126-586: Admiral Sir John Hawkins (also spelled Hawkyns ) (1532 – 12 November 1595) was an English naval commander, naval administrator, privateer and slave trader. Hawkins pioneered, and was an early promoter of, English involvement in the Atlantic slave trade . He is considered to be the first English merchant to profit from the Triangle Trade , selling enslaved people from Africa to the Spanish colonies in
252-445: A Puritan friend with rumours about his "ungodly life", Dudley defended himself in 1576: I stand on the top of the hill, where ... the smallest slip seemeth a fall ... I may fall many ways and have more witnesses thereof than many others who perhaps be no saints neither ... for my faults ... they lie before Him who I have no doubt but will cancel them as I have been and shall be most heartily sorry for them. With Douglas Sheffield ,
378-507: A tournament held to celebrate Anglo-Spanish friendship. Yet, the Dudley brothers were only welcome at court as long as King Philip was there, otherwise they were even suspected of associating with people who conspired against Mary's regime. In January 1557, Robert and Amy Dudley were allowed to repossess some of their former lands, and in March of the same year Dudley was at Calais where he
504-675: A Protestant English husband, such as the Duke of Norfolk . In 1577 Leicester had a personal meeting with Mary and listened to her complaints about her captivity. By the early 1580s Mary had come to fear Leicester's influence with James VI , her son, in whose privy chamber the English Earl had placed a spy. She spread stories about his supposed lust for the English throne, and when the Catholic anti-Leicester libel, Leicester's Commonwealth ,
630-511: A broad band with three narrower bands. In 2001 the number of stars on the shoulder board was increased to four, reflecting the equivalence to the OF-9 four-star ranks of other countries. Prior to 1864 the Royal Navy was divided into coloured squadrons which determined his career path. The command flags flown by an Admiral changed a number of times during this period, there was no Admiral of
756-536: A final, allegorical bid for the Queen's hand; it was as much a request to give him leave to marry someone else. There was a Lady of the Lake, a swimming papier-mâché dolphin with a little orchestra in its belly, fireworks, masques, hunts, and popular entertainments like bear baiting . The whole scenery of landscape, artificial lake, castle, and Renaissance garden was ingeniously used for the entertainment. Confronted by
882-671: A first cousin once removed of Queen Elizabeth on her mother's side. Leicester had flirted with her in the summer of 1565, causing an outbreak of jealousy in the Queen. After Lord Essex went to Ireland in 1573, they possibly became lovers. There was much talk, and on Essex's homecoming in December 1575, "great enmity between the Earl of Leicester and the Earl of Essex" was expected. In July 1576 Essex returned to Ireland, where he died of dysentery in September. Rumours of poison, administered by
1008-405: A handful of other privy councillors decided to proceed with Mary's execution in the interest of the state . Leicester went to Bath and Bristol for his health; unlike the other privy councillors involved, he escaped Elizabeth's severe wrath on hearing the news of Mary's death. Robert Dudley was a pioneer of new industries; interested in many things from tapestries to mining, he was engaged in
1134-649: A kingdom, to lay in his naked arms a most fair ... lady ... nothing regardeth the good that shall ensue unto him thereby ... but so uncertainly dealeth that I know not where to find him. Dudley indeed had made it clear to the Scots at the beginning that he was not a candidate for Mary's hand and forthwith had behaved with passive resistance. He also worked in the interest of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , Mary's eventual choice of husband. Elizabeth herself wavered as to declaring Mary her heir, until in March 1565 she decided she could not bring herself to it. Still, she finally told
1260-481: A long-standing problem ... without parallel in Elizabeth's reign". All tenants that had so far only been copyholders were raised to the status of freeholders in exchange for newly agreed rents. Likewise, all tenants' rights of common were secured as were the boundaries of the commons , thus striking a balance between property rights and protection against enclosure . Though an absentee landlord, Leicester, who
1386-520: A magnificent visit by the Earl in 1571 to celebrate the feast of the Order of Saint Michael , with which Leicester had been invested by the French king in 1566. He shortly afterwards founded Lord Leycester's Hospital , a charity for aged and injured soldiers still functioning today. Kenilworth Castle was the centre of Leicester's ambitions to "plant" himself in the region, and he substantially transformed
SECTION 10
#17327759804251512-404: A month the Spanish ambassador, Count de Feria , counted Robert Dudley among three persons who ran the country. Visiting foreigners of princely rank were bidding for his goodwill. He acted as an official host on state occasions and was himself a frequent guest at ambassadorial dinners. By the autumn of 1559 several foreign princes were vying for the Queen's hand; their impatient envoys came under
1638-520: A political alliance between the Earl of Leicester and Sir Francis Walsingham, soon to be Secretary of State . Together they worked for a militant Protestant foreign policy. There also existed a family relationship between them after Walsingham's daughter had married Philip Sidney , Leicester's favourite nephew. Leicester, after some initial jealousy, also became a good friend of Sir Christopher Hatton , himself one of Elizabeth's favourites. Robert Dudley's relationship with William Cecil, Lord Burghley,
1764-567: A relative of Lovell, was on the voyage. Lovell sailed to the West African coast in 1566 and through piracy captured five ships, three of which were slave ships . He took the cargo of enslaved people and other goods to the Spanish West Indies to be sold. The sale of the cargo did not go well and Lovell deposited 92 enslaved people ashore without any payment. Drake later recalled the trip with embarrassment and Hawkins ascribed
1890-498: A royal pardon. He worked with his older brother William Hawkins in the shipping industry and in privateering. He is thought to have done some service for the ambassadors from Spain, who negotiated the marriage of Mary I of England and Philip II of Spain . Hawkins was known to have frequently referred to King Philip II as "my old master". The Spanish Castilianised his name where he was known as Juan Aquines. Circa 1559, he dissolved his partnership with this brother, taking £10,000 from
2016-427: A satirical remark in the libel Leicester's Commonwealth of 1584 and has ever since been repeated for a fact. To account for such oddities and evidence that she was ill, it was suggested in 1956 by Ian Aird , a professor of surgery, that Amy Dudley might have suffered from breast cancer, which through metastatic cancerous deposits in the spine, could have caused her neck to break under only limited strain, such as
2142-451: A short fall or even just coming down the stairs. This explanation has been widely accepted. Suicide has also often been considered an option, motives being Amy Dudley's depression or mortal illness. Elizabeth remained close to Dudley and he, with her blessing and on her prompting, pursued his suit for her hand in an atmosphere of diplomatic intrigue. His wife's and his father's shadows haunted his prospects. His efforts leading nowhere, in
2268-494: A young widow of the Howard family, he had a serious relationship from about 1569. He explained to her that he could not marry, not even in order to beget a Dudley heir, without his "utter overthrow": You must think it is some marvellous cause ... that forceth me thus to be cause almost of the ruin of mine own house ... my brother you see long married and not like to have children, it resteth so now in myself; and yet such occasions
2394-517: Is a senior rank of the Royal Navy , which equates to the NATO rank code OF-9 , outranked only by the rank of admiral of the fleet . Royal Navy officers holding the ranks of rear admiral , vice admiral and admiral of the fleet are sometimes considered generically to be admirals. The rank of admiral is currently the highest rank to which a serving officer in the Royal Navy can be promoted, admiral of
2520-420: Is compatible with an accidental fall as well as suicide or other violence. In the absence of the forensic findings of 1560, it was often assumed that a simple accident could not be the explanation —on the basis of near-contemporary tales that Amy Dudley was found at the bottom of a short flight of stairs with a broken neck, her headdress still standing undisturbed "upon her head", a detail that first appeared as
2646-485: Is dead and as he sayeth by a fall from a pair of stairs. Little other understanding can I have of him. The greatness and the suddenness of the misfortune doth so perplex me, until I do hear from you how the matter standeth, or how this evil should light upon me, considering what the malicious world will bruit, as I can take no rest. Retiring to his house at Kew , away from court as from the putative crime scene , he pressed for an impartial inquiry which had already begun in
SECTION 20
#17327759804252772-452: Is even said that her majesty visits him in his chamber day and night. People talk of this so freely that they go so far as to say that his wife has a malady in one of her breasts and the Queen is only waiting for her to die to marry Lord Robert ... Matters have reached such a pass ... that ... it would ... be well to approach Lord Robert on your Majesty's behalf ... Your Majesty would do well to attract and confirm him in his friendship. Within
2898-436: Is there ... as if I should marry I am sure never to have [the Queen's] favour". Although in this letter Leicester said he still loved her as he did at the beginning, he offered her his help to find another husband for reasons of respectability if she so wished. The affair continued and in 1574 Douglas gave birth to a son, also called Robert Dudley . Lettice Knollys was the wife of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex , and
3024-650: The Battle of St. Quentin under Mary's husband and co-ruler, Philip , which led to his full rehabilitation, but the death of his younger brother Henry. On Elizabeth I's accession in November 1558, Dudley was appointed Master of the Horse . In October 1562, he became a privy councillor and, in 1587, was appointed Lord Steward of the Royal Household . In 1564, Dudley became Earl of Leicester and, from 1563, one of
3150-702: The Canary Islands in the years leading up to 1561, and there he had learnt about the Atlantic slave trade – taking people from Guinea off the African coast and selling them in the Spanish Caribbean colonies. For his first slave voyage he formed a syndicate with Sir William Winter , Sir Lionel Duckett , Sir Thomas Lodge , his father-in-law Benjamin Gonson, and others to share the risk and cost of
3276-539: The English Armada . One of its goals was to try to intercept the Spanish treasure ships departing from Mexico. One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead, the voyage failed and the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and, by the end of 1589, Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort
3402-663: The Hundred Years War heroes, John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , and Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick . Robert Dudley was especially fascinated by the Beauchamp descent and, with his brother, adopted the ancient heraldic device of the earls of Warwick , the Bear and Ragged Staff . Due to such genealogical aspects the West Midlands held a special significance for him. The town of Warwick felt this during
3528-471: The Merchant Adventurers . English relations with Morocco were also handled by Leicester. This he did in the manner of his private business affairs, underpinned by a patriotic and missionary zeal (commercially, these relations were loss-making). He took much interest in the careers of John Hawkins and Francis Drake from early on, and was a principal backer of Drake's circumnavigation of
3654-705: The Puritan movement , he supported non-conforming preachers but tried to mediate between them and the bishops of the Church of England . A champion also of the international Protestant cause, he led the English campaign in support of the Dutch Revolt (1585–1587). His acceptance of the post of governor-general of the United Provinces infuriated Queen Elizabeth. The expedition was a military and political failure, and it ruined Leicester financially. Leicester
3780-582: The Spanish Armada , he was part of the war council and third in command overall. Hawkins had an extensive influence on the outcome of the engagement not only through his command, but because his improved ship designs, while acting as Treasurer of the Navy, had given the fleet more firepower and speed. After that victory, Hawkins urged the seizure of Philip II 's colonial treasure, in order to stop Spain re-arming. In 1589, Hawkins sailed with Francis Drake in
3906-663: The Thames to Scotland. This was part of an effort by Edward I to establish a permanent official staff, even if a permanent naval force was not yet considered necessary. Leybourne's immediate purview was subsequently divided into the roles of Admiral of the West and Admiral of the South while Botetourt's became the Admiral of the North ; the first and last merged as the Admiral of
John Hawkins (naval commander) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-536: The West Midlands and North Wales. At the time Robert Dudley entered his new Welsh possessions there had existed a tenurial chaos for more than half a century. Some leading local families benefited from this to the detriment of the Crown's revenue . To remedy this situation, and to increase his own income, Dudley affected compositions with the tenants in what Simon Adams has called an "ambitious resolution of
4158-457: The coroner's jury 's verdict of accident. For 18 years he did not remarry for Queen Elizabeth's sake and when he finally did, his new wife, Lettice Knollys , was permanently banished from court. This and the death of his only legitimate son and heir were heavy blows. Shortly after the child's death in 1584, a virulent libel known as Leicester's Commonwealth was circulated in England. It laid
4284-483: The favourite abounded, and Dudley took to wearing a light coat of mail under his clothes. Among all classes, in England and abroad, gossip got underway that the Queen had children by Dudley—such rumours never quite ended for the rest of her life. Already in April 1559 court observers noted that Elizabeth never let Dudley from her side; but her favour did not extend to his wife. Amy Dudley lived in different parts of
4410-488: The 16th century slavery was often accepted without a judgment of moral values. The Victorian era saw Hawkins described as the unscrupulous father of the English slave trade. In June 2006, Andrew Hawkins, a descendant, publicly apologised for John Hawkins's actions in the slave trade. In 2023, Plymouth City Council announced that due to Hawkins's links with the slave trade, it planned to rename Sir John Hawkins Square to Justice Square. Admiral (Royal Navy) Admiral
4536-505: The 18th century, the original nine ranks began to be filled by more than one man per rank, although the rank of admiral of the red was always filled by only one man and was known as Admiral of the Fleet . After the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 the rank of admiral of the red was introduced. The number of officers holding each rank steadily increased throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1769 there were 29 admirals of various grades; by
4662-541: The American treasure ships home. Katherine Hawkins, his wife, died in 1591; he then married Margaret Vaughan (d. 1619), daughter of Charles Vaughan , a Lady of the Bedchamber of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1593, Richard Hawkins , his son, was defeated and captured by the Spanish at a naval battle called the action of San Mateo Bay . With his cousin, Sir Francis Drake , John Hawkins raised a fleet of 27 ships to attack
4788-471: The Americas and buying foreign goods to be sold in England after the return journey. Hawkins persuaded Queen Elizabeth I to back his second slave voyage and secured investors from her court, these included Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln , with William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley involved as a supervisor. The queen allowed Hawkins to charter one of her ships for
4914-485: The Duke of Northumberland attempted to transfer the English crown to Lady Jane Grey , who was married to his second youngest son, Lord Guildford Dudley . Robert Dudley led a force of 300 into Norfolk where Edward's half-sister Mary was assembling her followers. After some ten days in the county and securing several towns for Jane, he took King's Lynn and proclaimed her in the marketplace. The next day, 19 July, Jane's reign
5040-712: The Earl of Leicester's means, were soon abroad. The Lord Deputy of Ireland , Sir Henry Sidney , conducted an official investigation which did not find any indications of foul play but "a disease appropriate to this country ... whereof ... died many". The rumours continued. The prospect of marriage to the Countess of Essex on the horizon, Leicester finally drew a line under his relationship with Douglas Sheffield. Contrary to what she later claimed, they came to an amicable agreement over their son's custody. Young Robert grew up in Dudley's and his friends' houses, but had "leave to see" his mother until she left England in 1583. Leicester
5166-437: The English court, so that she would not have to forgo her favourite's company. Mary at first enquired if Elizabeth was serious, wanting above all to know her chances of inheriting the English crown. Elizabeth repeatedly declared that she was prepared to acknowledge Mary as her heir only on condition that she marry Robert Dudley. Mary's Protestant advisors warmed to the prospect of her marriage to Dudley, and in September 1564 he
John Hawkins (naval commander) - Misplaced Pages Continue
5292-650: The English long depended upon levies of their subjects' vessels for any major naval expeditions. Nonetheless, historians have sometimes extended the concept of an English navy and its supposed admirals and lord high admirals back as far as Alfred the Great , counting several kings as themselves admirals, along with various dukes and earls who commanded fleets at prominent engagements such as Hubert de Burgh off Sandwich in 1217 . Other lists begin their count at King Henry III 's appointment of Sir Richard de Lucy on 28 August 1223 or 29 August 1224. A similar commission
5418-415: The Fleet rather than Algernon Frederick Rous de Horsey , who as senior active admiral nearing the age limit would customarily have received the promotion; John Baird became an Admiral; James Erskine a vice-admiral; and Harry Rawson a rear-admiral. Ironically, all these younger men would die at least a decade before de Horsey. In the time before squadron distinctions were removed or age limits instituted,
5544-488: The French colony of Fort Caroline in Florida. Finding them in need, he traded his smallest ship and a quantity of provisions to them for cannon, powder, and shot, that they no longer needed, as they were preparing to return to France. The provisions gained from Hawkins enabled the French to survive and prepare to move back home as soon as possible. The voyage returned a profit reported at 60%. Hawkins brought back to England
5670-430: The Navy upset many who had vested interests. In 1582, his rival, Sir William Wynter , accused him of administrative malfeasance, instigating a Royal Commission on fraud against him. The commission, under William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley , Francis Walsingham , and Drake, concluded that there was no corruption, and that the Queen's Navy was in first-rate condition. Hawkins served as a Vice-Admiral during victory against
5796-565: The North and West in 1364; and from 1408–1414 they were all reunited as the High Admiral of England, Ireland, and Aquitaine , the forerunner to the present Lord High Admiral . (During this process, the short-lived post of Admiral of the Narrow Seas was used in 1412 and 1413. It was subsequently revived from 1523 to 1688.) The first royal commission as Admiral to a naval officer was granted in 1303 to Gervase Alard . By 1344, it
5922-482: The Queen deeply. She never accepted it, humiliating Leicester in public: "my open and great disgraces delivered from her Majesty's mouth". Then again, she would be as fond of him as ever. In 1583 she informed ambassadors that Lettice Dudley was "a she-wolf" and her husband a "traitor" and "a cuckold". Lady Leicester's social life was much curtailed. Even her movements could pose a political problem, as Francis Walsingham explained: "I see not her Majesty disposed to use
6048-532: The Queen of his marriage; nine months later Leicester's enemies at court acquainted her with the situation, causing a furious outburst. She already had been aware of his marriage plans a year earlier, though. Leicester's hope of an heir was fulfilled in 1581 when another Robert Dudley, styled Lord Denbigh, was born. The child died aged three in 1584, leaving his parents disconsolate. Leicester found comfort in God since, as he wrote, "princes ... seldom do pity according to
6174-412: The Queen's stead. He largely assumed charge of court ceremonial and organised hundreds of small and large festivities. From 1587 he was Lord Steward , being responsible for the royal household 's supply with food and other commodities. He displayed a strong sense for economising and reform in this function, which he had de facto occupied long before his official appointment. The sanitary situation in
6300-697: The Red rank until that post was introduced in 1805 prior to this the highest rank an admiral could attain to was Admiral of the White who then flew the Cross of St George . The next promotion step up from that was to Admiral of the Fleet. [REDACTED] Media related to Admirals of the United Kingdom at Wikimedia Commons Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester , KG , PC (24 June 1532 – 4 September 1588)
6426-441: The Spanish ambassador that the proposal fell through because the Earl of Leicester refused to cooperate. By 1564, Dudley had realised that his chances of becoming Elizabeth's consort were small. At the same time he could not "consider ... without great repugnance", as he said, that she chose another husband. Confronted with other marriage projects, Elizabeth continued to say that she still would very much like to marry him. Dudley
SECTION 50
#17327759804256552-474: The Spanish in the West Indies. They set sail from Plymouth on 29 August 1595. Bad weather and skirmishes with the Spanish fleet hampered their efforts to get his son back. On 12 November 1595, it was reported that Hawkins had died at sea close to Puerto Rico . Hawkins’ legacy divides opinion. The historian Geoffrey Elton appraised Hawkins as "one of the founding-fathers of England's naval tradition ... he
6678-559: The Spanish. In response, along with his cousin Sir Francis Drake , he raised a fleet of ships to attack the Spanish in the West Indies. However, he died at sea during the expedition. John Hawkins was born to a prominent family of ship builders and captains in the naval port of Plymouth in Devon. His exact date of birth is unknown, but was likely between November 1532 and March 1533. He was the second son of William Hawkins , who
6804-537: The Temple. As Chancellor of Oxford University Dudley was highly committed. He enforced the Thirty-nine Articles and the oath of royal supremacy at Oxford, and obtained from the Queen an incorporation by Act of Parliament for the university. Leicester was also instrumental in founding the official Oxford University Press , and installed the pioneer of international law, Alberico Gentili , and
6930-478: The West Indies in the late 16th century. In 1588, Hawkins served as a Vice-Admiral and fought in the victory over the Spanish Armada , for which he was knighted for gallantry. As Treasurer of the Navy , Hawkins became the chief architect of the Elizabethan Navy. He redesigned the navy so the ships were faster, more manoeuvrable and had more firepower. Hawkins' son, Richard Hawkins , was captured by
7056-429: The business and moving to London. He married Katherine Gonson, daughter of Benjamin Gonson , a prominent Royal Navy administrator. He had one son, Richard Hawkins (born 1562). It is not known whether Katherine was Richard's mother or step-mother, because the marriage happened after his birth. Richard spoke fondly of Katherine in later life, consequently it is more likely she was his birth mother. Hawkins made voyages to
7182-579: The close of the Napoleonic Wars in 1816 there were 190 admirals in service. Thereafter the number of admirals was reduced and in 1853 there were 79 admirals. Although admirals were promoted according to strict seniority, appointments to command were made at the discretion of the Board of Admiralty . As there were invariably more admirals in service than there were postings, many admirals remained unemployed, especially in peacetime. The organisation of
7308-469: The concept of yellow admirals (formally known as granting an officer the position of "Rear-Admiral without distinction of squadron"), being captains promoted to flag rank on the understanding that they would immediately retire on half-pay . This was the navy's first attempt at superannuating older officers. During the Interregnum , the rank of admiral was replaced by that of general at sea . In
7434-723: The confidence of the King's favourite, Patrick, Master of Gray , in 1584–1585. His negotiations with the Master were the basis for the Treaty of Berwick , a defensive alliance between the two British states against European powers. In 1586 Walsingham uncovered the Babington Plot . Following the Ridolfi Plot (1571) and the Throckmorton Plot (1583), this was another scheme to assassinate Elizabeth in which Mary Stuart
7560-470: The country since her ancestral manor house was uninhabitable. Her husband visited her for four days at Easter 1559 and she spent a month around London in the early summer of the same year. They never saw each other again; Dudley was with the Queen at Windsor Castle and possibly planning a visit to her, when his wife was found dead at her residence Cumnor Place near Oxford on 8 September 1560: There came to me Bowes, by whom I do understand that my wife
7686-432: The craft of the courtier at the courts of Henry VIII, and especially Edward VI , among whose companions he served. In 1549, Robert Dudley participated in crushing Kett's Rebellion and probably first met Amy Robsart , whom he was to wed on 4 June 1550 in the presence of the young King Edward. She was of the same age as the bridegroom and the daughter and heiress of Sir John Robsart, a gentleman-farmer of Norfolk . It
SECTION 60
#17327759804257812-499: The death of James Hawkins-Whitshed resulted in ten men moving up to higher ranks. In 1996, the rank of admiral of the fleet was put in abeyance in peacetime, except for members of the Royal family but was resurrected on an honorary basis in 2014 for the appointment of Lord Boyce . Admirals of the fleet continue to hold their rank on the active list for life. The current ranks are rear admiral, vice admiral, admiral and admiral of
7938-423: The earldoms of Leicester and Warwick. His mother supported him, but maintained that she had been strongly against raising the issue and was possibly pressured by her son. Leicester himself had throughout considered the boy as illegitimate. On 21 September 1578, Leicester secretly married Lady Essex at his country house at Wanstead , with only a handful of relatives and friends present. He did not dare to tell
8064-641: The exiled claimant to the Portuguese throne after 1580. Apart from their legal function, the Inns of Court were the Tudor equivalents of gentlemen's clubs . In 1561, grateful for favours he had done them, the Inner Temple admitted Dudley as their most privileged member, their "Lord and Governor". He was allowed to build his own apartments on the premises and organised grand festivities and performances in
8190-456: The exotic theologian, Antonio del Corro , at Oxford. Over del Corro's controversial case he even sacked the university's Vice-Chancellor. Around 100 books were dedicated to Robert Dudley during Elizabeth's reign. In 1564/1567 Arthur Golding dedicated his popular translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses to the Earl. Dudley took a special interest in translations, which were seen as a means to popularise learning among "all who could read." He
8316-431: The failure to the "simpleness" of his deputies. The queen had forbidden Hawkins from going to sea but she relented, and he arranged a third slave voyage, departing Plymouth on 2 October 1567. Arriving at the African coast, he could not secure enslaved people with ease because the local Portuguese agents were unwilling to trade with him. He attempted to capture and kidnap the inhabitants of a village near Cape Verde , but he
8442-478: The family fortunes, as they had renounced any rights to their father's former possessions or titles when their own attainders had been lifted in January 1558. Robert Dudley financed the lifestyle expected of a royal favourite by large loans from City of London merchants until in April 1560 Elizabeth granted him his first export licence, worth £ 6,000 p.a. He also received some of his father's lands, but since he
8568-623: The festival at his seat Kenilworth Castle in 1575 on the occasion of a three-week visit by the Queen. Leicester was a principal patron of the arts, literature, and the Elizabethan theatre . Leicester's private life interfered with his court career and vice versa . When his first wife, Amy Robsart , fell down a flight of stairs and died in 1560, he was free to marry the queen. However, the resulting scandal very much reduced his chances in this respect. Popular rumours that he had arranged for his wife's death continued throughout his life, despite
8694-525: The first joint stock companies in English history. The Earl also concerned himself with relieving unemployment among the poor. On a personal level, he gave to poor people, petitioners, and prisons on a daily basis. Due to his interests in trade and exploration, as well as his debts, his contacts with the London city fathers were intense. He was an enthusiastic investor in the Muscovy Company and
8820-606: The first royal patent issued to actors to allow them to tour the country unmolested by local authorities. The Earl also kept a separate company of musicians who in 1586 played before the King of Denmark ; with them travelled William Kempe , "the Lord Leicester's jesting player". Leicester possessed one of the largest collections of paintings in Elizabethan England, being the first great private collector. He
8946-627: The fleet being in abeyance except for honorary promotions of retired officers and members of the royal family. The equivalent rank in the British Army and Royal Marines is general ; and in the Royal Air Force , it is air chief marshal . The title admiral was not used in Europe until the mid-13th century and did not reach England before the end of that century. Similarly, although some royal vessels are attested under King John ,
9072-519: The fleet his deputy, the vice admiral , would be in the leading portion or van . Below him was another admiral at the rear of the fleet, called rear admiral . Promotion up the ladder was in accordance with seniority in the rank of post-captain , and rank was held for life, so the only way to be promoted was for the person above on the list to die or resign. In 1747 the Admiralty restored an element of merit selection to this process by introducing
9198-596: The fleet into coloured squadrons was finally abandoned in 1864. The Red Ensign was allocated to the Merchant Navy , the White Ensign became the flag of the Royal Navy, and the Blue Ensign was allocated to the naval reserve and naval auxiliary vessels. The 18th- and 19th-century Royal Navy also maintained a positional rank known as port admiral . A port admiral was typically a veteran captain who served as
9324-417: The fleet, also known as flag ranks because admirals, known as flag officers , are entitled to fly a personal flag . An admiral of the fleet flies a Union Flag at the masthead, while an admiral flies a St George's cross (red cross on white). Vice admirals and rear admirals fly a St George's cross with one or two red discs in the hoist, respectively. The rank of admiral itself is shown in its sleeve lace by
9450-677: The foremost interventionist . Burghley was more cautious of military engagement while in a dilemma over his Protestant predilections. Until about 1571/1572, Dudley supported Mary Stuart's succession rights to the English throne. He was also, from the early 1560s, on the best terms with the Protestant lords in Scotland, thereby supporting the English or, as he saw it, the Protestant interest. After Mary Stuart's flight into England (1568) Leicester was, unlike Cecil, in favour of restoring her as Scottish queen under English control, preferably with
9576-632: The form of an inquest . The jury found that it was an accident: Lady Dudley, staying alone "in a certain chamber", had fallen down the adjoining stairs, sustaining two head injuries and breaking her neck. It was widely suspected that Dudley had arranged his wife's death to be able to marry the Queen. The scandal played into the hands of nobles and politicians who desperately tried to prevent Elizabeth from marrying him. Most historians have considered murder to be unlikely. The coroner's report came to light in The National Archives in 2008 and
9702-571: The foundation of a literary and historiographical tradition that often depicted Leicester as the Machiavellian "master courtier" and as a deplorable figure around Elizabeth I. More recent research has led to a reassessment of his place in Elizabethan government and society . Robert Dudley was the fifth son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland , and his wife Jane , daughter of Sir Edward Guildford . His paternal grandfather, Edmund Dudley , had been an adviser to King Henry VII and
9828-579: The greatest landowners in North Wales and the English West Midlands by royal grants. The Earl of Leicester was one of Elizabeth's leading statesmen, involved in domestic as well as foreign politics alongside William Cecil and Sir Francis Walsingham . Although he refused to be married to Mary, Queen of Scots , Leicester was for a long time relatively sympathetic to her until, from the mid-1580s, he urged her execution. As patron of
9954-485: The impression that Elizabeth was fooling them, "keeping Lord Robert's enemies and the country engaged with words until this wicked deed of killing his wife is consummated." "Lord Robert", the new Spanish ambassador de Quadra was convinced, was the man "in whom it is easy to recognise the king that is to be ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert." Many of the nobility would not brook Dudley's new prominence, as they could not "put up with his being King." Plans to kill
10080-561: The local authorities did not enforce government trade embargoes. The enslaved people were traded for pearls, hides and sugar. The trade was so prosperous that, on his return to England, the College of Arms granted Hawkins a coat of arms which displays an enslaved male. Hawkins is widely considered to be the first English merchant to profit from the Triangle Trade ; trading English goods for enslaved people in Africa, then selling those people in
10206-443: The most powerful and important political figures, working intimately with the Queen. Robert Dudley was a conscientious privy councillor, and one of the most frequently attending. In 1560 the diplomat Nicholas Throckmorton advocated vehemently against Dudley marrying the Queen, but Dudley won him over in 1562. Throckmorton henceforth became his political advisor and intimate. After Throckmorton's death in 1571, there quickly evolved
10332-411: The official ranks became admiral of the white and so forth, however each admiral's command flags were different and changed over time. The Royal Navy has had vice and rear admirals regularly appointed to the post since at least the 16th century. When in command of the fleet, the admiral would be in either the lead or the middle portion of the fleet. When the admiral commanded from the middle portion of
10458-449: The palaces was a perennial problem, and a talk with Leicester about these issues inspired John Harington to construct a water closet . Leicester was a lifelong sportsman, hunting and jousting in the tiltyard , and an indefatigable tennis-player . He was also the Queen's regular dancing partner. After the Duke of Northumberland's attainder the entire Dudley inheritance had disappeared. His sons had to start from scratch in rebuilding
10584-715: The preacher was to take the centre instead of the altar, thus stressing the importance of preaching in the Protestant Church. In vain Leicester tried to have the nearby episcopal see of St Asaph transferred to Denbigh. He also encouraged and supported the translation of the Bible and the Common Prayer Book into Welsh . Ambrose and Robert Dudley were very close, in matters of business and personally. Through their paternal grandmother they descended from
10710-466: The rules of charity." The Earl turned out to be a devoted husband: In 1583, the French ambassador, Michel de Castelnau , wrote of "the Earl of Leicester and his lady to whom he is much attached", and "who has much influence over him". Leicester was a concerned parent to his four stepchildren, and in every respect worked for the advancement of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex , whom he regarded as his political heir. The marriage of her favourite hurt
10836-483: The same time raising naval pay. He reformed the design of galleons so that they were longer, able to carry a larger number of guns, more manoeuvrable and faster moving. As a result of Hawkins' reforms, according to Garrett Mattingly , the Navy was a "fighting-fleet faster and more weatherly than any that had ever been seen on the ocean before". He also increased the size of the Navy, so that by 1587 it consisted of 23 ships and 18 pinnaces . Hawkins's financial reforms of
10962-488: The services of my Lord of Leicester. There is great offence taken at the conveying down of his lady." The Earl stood by his wife, asking his colleagues to intercede for her; there was no hope: "She [the Queen] doth take every occasion by my marriage to withdraw any good from me", Leicester wrote even after seven years of marriage. For the first 30 years of Elizabeth's reign, until Leicester's death, he and Lord Burghley were
11088-471: The shore commander of a British naval port and was in charge of supplying, refitting, and maintaining the ships docked at harbour. The problem of promoting strictly by seniority was well illustrated by the case of Provo Wallis who served (including time being carried on the books while still a child) for 96 years. When he died in 1892 four admirals under him could immediately be promoted. By request of Queen Victoria , John Edmund Commerell became Admiral of
11214-462: The site's appearance through comprehensive alterations. He added a 15th-century style gatehouse to the castle's medieval structures, as well as a formal garden and a residential wing which featured the "brittle, thin walls and grids of windows" that were to become the hallmark of Elizabethan architecture in later decades. His works completed, the Earl staged a spectacular 19-day-festival in July 1575 as
11340-516: The spring of 1561 Dudley offered to leave England to seek military adventures abroad; Elizabeth would have none of that and everything remained as it was. In October 1562, the Queen fell ill with smallpox and, believing her life to be in danger, she asked the Privy Council to make Robert Dudley Protector of the Realm and to give him a suitable title together with 20,000 pounds a year. There
11466-403: The sweet potato and tobacco, which was initially used as a narcotic ; smoking did not gain in popularity until years later. Hawkins first two slave voyages had angered the Spanish and in response the queen had prohibited Hawkins from going to sea. Instead he arranged his next slave voyage and gave the captaincy to a relative of his called John Lovell . Sir Francis Drake, who is also likely to be
11592-482: The town in a battle, before selling the enslaved people. The Battle of San Juan de Ulúa was fought between English privateers and Spanish forces at San Juan de Ulúa . The English fleet consisting of six armed merchant ships under Hawkins had been trading alongside the Spanish with the cooperation of local Spanish officials. The central Spanish authorities considered this to be illegal smuggling. Hawkins' ships were attacked unexpectedly, Drake fled on Judith and Hawkins
11718-558: The trip, the 700 Ton Jesus of Lübeck and for it to fly her flag, the Royal Standard. He set sail from Plymouth on 18 October 1564 with four vessels, Jesus of Lübeck , and 3 ships of his own. He took over 400 enslaved people from Africa, some he bought from the Portuguese, others he kidnapped directly by raiding the coast, he left Africa on 29 January 1565. On 3 April 1565, Hawkins arrived at Borburata in Venezuela, as trade
11844-562: The voyage. In 1562, he set sail with three ships ( Saloman , Jonas , and Swallow ) travelling down the African coast as far as Sierra Leone , he captured people and enslaved them as he went, taking around 300 people in total. From there he sailed to the Caribbean, he did not have permission from either Spain or Portugal to trade with their colonies so he sold his enslaved people in Isabella, Puerto de Plata and Monte Christi – places where
11970-613: The world. Robert and Ambrose Dudley were also the principal patrons of Martin Frobisher 's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage . Later Leicester acquired his own ship, the Galleon Leicester , which he employed in a luckless expedition under Edward Fenton , but also under Drake. As much as profit, English seapower was on his mind, and accordingly, Leicester became a friend and leading supporter of Dom António ,
12096-444: Was Elizabeth's possessiveness and jealousy. His company was essential for her well-being and for many years he was hardly allowed to leave. Sir Christopher Hatton reported a growing emergency when the Earl was away for a few weeks in 1578: "This court wanteth your presence. Her majesty is unaccompanied and, I assure you, the chambers are almost empty." On ceremonial occasions, Dudley often acted as an unofficial consort, sometimes in
12222-540: Was a love-match, the young couple depending heavily on their fathers' gifts, especially Robert's. John Dudley, who since early 1550 effectively ruled England, was pleased to strengthen his influence in Norfolk by his son's marriage. Lord Robert, as he was styled as a duke 's son, became an important local gentleman and served as a Member of Parliament for Norfolk in 1551–52, March 1553 and 1559. His court career went on in parallel. On 6 July 1553, King Edward VI died and
12348-482: Was a man of commanding presence and intellect, of outstanding abilities as a seaman, administrator, fighter and diplomat." More recently he has been described as a pirate and slave trader. The Royal Navy named a heavy cruiser, HMS Hawkins after him, the ship was in commission between 1919 and 1947. The Hospital of Sir John Hawkins, Knight, in Chatham, Kent , was originally built by him and takes his name. In
12474-417: Was a principal patron of Nicholas Hilliard , as well as interested in all aspects of Italian culture. The Earl's circle of scholars and men of letters included, among others, his nephew Philip Sidney, the astrologer and Hermeticist John Dee, his secretaries Edward Dyer and Jean Hotman , as well as John Florio and Gabriel Harvey . Through Harvey, Edmund Spenser found employment at Leicester House on
12600-408: Was also Lord of Denbigh, regarded the lordship as an integral part of a territorial base for a revived House of Dudley. He set about developing the town of Denbigh with large building projects; the church he planned, though, was never finished, being too ambitious. It would have been not only the largest, but also the first post- Reformation church in England and Wales built according to a plan where
12726-566: Was also a history enthusiast, and in 1559 suggested to the tailor John Stow to become a chronicler (as Stow recalled in 1604). Robert Dudley's interest in the theatre was manifold, from academic plays at Oxford to the protection of the Children of St. Paul's and of the Royal Chapel , and their respective masters, against hostile bishops and landlords. From at least 1559 he had his own company of players , and in 1574 he obtained for them
12852-460: Was among its strongest opponents, even contemplating exile in letters to Burghley. The Anjou courtship, at the end of which Leicester and several dozen noblemen and gentlemen escorted the French prince to Antwerp , also touched the question of English intervention in the Netherlands to help the rebellious provinces. This debate stretched over a decade until 1585, with the Earl of Leicester as
12978-400: Was an English statesman and the favourite of Elizabeth I from her accession until his death. He was a suitor for the queen's hand for many years. Dudley's youth was overshadowed by the downfall of his family in 1553 after his father, the Duke of Northumberland , had failed to prevent the accession of Mary I . Robert Dudley was condemned to death but was released in 1554 and took part in
13104-528: Was an excellent horseman and showed great professional interest in royal transport and accommodation, horse breeding, and the supply of horses for all occasions. Dudley was also entrusted with organising and overseeing a large part of the Queen's coronation festivities. In April 1559 Dudley was elected a Knight of the Garter . Shortly before, Philip II had been informed: Lord Robert has come so much into favour that he does whatever he likes with affairs and it
13230-562: Was chosen to deliver personally to Queen Mary the happy news of Philip's return to England. Ambrose , Robert, and Henry Dudley, the youngest brother, fought for Philip II at the Battle of St. Quentin in August 1557. Henry Dudley was killed in the following siege by a cannonball —according to Robert, before his own eyes. All surviving Dudley children — Ambrose and Robert with their sisters, Mary and Katherine — were restored in blood by Mary I's next parliament in 1558. Robert Dudley
13356-399: Was complicated. Traditionally they have been seen as enemies, and Cecil behind the scenes sabotaged Dudley's endeavours to obtain the Queen's hand. On the other hand, they were on friendly terms and had an efficient working relationship which never broke down. In 1572, the vacant post of Lord High Treasurer was offered to Leicester, who declined and proposed Burghley, stating that the latter
13482-469: Was counted among Elizabeth's special friends by Philip II's envoy to the English court a week before Queen Mary's death. On 18 November 1558, the morning after Elizabeth's accession, Dudley witnessed the surrender of the Great Seal to her at Hatfield . He became Master of the Horse on the same day. This was an important court position entailing close attendance on the sovereign. It suited him, as he
13608-468: Was created Earl of Leicester , a move designed to make him more acceptable to Mary. In January 1565, Thomas Randolph , the English ambassador to Scotland, was told by the Scottish queen that she would accept the proposal. To his amazement, Dudley was not to be moved to comply: But a man of that nature I never found any ... he whom I go about to make as happy as ever was any, to put him in possession of
13734-507: Was defeated. His remaining ship Minions limped home with only around 15 crew. The expedition, however, was financially rewarding as he had managed to transfer most of his trading income onto Minion . In 1578 Hawkins was appointed Treasurer of the Navy , briefly he worked alongside his father-in-law, Benjamin Gonson, before taking full control of the position. He embarked on a comprehensive reform of naval administration and managed to achieve an annual saving of nearly £4,000 per annum, while at
13860-434: Was eight years old; but he still was hopeful—she had also assured him he would be her choice in case she changed her mind (and married an Englishman). As "a male favourite to a virgin queen", Robert Dudley found himself in an unprecedented situation. His apartments at court were next to hers, and—perceived as knowing "the Queen and her nature best of any man"—his influence was matched by few. Another side of such privileges
13986-400: Was engaged in many large-scale business ventures and was one of the main backers of Francis Drake and other explorers and privateers . During the Spanish Armada , Leicester was in overall command of the English land forces. In this function, he invited Queen Elizabeth to visit her troops at Tilbury . This was the last of many events he had organised over the years, the most spectacular being
14112-487: Was executed for treason in 1510 by King Henry VIII . John and Jane Dudley had 13 children in all and were known for their happy family life. Among the siblings' tutors figured John Dee , Thomas Wilson , and Roger Ascham . Roger Ascham believed that Robert Dudley possessed a rare talent for languages and writing, including in Latin , regretting that his pupil had done himself harm by preferring mathematics. Robert learned
14238-615: Was given to Sir Thomas Moulton in 1264, who held the formal title of Keeper of the Sea and the Sea Ports. On 8 March 1287, Sir William de Leybourne was specifically commissioned as the Admiral of the Seas of England ( Latin : Admirallus Maris Angliae ) and, in 1294, captain of all sailors and mariners of the king's dominions. Sir John de Botetourt served under him as warden at sea from
14364-469: Was involved. Following her conviction, Leicester, then in the Netherlands, vehemently urged her execution in his letters; he despaired of Elizabeth's security after so many plots. Leicester having returned to England, in February 1587 Elizabeth signed Mary's death warrant, with the proviso that it be not carried out until she gave her approval. As there was no sign of her doing so, Burghley, Leicester, and
14490-427: Was not the family heir it was a matter of some difficulty to find a suitable estate for his intended peerage. In June 1563 the Queen granted him Kenilworth Manor, Castle, and Park, together with the lordships of Denbigh and Chirk in North Wales . Other grants were to follow. Eventually, Leicester and his elder brother Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick , came to preside over the greatest aristocratic interest in
14616-424: Was only used as a rank at sea for a captain in charge of one or more fleets. In Elizabethan times the fleet grew large enough to be organised into squadrons . The squadron's admiral flew a red ensign , the vice admirals white , and the rear admirals blue on the aft mast of his ship. As the squadrons grew, each was eventually commanded by an admiral (with vice admirals and rear admirals commanding sections) and
14742-614: Was over in London. Soon, the townsmen of King's Lynn seized Robert Dudley and the rest of his small troop and sent him to Framlingham Castle before Mary I. Robert Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London , attainted , and condemned to death, as were his father and four brothers. His father went to the scaffold. In the Tower, Dudley's stay coincided with the imprisonment of his childhood friend, Edward and Mary's half-sister Elizabeth , who
14868-473: Was prohibited, he carried out a fake threat of force with the local governor's collusion. He then travelled to Rio de la Hacha where he used force to ensure he secured the deals he thought fair. He sold 300 enslaved people, clothing, linen and wine. He was paid in gold, silver and other precious items and took further orders to sell enslaved people on a future voyage. After completing his business, Hawkins prepared to return to England. Needing water, he sailed to
14994-632: Was published in 1584 Dudley believed that Mary was involved in its conception. The Bond of Association , which the Privy Council gave out in October 1584, may have originated in Dudley's ideas. Circulated in the country, the document's subscribers swore that, should Elizabeth be assassinated (as William the Silent had been a few months earlier), not only the killer but also the royal person who would benefit from this should be executed. Leicester's relations with James of Scotland grew closer when he gained
15120-482: Was seen as a serious candidate until the mid-1560s and later. To remove this threat to Habsburg and Valois suitors, between 1565 and 1578, four German and French princesses were mooted as brides for Leicester, as a consolation for giving up Elizabeth and his resistance to her foreign marriage projects. These he had sabotaged and would continue to sabotage. In 1566 Dudley formed the opinion that Elizabeth would never marry, recalling that she had always said so since she
15246-471: Was sent there on suspicion of involvement in Wyatt's rebellion . Guildford Dudley was executed in February 1554. The surviving brothers were released in the autumn; working for their release, their mother (who died in January 1555) and their brother-in-law, Henry Sidney , had befriended the incoming Spanish nobles around Philip of Spain , Mary's husband. In December 1554, Ambrose and Robert Dudley took part in
15372-403: Was the first Englishman to sail to Brazil , and Joan Trelawny, daughter and sole heiress of Roger Trelawny of Brighton, Cornwall . Sir Francis Drake , his second cousin, was brought up and lived in the same Protestant household as Hawkins. Hawkins killed a man, a barber from Plymouth called White, before the age of 20. The coroner decided White was the antagonist, and Hawkins's father secured
15498-423: Was the much more suitable candidate. In later years, being at odds, Dudley felt like reminding Cecil of their "thirty years friendship". On the whole, Cecil and Dudley were in concord about policies while disagreeing fundamentally about some issues, such as the Queen's marriage and some areas of foreign policy. Cecil favoured the suit of Francois, Duke of Anjou , in 1578–1581 for Elizabeth's hand, while Leicester
15624-438: Was universal relief when she recovered her health; Dudley was made a privy councillor. He was already deeply involved in foreign politics, including Scotland. In 1563, Elizabeth suggested Dudley as a consort to the widowed Mary, Queen of Scots , the idea being to achieve firm amity between England and Scotland and diminish the influence of foreign powers. Elizabeth's preferred solution was that they should all live together at
15750-429: Was very fond of his son and gave him an excellent education. In his will he left him the bulk of his estate (after his brother Ambrose's death), including Kenilworth Castle. Douglas Sheffield remarried in 1579. After the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, the younger Robert Dudley tried unsuccessfully to prove that his parents had married 30 years earlier in a secret ceremony. In that case, he would have been able to claim
15876-679: Was wounded and had to retreat. Hawkins recruited a local king in Sierra Leone to help him forcibly kidnap people, capturing over 500 people. On 7 February 1568, he set sail across the Atlantic Ocean to sell these people. He sold some of his captives in Margarita Province and others in Borburata. At Rio de la Hacha , the governor refused him permission to trade, so Sir Francis Drake shot at his house and Hawkins took over
#424575