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39-504: Leah Widjaja, Vice Chairman. Sinar Mas Land is an Indonesian real estate development company, which is a subsidiary of Sinar Mas Group . It combines two big developers, Bumi Serpong Damai and Duta Pertiwi. It formed in 1988 under the flag of Duta Pertiwi. It now holds substantial interests in a businesses including residential housing, apartments , shopping centers , hotels , office buildings , industrial estates , townships and cities . Its head office building, designed by Aedas ,

78-441: A geologist or engineering geologist . Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (for example, the standard penetration test and cone penetration test ). The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes ) may also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth. Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense. Still, they are sometimes used to allow

117-453: A few floating wind turbines . Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems. First proposed by Karl Terzaghi and later discussed in a paper by Ralph B. Peck , the observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review, which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction. The method aims to achieve

156-487: A geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy . Various soil samplers exist to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The standard penetration test , which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used to collect less disturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as

195-520: A greater overall economy without compromising safety by creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable. Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during construction , which in turn can be modified per the findings. The method was described by Peck as "learn-as-you-go". The observational method may be described as follows: The observational method

234-533: A potential development is sometimes called speculative development . Subdivision of land is the principal mechanism by which communities are developed. Technically, subdivision describes the legal and physical steps a developer must take to convert raw land into developed land. Subdivision is a vital part of a community's growth, determining its appearance, the mix of its land uses , and its infrastructure, including roads , drainage systems, water , sewerage , and public utilities . Land development can pose

273-458: A project's economics; attorneys to handle agreements and government approvals ; environmental consultants and soils engineers to analyze a site's physical limitations and environmental impacts ; surveyors and title companies to provide legal descriptions of a property; and lenders to provide financing. The general contractor of the project hires subcontractors to put the architectural plans into action. Purchasing unused land for

312-530: A team of professionals to address the environmental, economic, private, physical and political issues inherent in a complex development project is critical. A developer's success depends on the ability to coordinate and lead the completion of a series of interrelated activities efficiently and at the appropriate time. Development process requires skills of many professionals: architects , landscape architects , civil engineers and site planners to address project design; market consultants to determine demand and

351-430: A two-phase material composed of rock or mineral particles and water. Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed—as is the case for piers , jetties and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may comprise a floating structure that remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point. Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008,

390-475: A type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical engineering that improve engineering performance while reducing costs. This includes geotextiles , geogrids , geomembranes , geocells , and geocomposites . The synthetic nature of the products make them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Their main functions include drainage , filtration , reinforcement, separation, and containment. Geosynthetics are available in

429-674: A wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end-use, although they are frequently used together. Some reinforcement geosynthetics, such as geogrids and more recently, cellular confinement systems, have shown to improve bearing capacity, modulus factors and soil stiffness and strength. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments , piled embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs , canals, dams, landfills , bank protection and coastal engineering. Offshore (or marine ) geotechnical engineering

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468-469: Is a specialty of civil engineering , engineering geology is a specialty of geology . Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and construction materials for buildings. Dykes, dams , and canals dating back to at least 2000 BCE—found in parts of ancient Egypt , ancient Mesopotamia , the Fertile Crescent , and

507-416: Is concerned with foundation design for human-made structures in the sea , away from the coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore engineering). Oil platforms , artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such structures. There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering. Notably, site investigation and ground improvement on

546-405: Is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength . A previously stable slope may be initially affected by various factors, making it unstable. Nonetheless, geotechnical engineers can design and implement engineered slopes to increase stability. Stability analysis is needed to design engineered slopes and estimate the risk of slope failure in natural or designed slopes by determining

585-774: Is located in the BSD Green Office Park in Jakarta and received a high commendation under Indonesia’s office architecture at Asia Pacific Property Awards 2014. Sinar Mas Land is the holding company for a number of subsidiaries. Sinar Mas Land city development consists of two major projects: City ( BSD City and Kota Deltamas ) and Township ( Kota Wisata and Grand Wisata ). Each city encompasses an area of more than 1,000 hectares. Real estate development Developers buy land, finance real estate deals, build or have builders build projects, develop projects in joint ventures, and create, imagine, control, and orchestrate

624-603: Is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today. In the 19th century, Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law , describing the flow of fluids in a porous media . Joseph Boussinesq , a mathematician and physicist, developed theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating stresses at depth in the ground. William Rankine , an engineer and physicist, developed an alternative to Coulomb's earth pressure theory. Albert Atterberg developed

663-400: Is the normal stress on the slip plane and ϕ {\displaystyle \phi \,\!} is the friction angle of the soil. By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr 's 2D stress state , the theory became known as Mohr-Coulomb theory . Although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because c {\displaystyle c}

702-620: The Town and Country Planning context in the United Kingdom, 'development' is defined in the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 s55. A development team can be put together in one of several ways. At one extreme, a large company might include many services, from architecture to engineering . At the other end of the spectrum, a development company might consist of one principal and a few staff who hire or contract with other companies and professionals for each service as needed. Assembling

741-420: The clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification. In 1885, Osborne Reynolds recognized that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense materials and contraction of loose granular materials . Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl von Terzaghi , a mechanical engineer and geologist. Considered by many to be

780-1039: The physical properties of soil and rock underlying and adjacent to a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical investigations involve surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of retrieved soil samples. Sometimes, geophysical methods are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves ), surface-wave methods and downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity , and ground-penetrating radar ). Electrical tomography can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing underground infrastructure in construction projects. Surface exploration can include on-foot surveys, geologic mapping , geophysical methods , and photogrammetry . Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically completed in consultation with

819-463: The "natural slope" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose . Around the same time, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type. The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb , a physicist and engineer, developed improved methods to determine

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858-522: The Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior but expensive. Coring frozen ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from ground conditions, such as fill, sand, moraine , and rock fracture zones. Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is another method of testing physical-scale models of geotechnical problems. The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model tests involving soil because soil's strength and stiffness are susceptible to

897-486: The Yielding of Soils in 1958, established the interrelationships between the volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing behavior with the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics. Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil. In 1960, Alec Skempton carried out an extensive review of

936-436: The available formulations and experimental data in the literature about the effective stress validity in soil, concrete, and rock in order to reject some of these expressions, as well as clarify what expressions were appropriate according to several working hypotheses, such as stress-strain or strength behavior, saturated or non-saturated media, and rock, concrete or soil behavior. Geotechnical engineers investigate and determine

975-591: The conditions under which the topmost mass of soil will slip relative to the base of soil and lead to slope failure. If the interface between the mass and the base of a slope has a complex geometry, slope stability analysis is difficult and numerical solution methods are required. Typically, the interface's exact geometry is unknown, and a simplified interface geometry is assumed. Finite slopes require three-dimensional models to be analyzed, so most slopes are analyzed assuming that they are infinitely wide and can be represented by two-dimensional models. Geosynthetics are

1014-446: The confining pressure . The centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large (prototype-scale) stresses in small physical models. The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and bedrock at the site. Generally, geotechnical engineers first estimate

1053-494: The discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on experience. Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa , prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface. The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls . Henri Gautier, a French royal engineer, recognized

1092-471: The early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley —provide evidence for early activities linked to irrigation and flood control . As cities expanded, structures were erected and supported by formalized foundations. The ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed, and

1131-561: The earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, c {\displaystyle c} , and friction σ {\displaystyle \sigma \,\!} tan ⁡ ( ϕ ) {\displaystyle \tan(\phi \,\!)} , where σ {\displaystyle \sigma \,\!}

1170-436: The father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi developed the principle of effective stress , and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil is controlled by effective stress. Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay layers due to consolidation . Afterwards, Maurice Biot fully developed

1209-625: The foundations. Geotechnical engineers are also involved in the planning and execution of earthworks , which include ground improvement, slope stabilization, and slope stability analysis. Various geotechnical engineering methods can be used for ground improvement, including reinforcement geosynthetics such as geocells and geogrids, which disperse loads over a larger area, increasing the soil's load-bearing capacity. Through these methods, geotechnical engineers can reduce direct and long-term costs. Geotechnical engineers can analyze and improve slope stability using engineering methods. Slope stability

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1248-404: The magnitude and location of loads to be supported before developing an investigation plan to explore the subsurface and determine the necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing. Following this, they may begin the design of an engineering foundation. The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation design are bearing capacity , settlement, and ground movement beneath

1287-436: The most risk, but can also be the most profitable technique as it is dependent on the public sector for approvals and infrastructure and because it involves a long investment period with no positive cash flow . After subdivision is complete, the developer usually markets the land to a home builder or other end user, for such uses as a warehouse or shopping center . In any case, use of spatial intelligence tools mitigate

1326-488: The process of development from beginning to end. Developers usually take the greatest risk in the creation or renovation of real estate and receive the greatest rewards. Typically, developers purchase a tract of land, determine the marketing of the property, develop the building program and design, obtain the necessary public approval and financing, build the structures, and rent out, manage, and ultimately sell it. Sometimes property developers will only undertake part of

1365-739: The process. For example, some developers source a property and get the plans and permits approved before selling the property with the plans and permits to a builder at a premium price. Alternatively, a developer who is also a builder may purchase a property with the plans and permits in place so that they do not have the risk of failing to obtain planning approval and can start construction on the development immediately. The financial risks of real estate development and real estate investing differ due to leverage effects. Developers work with many different counterparts along each step of this process, including architects, city planners, engineers, surveyors, inspectors, contractors, lawyers, leasing agents, etc. In

1404-429: The properties of subsurface conditions and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures , tunnels , and structure foundations , and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards . Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on

1443-896: The risk of these developers by modeling the population trends and demographic make-up of the sort of customers a home builder or retailer would like to have surrounding their new development. Geotechnical engineering Geotechnical engineering , also known as geotechnics , is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials . It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge of geology , hydrology , geophysics , and other related sciences. Geotechnical engineering has applications in military engineering , mining engineering , petroleum engineering , coastal engineering , and offshore construction . The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have overlapping knowledge areas. However, while geotechnical engineering

1482-541: The seabed are more expensive; the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards ; and the environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures are exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind , waves and currents . These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan and need to be taken into account in offshore design. In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered

1521-421: The three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously developed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of Poroelasticity . In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that the interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of the soil. Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth, with the publication of On

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