavapai avoided contact with Americans. The last big battle between the Colorado–Gila River alliances took place in August 1857, when about 100 Yavapai, Quechan, and Mohave warriors attacked a settlement of Maricopa near Pima Butte. After overwhelming

5625-638: Was widely published and increased white settlers' fears of attack in Arizona. The Yavapai Wars , or the Tonto Wars, were a series of armed conflicts between the Yavapai and Tonto Apache against the United States in Arizona. The period began no later than 1861, with the arrival of American settlers on Yavapai and Tonto land. At the time, the Yavapai were considered a band of the Western Apache people due to their close relationship with tribes such as

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