A view camera is a large-format camera in which the lens forms an inverted image on a ground-glass screen directly at the film plane . The image is viewed, composed, and focused, then the glass screen is replaced with the film to expose exactly the same image seen on the screen.
70-699: Sinar Photography AG is a Swiss company based in Zürich manufacturing specialized high-resolution view cameras for studio, reproduction, landscape and architecture photography. Sinar's view-cameras allow both the lens and the film back or sensor back to move in rotation or linearly in any direction (up/down, left/right, front back linearly, and pitch yaw tilt rotations), thus allowing precise image alignment corrections. The cameras are thus often used in advertising, document reproduction, product and architectural photography, where correctly vertical image lines, fine focus accuracy, and extra details are wanted. The name SINAR
140-423: A Fresnel lens can considerably brighten the ground glass image (with a slight loss of focusing accuracy). The taking lens may be stopped down to help gauge depth of field effects and vignetting , but the photographer generally opens the lens to its widest setting for focusing. The ground glass and frame assembly, known as the spring back, is held in place by springs that pull and hold the ground glass firmly into
210-412: A lens , and the other a ground glass or a photographic film holder or a digital back. There are three general types: the rail camera, the field camera , and those that don't fit into the other categories. The bellows is a flexible, accordion-pleated box. It encloses the space between the lens and film, and flexes to accommodate the movements of the standards. The front standard is a frame that holds
280-449: A 4×5 camera can take two 2×5 photos, an 8×10 can take two 4×10s etc. This is popular for landscape photography, and in the past was common for group photographs (hence, half-frame panorama formats such as 4x10 are commonly referred to as "Banquet formats") Digital camera backs are available for view cameras to create digital images instead of using film. Prices are high compared to smaller digital cameras . The camera must be set up in
350-501: A cone shaped portion of whatever is in front of it while the wedge of acceptable focus is now more closely aligned with this cone. Therefore, depending on the shape of the subject, a wider aperture can be used, lessening concerns about camera stability due to slow shutter speed and diffraction due to too-small aperture. Tilting achieves the desired depth of field using the aperture at which the lens performs best. Too small an aperture risks losses to diffraction and camera/subject motion what
420-420: A dot (.); the three digits preceding the dot designate the class of the component, while the two digits following the dot designate the specific model or revision of the component. For example, the base 30 cm (12 in) monorail used for Sinar P-, C-, and F-series view cameras has the code 422.11, where 422 designates the class (monorail) and 11 designates the specific model / length / finish. In this case,
490-476: A graduate photographer and photographic salesman, took over the family business on the early death of his father Hans-Carl, and founded the following year the Sinar company. Dissatisfied with the limited or imprecise nature of existing wooden view cameras (e.g. the large Kodak 3 and similar, and the popular Graphlex Graphic Graphlok series) and the limitations of technical (e.g. Linhof Technika) and field cameras of
560-416: A number of lens makers. High-quality TS or PC lenses are expensive. The price of a new Canon TS-E or Nikon PC-E lens is comparable to that of a good used large-format camera, which offers a much greater range of adjustment. Altering the angle of the lens standard in relation to the film plane by swiveling it from side to side is called swing. Swing is like tilt, but it changes the angle of the focal plane in
630-493: A portrait, landscape and alpine photographer and was considered one of the first Swiss champions of alpine photography. From 1894 until his death in 1897, Koch was also president of the Swiss Photographers Association. His son Hans-Carl expanded the family-owned photography studios to add retail sales of photographic equipment, starting from 1911. In 1947, the grandson of Koch senior, Carl Hans,
700-410: A sheet film view camera. Rollfilm and instant film backs are available to use in place of a sheetfilm holder on a single-film camera. Photographers use view cameras to control focus and convergence of parallel lines . Image control is done by moving the front and/or rear standards. Movements are the ways the front and rear standards can move to alter perspective and focus. The term can also refer to
770-405: A strong effect on the depth of field by drastically altering its shape, making it asymmetrical. Without tilt, the limits of near and far acceptable focus are parallel to the plane of sharp focus as well as parallel to the film. With forward tilt, the plane of sharp focus tilts even more and the near and far limits of acceptable focus form a wedge shape (viewed from the side). Thus, the lens still sees
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#1732794255996840-406: A suitable position. In some cases the subject can also be manipulated, as in a studio. In others the camera must be positioned to photograph subjects such as landscapes . The camera must be mounted in a way that prevents camera motion for the duration of the exposure. Usually a tripod is used—a camera with a long bellows extension may require two. To operate the view camera, the photographer opens
910-442: A wider range of ambient lighting. This system has been used in modified mode by RIT to obtain multispectral images suited to aging analysis of color pigments in artworks. Integration of Canon and Nikon SLR cameras as camera backs onto the P standard with adapters from fellow Swiss camera accessories manufacturer, Foba . Instead of the traditional leaf shutter and diaphragm mechanisms, Sinar also offered an Automatic Shutter, which
980-458: Is a mirror image of the rear standard. The earlier F/F1 front standard has a low-profile metal hinge below the rail. The F2 and F3 models also came standard with a light-metering back, while this was an option for the F and F1 models. The F3 model is a digital/analog model that supports a variety of Sinar digital lenses and digital backs. As noted in Sinar literature, the C-series is a blend of
1050-406: Is determined by either aperture size or special disks that fit into the lens to modify the aperture shape. Some antique lenses, and some modern SLR soft focus lenses, provide a lever that controls the softening effect by altering the optical formula. View cameras use sheet film but can use roll film (generally 120/220 size) by using special roll film holders. Popular "normal" image formats for
1120-864: Is explained by the company itself as "Still, Industrial, Nature, Architectural and Reproduction photography" in the English version of the April 2011 press release. Other versions of the names were also used, with the S for studio, Sache, or science. In the Indonesian language , Sinar translates into English as "light ray". The business recalls its roots to Swiss photographer Carl August Koch [ de ] who worked in Marseille from 1865 to 1878. In 1879 and 1892 Koch also established two family-owned photography studios in Schaffhausen . Koch worked as
1190-404: Is gained from depth of field. Only testing a given scene, or experience, shows whether tilting is better than leaving the standards neutral and relying on the aperture alone to achieve the desired depth of field. If the scene is sharp enough at f/32 with 2 degrees of tilt but would need f/64 with zero tilt, then tilt is the solution. If another scene would need f/45 with or without tilt, then nothing
1260-469: Is gained. See Merklinger and Luong for extensive discussions on determining the optimal tilt (if any) in challenging situations. With a forward tilt, the shape of the portion of a scene in acceptable focus is a wedge. Thus, the scene most likely to benefit from tilting is short in the front and expands to a greater height or thickness toward the horizon. A scene consisting of tall trees in the near, middle and far distance may not lend itself to tilting unless
1330-431: Is included, but not the top of the tower. In Figure b), the lens has been shifted up (rise): the top of the tower is now inside the area captured on film, at the sacrifice of unwanted green foreground. Moving the front standard left or right from its normal position is called lens shift, or simply shift. This movement is similar to rise and fall, but moves the image horizontally rather than vertically. One use for shift
1400-412: Is not usually the reason to use rear tilt/swing. When a lens is a certain distance (its focal length) away from the film, distant objects, such as faraway mountains, are in focus. Moving the lens farther from the film brings closer objects into focus. Tilting or swinging the film plane puts one side of the film farther from the lens than the center is and the opposite point of the film is therefore closer to
1470-463: Is the most popular maker of leaf shutters for view camera lenses. The lens is designed to split into two pieces, the front and rear elements screwed, usually by a trained technician, into the front and back of the shutter assembly, and the whole fitted in a lensboard. View camera lenses are designed with both focal length and coverage in mind. A 300 mm lens may give a different angle of view (either over 31° or over 57°), depending on whether it
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#17327942559961540-552: Is to remove the image of the camera from the final image when photographing a reflective surface. The axis of the lens is normally perpendicular to the film (or sensor). Changing the angle between axis and film by tilting the lens standard backwards or forwards is called lens tilt, or just tilt. Tilt is especially useful in landscape photography . By using the Scheimpflug principle , the “plane of sharp focus” can be changed so that any plane can be brought into sharp focus. When
1610-418: Is useful, in that this plane can be made to coincide with a near and far object. Thus, both near and far objects on the plane are in focus. This effect is often incorrectly thought of as increasing the depth of field. Depth of field depends on the focal length, aperture, and subject distance. As long as the photographer wants sharpness in a plane that is parallel to the film, tilt is of no use. However, tilt has
1680-551: Is usual to list the short side first in the Americas , and the long side in many other countries, thus 4×5 is the same as 5×4). A similar, but not identical, range of metric sizes is used in many countries; thus 9×12 cm is similar to, but not interchangeable with, 4×5 inches and 13×18 cm is similar to, but not interchangeable with, 5×7 inches. The most widely used format is 4×5, followed by 8×10. A few rollfilm cameras have movements that make them as versatile as
1750-465: The lensboard , to which the lens (perhaps with shutter ) is attached. At the other end of the bellows, the rear standard is a frame that holds a ground glass plate, used for focusing and composing the image before exposure—and is replaced by a holder containing the light-sensitive film, plate , or image sensor for exposure. The front and rear standards can move relative to each other, unlike most other camera types. Whereas most cameras control only
1820-424: The 4×5 camera are 6×6, 6×7, and 6×9 cm. 6×12 and 6×17 cm are suited to panoramic photography . With an inexpensive modification of the darkslide, and no modification to the camera, half a sheet of film can be exposed at a time. While this technique could be used for economy where a larger image is not required, it is almost always used with the intention of obtaining a panoramic format so that, for example,
1890-446: The P series was the Sinar system of calculating swings and tilts as well as the Sinar depth of field calculator. A key feature of the Sinar P system, particularly in the domain of scientific and industrial photography, is the precise machine tolerances that are part of the fittings and movements. The Sinar X was offered as a lower-cost alternative to the p2 4×5, with the same range of possible movements but removing other features, such as
1960-658: The P- and F-series, using the same monorail and extensions as the other cameras, while fitted with the front standard of the F-series and the rear standard of the P-series. The Alpina was introduced in the early 1980s as an entry-level alternative to the F-series. It accepts many of the same accessories and functions similarly to the F-series, using Sinar's calculator scales, but the Alpina uses an extruded, trapezoidal monorail instead of
2030-520: The Sinar F1, F2, and F3 models were made of the same materials, but painted black. The Sinar F also has hard plastic knobs, versus the rubber-coated knobs of the F1 and F2. The Sinar F and F1 models have a clip-on front standard (lens standard) that does not fully enclose the monorail. The advantage is that this standard can easily be removed from the rail by loosening the clamp and lifting straight up, unlike
2100-469: The appropriate coverage area may be used with almost any view camera. All that is required is that the lens be mounted on a lensboard compatible with the camera. Not all lensboards work with all models of view camera, though different cameras may be designed to work with a common lensboard type. Lensboards usually come with a hole sized according to the shutter size, often called the Copal Number. Copal
2170-448: The axis. The P series also introduced features such as self-arresting rack and pinion gearing and a precision-engineered quick format change system that allows the photographer to switch between 4x5/5x7/8x10 formats quickly without having to fully disassemble the rear standard. This was accomplished by using a common rear standard bearer and unlocking a single knob to switch among the various format frames. Another new feature implemented in
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2240-407: The back of the lens and the film plane. Zoom lenses are not used in view camera photography, as there is no need for rapid and continuous change of focal length with static subjects, and the price, size, weight, and complexity would be excessive. Some lenses are " convertible ": the front or rear element only, or both elements, may be used, giving three different focal lengths, though the quality of
2310-535: The camera be fitted with special extra-long rails and bellows. Very short focal length wide-angle lenses may require that the standards be closer together than a normal concertina -folded bellows allows. Such a situation requires a bag bellows , a simple light-tight flexible bag. Recessed lensboards are also sometimes used to get the rear element of a wide angle lens close enough to the film plane; they may also be of use with telephoto lenses , since these compressed long-focus lenses may also have very small spacing between
2380-426: The camera in relation to the objects in the frame. Rear movements can let a photographer shoot a subject from a perspective that puts the camera at an angle to the subject, yet still achieves parallel lines. Thus, rear movements allow a change of perspective by allowing a different camera location, yet no view camera movement actually alters perspective. A view camera lens typically consists of: Almost any lens of
2450-491: The center of each frame to the bottom. This permits a greater range of tilt angles. Sinar also marketed a version of the view camera with additional accessories, including a wide angle bellows and monorail extension, as the Sinar Expert. The Sinar P, introduced in 1970, had asymmetric tilts and swings, as opposed to the traditional center or base tilts. This permitted rapid and precise settings without losing sharpness on
2520-409: The code numbers, the main differences between the P- ("Perfection"), C- ("Combination"), and F ("Field")-series are the front and rear standards provided. As the name implies, the C-series combines the front (lens) standard from the F-series with the rear (image) standard from the P-series. A photographer who purchases an F-series camera can upgrade to the equivalent of a C- or P-series camera by changing
2590-579: The darkslide that covers the sheet of film in the film holder, and triggers the shutter to make the exposure. Finally, the photographer replaces the darkslide and removes the film holder with the exposed film. Sheet film holders are generally interchangeable between various brands and models of view cameras, adhering to de facto standards . The largest cameras and more uncommon formats are less standardized. Special film holders and accessories can fit in place of standard film holders for specific purposes. A Grafmatic , for example, can fit six sheets of film in
2660-401: The day, he developed a modular camera and received in 1947 a patent for his Sinar camera. His main aims were to produce a large format monorail camera system of high precision and simple operation, with readily interchangeable parts and accessories. The Sinar system's versatility is based on the interchangeability of parts as well as a large number of accessories that have been produced over
2730-536: The distance of the plane of focus from the camera, the view camera can also adjust the orientation of the plane of focus, and perspective control. The camera is normally used on a tripod support. Several types of view cameras are used for different purposes, and provide different degrees of movement and portability. They include: View cameras use large format sheet film —one sheet per photograph. Standard sizes in inches are: 4×5, 5×7, 4×10, 5×12, 8×10, 11×14, 7×17, 8×20, 12×20, 20×24, and larger for process cameras . (It
2800-496: The end of the rail are designated 428.31 (female thread) and 429.11 (male thread). When the system was updated in the 1980s to the P2/ C2/ F2-series, the rails were given a black finish and redesignated 422.21 (base rail), 421.21 / 423.21 / 424.21 (extension rails), and a longer base rail was added, 425.21, double-ended with 90 cm (35 in) length. The basic classes that make up a Sinar view camera include: From
2870-451: The entire 42x class is reserved for monorails and monorail accessories. The base monorail unit (422.11) has two ends with threaded female sockets which each accept the standard male-threaded caps (429.11) or an extension rail, designated 421.11 for the 15 cm (6 in) extension; 423.11, 30 cm (12 in) extension; and 424.11, 45 cm (18 in) extension. Likewise, the rail caps which prevent unlocked standards from sliding off
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2940-418: The film plane and lens plane are parallel as is the case for most 35 mm cameras, the plane of sharp focus is also parallel to these two planes. If, however, the lens plane is tilted with respect to the film plane, the plane of sharp focus is also tilted according to geometrical and optical properties. The three planes intersect in a line below the camera for downward lens tilt. The tilted plane of sharp focus
3010-409: The high-end studio environments. View camera This type of camera was developed during the era of the daguerreotype (1840s–1850s) and is still in use, some using drive mechanisms for movement (rather than loosen-move-tighten), more scale markings, and/or more spirit levels. It comprises a flexible bellows that forms a light-tight seal between two adjustable standards , one of which holds
3080-431: The horizontal axis instead of the vertical axis. For example, swing can help achieve sharp focus along the entire length of a picket fence that is not parallel to the film plane. Angular movements of the rear standard change the angle between the lens plane and the film plane just as front standard angular movements do. Though rear standard tilt changes the plane of sharp focus in the same manner as front standard tilt, this
3150-404: The image. To avoid this apparent distortion, a wide-angle lens gets more of the building in, but includes more of the foreground and alters the perspective. A camera with rising front lets a normal lens be raised to include the top of the building without tilting the camera. This requires that the image circle of the lens be larger than is required to cover the film without use of movements. If
3220-427: The image. Adapters (now discontinued) were made by Sinar to adapt this viewer to various other view camera makes such as Plaubel , Linhof , and Toyo . Many of the 4×5 backs will accept Graflok, Linhof, and Polaroid film accessories. For example, the 600KM back included with the "Norma" can be converted to accept accessories from other manufacturers by removing the frame. The Zoom series of roll film backs, which allow
3290-417: The lens can produce a circular image just large enough to cover the film, it can't cover the bottom of the film as it rises. Consequently, lens coverage must be larger to accommodate rise (and fall, tilt and shift). In Figure a) below (images are upside down, as a photographer would see them on the ground glass of a view camera), the lens has been shifted down (fall). Notice that much of the unwanted foreground
3360-405: The lens. One reason to swing or tilt the rear standard is to keep the film plane parallel to the face of the subject. Another reason to swing or tilt the rear standard is to control apparent convergence of lines when shooting subjects at an angle. It is often incorrectly stated that rear movements can be used to change perspective. The only thing that truly controls perspective is the location of
3430-536: The mechanisms on the standards that control their position. Not all cameras have all movements available to both front and rear standards, and some cameras have more movements available than others. Some cameras have mechanisms that facilitate intricate movement combinations. Some limited view camera–type movements are possible with SLR cameras using various tilt/shift lenses . Also, as use of view cameras declines in favor of digital photography, these movements are simulated using computer software. Rise and fall are
3500-407: The metering back and the ability to change film formats. The F series was the light-weight version ("F" for "Field"), offering less refined features than the P series. The difference in weight is significant: the Sinar F 4x5 weighs about 3.3 kg and the Sinar P 4x5 weighs about 5.9 kg. The original Sinar F is easily identified by a brushed aluminum monorail and other aluminum accents, while
3570-440: The movements of either the front or rear standard vertically along a line in a plane parallel to the film (or sensor) plane. Rise is a very important movement especially in architectural photography. Generally, the lens is moved vertically—either up or down—along the lens plane to change the portion of the image captured on the film. In the 35 mm format, special shift lenses (sometimes called perspective control lenses) emulate
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#17327942559963640-408: The photographer is willing to sacrifice either the top of the near trees and/or the bottom of the far trees. Assuming lens axis front tilt, here are the trade offs in choosing between a small degree of tilt (say less than 3) and a larger tilt: A small tilt causes a wider or fatter wedge but one that is far off axis from the cone of light seen by the lens. Conversely, a large tilt (say 10 degrees) makes
3710-529: The photographer to better visualize the image before making an exposure. The shallow depth of field can be used to emphasize certain details and deemphasize others (in bokeh style, for example), especially combined with camera movements. The high cost of film and processing encourages careful planning. Because view cameras are rather difficult to set up and focus, the photographer must seek the best camera position, perspective, etc. before exposing. Beginning 35 mm photographers are even sometimes advised to use
3780-448: The plane of focus during the focusing and composition process. Once focusing is complete, the same springs act as a flexible clamping mechanism to press the film holder into the same plane of focus that the ground glass occupied. To take the photograph, the photographer pulls back the ground glass and slides the film holder into its place. The shutter is then closed and cocked, the shutter speed and aperture set. The photographer removes
3850-416: The rear of the camera. The dark cloth shrouds the viewing area and keeps environmental light from obscuring the image. In the dark space created by the dark cloth, the image appears as bright as it can, so the photographer can view, focus, and compose the image. Often, a photographer uses a magnifying lens, usually a high quality loupe , to critically focus the image. An addition over the ground glass called
3920-416: The rear standard, and it is somewhat lighter weight. The disadvantage of this design is that the rail clamping mechanism is susceptible to breakage if over-tightened. The Sinar F2 and F3 models have a different front standard, which completely encloses the rail and also provides a geared focus adjustment, similar to the rear rail clamp on all Sinar F models. The correct F2 standard can easily be identified as it
3990-416: The rise or fall of view cameras. The main effect of rise is to eliminate converging parallels when photographing tall buildings. If a camera without movements is pointed at a tall building, the top is off. If the camera is tilted upwards to get it all in, the film plane is not parallel to the building, and the building seems narrower at the top than the bottom: lines that are parallel in the object converge in
4060-558: The sale was cancelled before the end of the year. When Jenoptik withdrew from the medium format camera market, Sinar was spun off in July 2009. Sinar moved its base of operations to Zürich in October 2009 after separating from Jenoptik. On 26 November 2013 Leica Camera AG took over Sinar Photography AG. Sinar use a five digit coding system for each of the modular parts in many of their modern view cameras, broken up into two parts separated by
4130-420: The shutter on the lens to focus and compose the image on a ground glass plate on the rear standard. The rear standard holds the ground glass in the same plane that the film later occupies—so that an image focused on the ground glass is focused on the film. The ground glass image can be somewhat dim and difficult to view in bright light. Photographers often use a focusing cloth or "dark cloth" over their heads and
4200-464: The single elements is not as good at larger apertures as the combination. These are popular with field photographers who can save weight by carrying one convertible lens rather than two or three lenses of different focal lengths. Soft focus lenses introduce spherical aberration deliberately into the optical formula for an ethereal effect considered pleasing, and flattering to subjects with less than perfect complexions. The degree of soft-focus effect
4270-529: The space of an ordinary two-sheet holder, and some light meters have an attachment that inserts into the film holder slot on the camera back so the photographer can measure light that falls at a specific point on the film plane. The entire film holder/back assembly is often an industry standard Graflex back, removable so accessories like roll-film holders and digital imagers can be used without altering focus. Some of these disadvantages can be viewed as advantages. For example, slow setup and composure time allow
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#17327942559964340-553: The standards. In general, Sinar maintains broad component compatibility between the different modular view camera series and generations. In addition, the same bellows are used for a certain size across all series, so changing format within a series is also possible. For example, the bellows used for all 4×5 cameras is coded 452.11; changing any 4×5 camera to a 5×7 camera would require a new bellows (452.17) along with an appropriate rear standard, frame, and film holder. The original view camera introduced in 1947 and manufactured until 1969
4410-408: The standards; the only significant differences between the different film format sizes were the bellows, rear frame, and back. Carl Koch applied for patents in 1947 and received them for the film holders, front and rear standards, the "optical bench" monorail, and the camera itself. The primary technical advantage of the Sinar over other view cameras was moving the pivoting point for each standard from
4480-432: The traditional Sinar tubular monorail, so the standards and rail are exclusive to the Alpina. The camera later was renamed as the a1 and reintroduced in the 1990s. Sinar has manufactured many accessories since its establishment: A swing-out filter holder that allows the photographer to use a polarizing filter as well as 4x4 inch gel filters. A 4x5 reflex attachment that employed an adjustable mirror to optimize viewing of
4550-506: The use of 120/220 film formats from 6x4.5 to 6x12 formats with excellent film flatness. The earlier versions of the Zoom film backs are usable on any 4x5 camera with an international (Graflok) back (later holders no longer have the Graflok grooves required). The Sinar LCD shutter system enables their CCD camera backs to have a much extended density range in video mode for focusing capability in
4620-408: The wedge more aligned with the lens view, but with a narrower wedge. Thus, a modest tilt is often, or even usually, the best starting point. Small and medium format cameras have fixed bodies that do not allow for misalignment of the film and lens planes, intentionally or not. Tilt/shift (“TS”) or perspective control (“PC”) lenses that provide limited movements for these cameras can be purchased from
4690-419: The years. Major components (rails, bellows, lensboards, and standards) made in the 1940s are still usable with currently manufactured Sinar equipment. In 1968 Carl Hans' son entered the family business and the company's camera production moved to Feuerthalen (north of Zürich ). Jenoptik acquired a majority stake (51%) of Sinar in 2005. Leica Camera announced it had purchased Jenoptik's stake in 2006, but
4760-489: Was called the Sinar Standard or, more popularly, Norma, as labeled on the default 30 cm monorail. It was sold in different film sizes (4×5, 5×7, or 8×10). Like the later P-, C-, and F-series, it is a modular system, which Sinar billed as the "Construction-Unit", consisting of interchangeable basic components, including a tripod head (monorail clamp), tubular monorail, front and rear standards, and bellows connecting
4830-418: Was designed to cover a 4×5 or 8×10 image area. Most lenses are designed to cover more than just the image area to accommodate camera movements . Focusing involves moving the entire front standard with the lens assembly closer to or further away from the rear standard, unlike many lenses on smaller cameras in which one group of lens elements is fixed and another moves. Very long focus lenses may require that
4900-400: Was self-cocking but offered a limited range of shutter speeds from 8 to 1 ⁄ 50 sec. and bulb; a Rear Set Diaphragm, which was independent of the lens, and an Automatic Diaphragm, which stopped down to a preset aperture once the film holder was inserted. Later cameras could be fitted with an electronically-timed shutter. Film plane metering probes and meters. Digital backs for
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