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110-506: The name Syunik is ancient and appears in the earliest Armenian written sources. Sisakan , a later name for the province of Iranian origin, first appears in the 6th-century Syriac chronicle of Pseudo-Zacharias ; it is first mentioned in Armenian sources in the history of Movses Khorenatsi , who explains this name as deriving from Sisak , the name of one of the descendants of the legendary Armenian progenitor Hayk . Strabo mentions

220-468: A 17th-century record: ... he turned Armenia into an uninhabited [desert]. For upon resettlement, he exiled to Persia [residents] of not just a few but a vast number of Gavars, starting from the borders of Nakhivivan and reaching the Geghama coasts, the gavars of Lori, Hamzachiman and Aparan through Yeghegnadzor ... In the period between the 17th and 18th centuries, the south of Syunik – Zangezur – became

330-582: A center of the Armenian people's struggle for national liberation . The meliks of Syunik took part in the 1677 Echmiadzin assembly aimed at organizing the struggle for the liberation of Armenia. In 1699, Melik Israel Ori , the son of the Melik Israel of Syunik, organized a secret assembly in Angheghakot, bringing together 11 meliks. They adopted an appeal to a range of Western European countries with

440-465: A centralized authority and a range of other Syunik regions to the Ani Kingdom. The records of Stephen Taronetsi , a contemporary historian, state: Sembat's brother, Gagik, was enthroned in the city of Ani the very day he [the king] died in the winter of 989 A.D. The Kingdom of Syunik reached its peak in the first half of the 11th century under Kings Vasak and Smbat II , achieving sovereignty with

550-480: A contemporary historian who served as the main Armenian source of that particular period, the early years of the Qara Qoyunlu rule were relatively peaceful. That quiet period, however, was disrupted by the arrival of Iskander Khan who turned Armenia into a "desert", "devastating and looting" the country. Nevertheless, Isander Khan also made attempts of reconciliation with the feudals and the clergy. Thus he adopted

660-522: A derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo- , meaning "one who assembles (skilfully)". In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the Avesta , and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names Alan ( Ossetian : Ир Ir ) and Iron ( Ирон ). When used as a linguistic term Iranian

770-519: A few years later – in 1387 – Syunik was invaded by Tamerlan . Nevertheless, at the close of the 15th century, the province was among the remaining semi-autonomous Armenian princedoms still populated by the local Armenian feudal intelligentsia. In 1403, the Princes Smbat and Burtel were captured and exiled to Samarkand. However, they were liberated soon and re-appointed as the rules of the lands under their control. In that period, Syunik fell under

880-463: A history of Armenia, especially the biographies of Armenian kings and the origins of the Armenian nakharar families. Armenian historian Artashes Matevosyan placed Movses' completion of History to the year 474  CE based on his research on the Chronicle by the sixth-century Armenian historian Atanas Taronatsi. One of his primary reasons for taking up Sahak Bagratuni's request is given in

990-605: A larger part of Syunik belonged to Vasak Siwni, who ruled the province in the status of a protector. Later the same year, Syunik was invaded by the Arab forces; however, Prince Vasak managed to clear the region of Arabs by seeking aid from Babak Khorramdin , the Khurramites' leader. The subsequent war with the Khurramites (826–827) left the gavar s of Balk (south of Syunik) and Gegharkunik (vicinity of Lake Sevan) devastated. After Vasak Siwni's demise, his sons, Philip and Sahak, ruled

1100-636: A marvelous speech at the dinner table. One of the Catholicos' students was able to identify Movses as a person Gyut had been searching for; it was soon understood that Gyut was one of Movses' former classmates and friends. Gyut embraced Movses brought his friend back from seclusion and appointed him to be a bishop in Bagrevan . Serving as a bishop, Movses was approached by Prince Sahak Bagratuni (died in 482 during Charmana battle against Persian army), who, having heard of Movses' reputation, asked him to write

1210-476: A part of a general trend in those years to reexamine critically classical sources, Khorenatsi's History was cast into doubt. The conclusions reached by Alfred von Gutschmid ushered in the " hypercritical phase" of the study of Khorenatsi's work. Many European and Armenian scholars writing at the turn of the twentieth century downplayed its importance as a historical source and dated the History to sometime in

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1320-525: A region of Armenia called Phaunitis , which some scholars read as * Saunitis and connect with Syunik. If Phaunitis is not to be identified with Syunik, then the earliest mention of the name in Greek sources is by Eusebius in the 4th century, who refers to it as Saunia . Later, in the 6th century, the Byzantine historian Procopius refers to the inhabitants of the province as Sounitai . In

1430-474: A request for help in the Armenian national liberation movement. Israel Ori was the first leader to opt for a Russian orientation. In 1701, he headed to Moscow to introduce to King Peter I his consideration on the liberation of Armenia (with the engagement of the armed formations of Syunik and Artsakh, as well as Russian support) and gain promises of a collaboration. In 1711, Israel Ori died without carrying his task to completion (see also Persian Campaign of Peter

1540-513: A third-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam , with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term Aryān , in reference to the Iranian peoples . The Middle-Iranian ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning " Aryan ", i.e. "of the Iranians"), recognized as

1650-480: A very ancient period until the death of the historian. His History served as a textbook to study the history of Armenia until the eighteenth century. Movses's history also gives a rich description of the oral traditions that were popular among the Armenians of the time, such as the romance story of Artashes and Satenik and the birth of the god Vahagn . Movses lived for several more years, and he died sometime in

1760-738: A wedding ... and instead, I found myself grieving at the foot of our teachers' graves ... I did not even arrive in time to see their eyes close nor hear them speak their final words. To further complicate their problems, the atmosphere in Armenia that Movses and the other students had returned to was one that was extremely hostile and they were viewed with contempt by the native population. While later Armenian historians blamed this on an ignorant populace, Sassanid Persian policy and ideology were also at fault, since its rulers "could not tolerate highly educated young scholars fresh from Greek centers of learning". Given this atmosphere and persecution by

1870-520: A young man of about 22 or 23 upon journeying to Alexandria , where Movses writes that he was sent after the Council of Ephesus of 431. Malkhasyants postulates that Khorenatsi received his initial education at the school in Syunik founded by Mesrop Mashtots , the creator of the Armenian alphabet , before being sent to Vagharshapat to study directly under Mashtots and Catholicos Sahak Partev . After

1980-443: Is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language . Some scholars such as John R. Perry prefer the term Iranic as the anthropological name for the linguistic family and ethnic groups of this category, and Iranian for anything about the modern country of Iran . He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from Germanic or differentiating Turkish and Turkic . This use of

2090-463: Is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed c.  520 BCE , and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by

2200-408: Is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes). In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Old Parthian . Additionally,

2310-559: Is known for such endemic plant species as myrtus, gereri (?) and grenade. It also has many mountainous areas. Ptolemy refers to the Sotk region as Sodukena (from the ancient Greek Σοδουκην ) in the following record: "The regions of Armenia at the junction of the rivers Euphrates, Kir ad Aras; here's the essence: Kotarzen – near the Moschian Mountains, above the so-called "heavenly creatures" (?), Tosarensk (?) and Otene – along

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2420-451: Is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in

2530-581: Is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western. The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: Proto-Iranian , which itself evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian . This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in Central Asia , and the Andronovo culture of the Bronze Age is suggested as a candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture around 2000 BCE. The language

2640-449: Is the Book of Letters (sixth century), which contains a short theological treatise by "Movses Khorenatsi". The third possible early reference is in a tenth-eleventh centuries manuscript containing a list of dates attributed to Athanasius (Atanas) of Taron (sixth century): under the year 474, the list has "Moses of Chorene, philosopher and writer". Beginning in the nineteenth century, as

2750-551: Is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit . On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian

2860-559: The Ravenna Cosmography ( c.  700 ), Syunik is referred to in Latin as Siania Caucasorum . In Georgian sources, Syunik is typically called Sivnieti , while Arabic sources knew it as Sisajan , borrowed from Persian. The ultimate etymology of the name Syunik is unknown. At first glance, it appears to be the plural of Siwni , the name of the ancient princely dynasty of Syunik (the noble house, like

2970-1193: The Achaemenid Empire ) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta ). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire ), Parthian (from the Parthian Empire ), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires). As of 2000s , Ethnologue estimates that there are 86 languages in the group. Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian Ērān , first attested in

3080-634: The Byzantine-Sasanian peace pact in 591 , Syunik, along with several other regions of Armenia, was recognized as part of the Sasanian Dynasty. With the onset of the Arab invasion in the early 8th century, the Armenian Syunik, along with Eastern Georgia and the territory of the former Sasanian Albania, was integrated into one of the regions of Armaniya, a vicegerency also known as Ostikanate of Arminiya . From 821 onwards,

3190-607: The Holy Translators . The exact time period during which Movses lived and wrote has been the subject of some debate among scholars since the nineteenth century, with some scholars dating him to the seventh to ninth centuries rather than the fifth. Movses gives autobiographical details about himself in his History of the Armenians . Later Armenian authors provide additional details about Khorenatsi's life, although according to scholar Stepan Malkhasyants , these are not reliable. Movses's epithet, Khorenatsi, suggests that he

3300-573: The "Armenian Herodotus ". Movses's history is also valued for its unique material on the old oral traditions in Armenia before its conversion to Christianity. Movses identified himself as a young disciple of Mesrop Mashtots , inventor of the Armenian alphabet . Moreover, he claimed to have written his history at the behest of Prince Sahak of the Bagratuni dynasty . He is recognized by the Armenian Apostolic Church as one of

3410-530: The 12th century onwards, the Armenian intellectual elite, uniting its efforts with the Georgian Kingdom and relying on the Armenian population's support, embarked on the expulsion of the Sekjuks form Eastern Armenia and the major part of Central Armenia. As early as in 1196, Gegharkunik was liberated. In 1211, Armenian-Georgian troops, led by Zakare and Ivane Zakaryan, liberated the entire Syunik from

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3520-670: The 18th century, Armenia and the adjacent regions repeatedly became an arena of war between the Ottoman Empire and Iran. The 1555 Peace Treaty of Amasya , which ended the four-decade-long war, redefined Eastern Armenia as part of the Safavid dynasty. In 1590, it passed under Ottoman control but was returned to the Safavids in 1639 subject to the terms of the Qasr-e-Shirin Treaty. Between the 16th and 17th centuries,

3630-584: The 451 Battle of Avarayr , Vasak Siwni failed to stand up for the defense of the Armenian troops led by Vardan Mamikonian and took sides with the Persians, his move predetermining the adversary's victory. It was apparently from that moment on that the Siwnis committed themselves also to the defense of the Derbent fortress, thereby reinforcing the positions of the princes of Syunik. The princes descending from

3740-428: The 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations. The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan , which take their name from their use in the Avesta , the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in

3850-580: The Armenian Kingdom of Syunik. "Thus, also that candlestick was extinguished there, marking the beginning of the Persian reign", writes Vardan Areveltsi , a 13th-century Armenian historian. The Seljuk raids had a crucial impact on the Armenian ethnicity. Before the Seljuk invasion, Syunik had an estimated 1,000 settlements, whereas in the late 13th century, the number was reduced by a third. From

3960-714: The Armenian feudal possessions, i.e. the Melikdoms , were preserved in Syunik and the neighboring Nagorno-Karabakh (with their own armed squadrons) despite the Muslim tribes which had settled on the territory of Eastern Armenia. The most outstanding among them included those owned by Melik -Shahnazar in Gegharkunik, Melik Haykaz in Kashatagh, and Melik-Safraz in Angeghakot . In the early 17th century, Persian King Abbas

4070-408: The Armenian nation who turned to him for help. The bloodthirsty and ruthless beast, [King Alexan], out of fear - stemming from vain and false suspicions lest all the Armenians head towards his palace in a crowded march eventually leading up to the devastation of all the regions of Iberia (heard especially from the mouths of evil Ishkhans /princes/), gave him poison through an Armenian's husband... Under

4180-653: The Armenian regions under Persian and Muslim control - gavars located around the Gagarkuni sea, Tashir, Ayrarat, the city of Bjni, Dvin, Anberd, the city of Ani, Kars and Vayots Dzor, the region of Syunik and the fortresses nearby, as well as towns and gavars. Two princedoms – the Orbelians and Proshians (Khaghabakyans) (formerly the Zakaryans' vassals) – were formed there after the region's liberation. The founders of those dynasties received their possessions for merits in

4290-581: The Armenian state anatomy was still preserved. Smbat's successor, Tarsaich Orbelian (1273–1290) concentrated in his hands the entire province, including Vayots Dzor and Gegharkunik. Under Elikum Orbelian (1290–1300), relative peace dominated Syunik as opposed to the other regions of Armenia. His heir, Prince Burtel (ca. 1300–1344), reigned over the region for more than four decades, bringing his contribution to its cultural development. Tokhtamysh , who attacked Armenia in 1380, captivated tens of thousands of Armenians from Syunik, Artsakh and Parskahayk, while just

4400-464: The Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin ). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect

4510-625: The Bagratuni family" then these events should have been central theme of his history; the skilful handling of which brought the Bagratid pre-eminence. ... The ecclesiastical interests do not point to the eighth century. There is no echo of the Chalcedonian controversy which engaged the Armenians from 451 to 641 when the ecclesiastical unity formulated by the council of Theodosiopolis was renounced. Gagik Sargsyan , an Armenian scholar of

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4620-459: The Classics and a leading biographer of Khorenatsi, also criticized Thomson for his "anachronistic hypercriticism" and for stubbornly rehashing and "even exaggerating the statements once put forward" by the late nineteenth and early twentieth-century scholars, particularly Grigor Khalatiants (1858–1912). Sargsyan noted that Thomson, in condemning Khorenatsi's failure to mention his sources, ignored

4730-748: The Council of Ephesus, when Mashtots and Sahak were correcting the Classical Armenian translation of the Bible according to the Koine Greek original, or translating it into Armenian a second time, they decided to send Movses and several of their other students to Alexandria , Egypt —one of the great centers of learning in the world at the time—to master Hellenic learning and the literary arts. The students left Armenia sometime between 432 and 435. First they went to Edessa where they studied at

4840-610: The Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic -derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script , though Bactrian

4950-809: The Great between, 1722–1723). Iranian languages The Iranian languages , also called the Iranic languages , are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples , predominantly in the Iranian Plateau . The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly-attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian (from

5060-407: The Great ( Shah Abbas ) populated the lands between Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) and Syunik with Kurdish tribes (with a goal of undermining and disengaging the regions under the Armenian meliks' rule). When Shah Abbas dispossessed a population of 250,000 during the 1604 Great Sürgün, the residents of Syunik were also deported. A contemporary of the events, Arakel of Tabriz , makes the following remark in

5170-521: The Illuminator to Caesarea for holy orders . After the Peace of Acilisene concluded in 387 A.D., Syunik remained part of the vassal Kingdom of Armenia. The division of the Armenian statehood between Byzantine and Persia drastically reduced Armenia's territory. In the second half of the 390s, Mesrop Mashtots , a great Armenian enlightener and scholar, engaged in enlightening Alinja, a gavar in

5280-596: The Orbelians were among the influential princedoms of Armenia. Their liberation from the Seljuk hegemony contributed to the cultural development of the district. The Proshyans extended their authority mainly to the Gavars of Gegharkunik in the south-west of Lake Sevan, and Vayots Dzor, holding their residence in the small city of Srkghunk . In 1236, both dynasties were forced to recognize the Mongol authority over them (after

5390-403: The Persians, Movses went into hiding in a village near Vagharshapat and lived in relative seclusion for several decades. Gyut, Catholicos of All Armenians (461–471), one day met Movses while traveling through the area and, unaware of his true identity, invited him to supper with several of his students. Movses was initially silent, but after Gyut's students encouraged him to speak, Movses made

5500-563: The Qara Qoyunlu; Syunik was devastated, and Beshken, with 6,000 liegemen, had to flee to Georgia, having received the Armenian region of Lori from Alexander, his father-in-law. ... The king, hypocritically offering him honor, handed over the Lori Fortress to him. Pious and theopathetic, he established orders with love and similarly treated the poor with love, offering his appeals and gathering them all. He showed reverence and supplied bread, food and clothing to all [the representatives] of

5610-415: The Seljuk yoke. A historian of Syunik, Stephen Orbelian , left the following record in the 13th century: "They made enormous efforts to liberate our country, Armenia, from the Persian yoke ... in 660 (1211), they liberated Syunik, Vorotan and Bkhen." Kirakos Gandzaketsi , another historian of the same century, adds: ... they stood out with a great valor during the battles. They conquered and seized most of

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5720-585: The Siunia dynasty were among the more influential Armenian kingdoms. Movses Khorenatsi localizes the royal family's possessions "at the eastern end, along the borders of the Armenian language ". Stephen Syunetsi, a local scholar and a theologian, left records about the Syunik dialect of the Armenian language at the close of the 7th century. It is also important to know all the regional dialects of one's own language ... of both Ispir and Syunik and Artsakh in addition to classical Armenian (middle and central) ... After

5830-458: The Syunik province, and after the invention of the Armenian alphabet in 406, he opened the first schools there with the help of princes Vaghinak and Vasak Siwni to teach the new Armenian scripts to his apprentices. Afterwards, he left for Syunakan, a region bordering on (Goghtn). There he received the God-loving and docile acceptance of Vaghinak, the prince of Syunik. While travelling across

5940-446: The ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two has survived. These are: Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below . Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of Fars ) by the inhabitants of Parsa , Persia, or Persis who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian

6050-449: The ancient states, the province of Syunik displayed its cavalry designed for 9,400 chevaliers in wartime. According to Gahnamak , a register of noble families in the ancient Armenian state, the prince of Syunik ranked the first among the Armenian aristocrats in the royal palace. In the early 4th century, Syunik was Christianized along with the rest of Armenia. The princes of Syunik, together with other Armenian magnates, accompanied Gregory

6160-550: The coast of Lake Sevan . In the south, the territory of Syunik extended to the Aras River. According to Ashkharhatsuyts in the 7th century, Syunik was divided into 12 administrative-territorial regions ( gavars ): 9. To the east from Ayrarat - between Yeraskh (Araks) and Artsakh - Syrunik has 12 regions: 1. Alijna , 2. Chaguk, 3. Vayots Dzor, 4. Gelakuni with the sea, 5. Sotk, 6. Agaghechk, 7. Tsgak, 8. Gaband, 9. Bagk or Balk, 10. Dzork, 11. Arevvik, 12. Kusakan. The province

6270-426: The conclusions of the scholars of the hypercritical school and placed Khorenatsi back in the fifth century. Additionally, several of Khorenatsi's claims and references have been proven by contemporary ethnographic and archaeological research. During the second half of the twentieth century, the arguments made by the hypercritical school were revived by a number of scholars in Western academia. Robert W. Thomson ,

6380-477: The conditions in that part of Armenia were relatively tolerable, which in turn promoted economic and cultural life across the region. A glaring example is the most prominent institution of higher learning of the time, the University of Gladzor , which functioned here. Meantime, the region also became the main stronghold of the national and state establishment across the entire territory of historical Armenia where

6490-705: The control of their main rivals, the united nomadic tribes identifying themselves as Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans). In 1501, the Aq Qoyunlus' state was overtaken by the Qizilbash led by Ismail Safavid , the founder of the Safavid Persia (which gained control over all the territorial conquests by the Aq Qoyunlus). Due to the Ottoman expansion spanning from the 16th century until the first half of

6600-581: The dispute over Khorenatsi's dating continued and that "no final agreement on this subject has yet been reached" at the time. Almost immediately, Thomson's arguments were criticized and challenged by a host of scholars both in and outside Armenia. Vrej Nersessian , the curator of the Christian Middle East Section at the British Library , took issue with many of Thomson's characterizations, including his later dating of

6710-409: The existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a " Median " substrate in some of its vocabulary. Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in

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6820-471: The fact that "an antique or medieval author may have had his own rules of mentioning the sources distinct from the rules of modern scientific ethics". Thomson's allegation of Khorenatsi's plagiarism and supposed distortion of sources was also countered by scholars who contended that Thomson was "treating a medieval author with the standards" of twentieth-century historiography and pointed out that numerous classical historians, Greek and Roman alike, engaged in

6930-600: The fall of the Kingdom of Ani in 1045. Despite the Seljuk invasions led by Arp Aslan in the mid-11th century, Syunik, along with Tashir , remained invincible unlike most other regions of Armenia. After death of Grigor I (about 1072), the last remaining heir to the throne, Senekerim, became the King of Syunik, his authority being affirmed by Sultan Malik Shah I of the Seljuk Empire . Shortly afterwards, however, Senekerim

7040-643: The far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw). What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern . The Western family includes Parthian ( Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian , while Bactrian , Sogdian , Khwarezmian , Saka , and Old Ossetic ( Scytho - Sarmatian ) fall under

7150-420: The first part of Patmutyun Hayots , or History of the Armenians : "For even though we are small and very limited in numbers and have been conquered many times by foreign kingdoms, yet too, many acts of bravery have been performed in our land, worthy of being written and remembered, but of which no one has bothered to write down." His work is a first historical record that covered the whole history of Armenia from

7260-404: The following branches: According to modern scholarship, the Avestan languages are not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged from Proto-Iranian before the east-west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus

7370-490: The former holder of the chair in Armenian Studies at Harvard University and the translator of several classical Armenian works, became the most vocal critic of Khorenatsi with the 1978 publication of his English translation of History of the Armenians . Thomson labeled Khorenatsi an "audacious, and mendacious, faker" and "a mystifier of the first order". He wrote that Khorenatsi's account contained various anachronisms and inventions. In 2000, historian Nina Garsoïan wrote that

7480-424: The fortress of Vorotan and a year later Bghen. Below are Stephen Orbelian's recounts of the events: A thick fog broke over the Armenian nation. All the churches of Armenia and Christianity plunged into mourning, Yet, Baghaberd, Geghi, Kakaverd, Shlorut, Karchavavan, Meghri and Krkham remained untouched thanks to the grandsons of Ashot, King Grigor, and Smbat. In 1126, Kapan and the region of Arevik were devastated by

7590-406: The great prince of Syunik diminutively referred to as Ishkhanik (little prince), obeyed the Prince of Princes, Ashot with an irrevocable discretion, tacit modesty and totally of his own will. He closely heeded his advice in just the same way as he respected the law, keeping it all in his heart. In 885, Syunik formed part of Bagratid Armenia . An early 10th-century Arab author, Istakhri , referred to

7700-400: The late 490s  CE . Three possible early references to Movses in other sources are usually identified. The first one is in Ghazar Parpetsi 's History of the Armenians (about 495 or 500 A.D.), where the author details the persecution of several notable Armenian individuals, including the "blessed Movses the philosopher", identified by some scholars as Movses Khorenatsi. The second one

7810-414: The latter's invasion of Armenian lands). In 1251, Smbat Orbelian obtained the right inju from the Mongol royal palace. Those rights were retained also by Hulagu Khan and his successors. The lands under Stephen Orbelyan's control extended to the borders of Nakhichivan and those owned by the younger branch of the princedom covered the shore of Sevan. Thanks to the rulers, as well as the right to immunity,

7920-543: The local libraries. Then they moved towards Jerusalem and Alexandria. After studying in Alexandria for seven years, Movses and his classmates returned to Armenia, only to find that Mesrop and Sahak had died. Movses expressed his grief in a lament at the end of History of the Armenians : While they [Mesrop and Sahak] awaited our return to celebrate their student's accomplishments [i.e., Movses'], we hastened from Byzantium , expecting that we would be dancing and singing at

8030-524: The modern criticism of Khorenatsi to the misinterpretation of interpolations into the work from later times. Today, Movses Khorenatsi's work is recognized as an important source for the research of Urartian and early Armenian history. It was Movses Khorenatsi's account of the ancient city of Van with its cuneiform inscriptions which lead the Société Asiatique of Paris to finance the expedition of Friedrich Eduard Schulz , who there discovered

8140-520: The neighboring gavar . In 904, King Smbat I , in an attempt to undermine the princedom of Vaspurakan , handed over Nakhichivan to Syunik. Upon the demand of the Artsrunis , the rulers of Vaspurakan at the time, the Sajid emir, Yusuf, attacked Armenia in 909 and, devastating settlements and fortresses across Syunik, annexed Alinja to his possessions. After the death of sovereign Ashot, (ca. 909), Syunik

8250-477: The next Qara Qoyunlu leader, Jahan Shah (reign: 1436–1467), the feudals of Syunik and Vayots Dzor obtained control over several regions and were even granted permission to use the title ishkhan . In the meantime, Jahan Shah sought the Armenians' support in the fight against his enemies. Yet those princes no longer enjoyed great authority. After Jahan Shah's death, the Qara Qoyunlus' possessions passed under

8360-408: The only known general account of early Armenian history. It traces Armenian history from its origins to the fifth century, during which Movses claimed to have lived. His history had an enormous impact on Armenian historiography and was used and quoted extensively by later medieval Armenian authors. He is called the "father of Armenian history" ( patmahayr ) in Armenian, and is sometimes referred to as

8470-528: The place name Sisijan , which he said was situated on the roadway connecting Bardva with Dvin (the Armenian Highlands, the kingdom of Smbat and Ashot I). Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus addressed his officials letters "to the Prince of Syne, Armenia; to the Prince of Vaitzor, Armenia". In the early 10th century, the sovereigns of Syunik attempted to take possession of Nakichivan,

8580-518: The power of Qara Qoyunlus (Black Sheep Turkomans), a united Turkish nomadic tribe who were later replaced by the Aq Qoyunlu rulers. The invasion of Mongol ilkhans , especially the Qara Koyunlu and Ak Qoyunlu tribes, had severe consequences: with the powerful forces disintegrated, a part of the population was looted and annihilated, and cultural monuments were destroyed. The local population

8690-432: The province extended to the south of the gavar of Balk, with the rights of the sovereign being bestowed upon Prince Smbat (the grandson of Ashot Siwni). The latter, taking advantage of the undermined Armenian statehood, in 978 proclaimed Syunik an independent kingdom. "They crowned Smbat, the Armenian and the superb husband, the paramount leader of Syunik," Stephen Orbelian writes. A year later, however, he had to acknowledge

8800-485: The province, he (Mashtots) benefited from his great assistance in the realization of the task set before him. There are also available records left by Stephen Orbelian , an historian of Syunik. After the dissolution of the Kingdom of Armenia in 428 A.D, Syunik was integrated into Sasanian Armenia in the Marzpanate period. The Sasanians appointed Prince Vasak Siwni as the ruler of the entire Armenian state. During

8910-579: The province, is also alternatively called Sisakan ). Historian Armen Petrosyan has suggested that Syunik is related to the name of the Urartian sun god Shivini /Siwini (itself a borrowing from the Hittites ), noting the similarity between the names and the high number of sun-related placenames in the region. Robert H. Hewsen writes that Syunik is probably identical with the place name Ṣuluqū mentioned in Urartian cuneiform inscriptions. Syunik

9020-464: The province. The former became the ruler of Eastern Syunik and Vayots Dzor and the latter the ruler of Western Syunik and the founder of the family of Haykazuns (who reigned over Gegharkunik). Between 831–832 Syunik was involved in the rebellions against the Arab vicegerent, Hall. In 853 the province was invaded by Bugha al-Kabir , an Arab commander; Princes Vasak Ishkhanik and Ashot were taken captive and sent to Samarra . Before Vasak Ishkanik's return,

9130-517: The reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European. Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe , the Iranian Plateau , and Central Asia. Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:

9240-527: The recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called " Scythian " and in one instance, Median ( σπάκα "dog"). Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches. These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it

9350-469: The river Kir, Koltensk (?) – along the river Aras, and Sodukensk – below it; Sirekan and Sakasensk at the foot of Mounts Sirekan and Sakasensk". From 189 B.C. onwards, Syunik was part of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia which was ruled by representatives of the Artaxiad dynasty . Inscriptions by King Artashes I have been found on the territory of Syunik. Starting in at least the 3rd century B.C., Syunik

9460-534: The same practice. Aram Topchyan, then a research fellow at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem of Armenian Studies, agreed and noted that it was odd that Thomson would fault Khorenatsi for failing to mention his sources because this was an accepted practice among all classical historians. Historian Albert Stepanyan notes that "some skepticism remains regarding the person and work of Khorenatsi", but he affirms Khorenatsi's fifth-century dating and attributes

9570-451: The seventh to ninth centuries. Stepan Malkhasyants, an Armenian philologist and expert of Classical Armenian literature, likened this early critical period from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries to a "competition", whereby one scholar attempted to outperform the other in their criticism of Khorenatsi. In the early decades of the twentieth century, scholars such as F. C. Conybeare , Manuk Abeghian , and Malkhasyants rejected

9680-550: The south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media). Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź: As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with

9790-502: The sovereign of Gegharkunik was Vasak Gabur. "At that time, Ishkhanats Ishkhan (Prince of Princes) Ashot appointed Vasak Haykazn (also known as Gabur) the Prince of Syunik, giving him a royal honor ...". In the run-up to the rebellion by the centralized Armenian state, Syunik was one of the three major political units of Armenia (along with the Artsruni and Bagratuni dynasties). The Siunia dynasty supported Ashot I upon ascension to

9900-454: The state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages .) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw: A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied: It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in

10010-456: The term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen . Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan ( Iranian ) and Indo-Aryan ( Indic ). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention. The Iranian languages are divided into

10120-558: The throne, recognizing his reign over Syunik. In 875 B.C., Grigor Supan II and Vasak Ishkhanik took part in the assembly of the Armenian intellectuals convened upon the initiative of George II of Armenia (who proposed the Khalif to bring Ashot II to the Armenian throne). Vasak Ishkhanik acknowledged the Vassal dependence on Ashot Bagratuni, the Prince of Princes. In an early X century record, Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi wrote: However, Vasak,

10230-430: The title of Shah-i-Armen (King of Armenians), as well as appointed an ethnic Armenian advisor, Rustam, who was Prince Beshken Orbelian's son. Between 1425 and 1430, Rustam was the governor of Ayrarat, with Yerevan being the center of the province. His authority extended to Syunik which was ruled by his father (still holding the title of "prince of princes"). However, in 1435, as Shah Rukh launched his third raid against

10340-567: The troops of Amir Kharon. In 1152, the Seljuks invaded the Fortress of Shlorut, and in 1157 the Fortress of Meghri. Between 1166 and 1169, Shams al-Din Ildeniz , Eldigüz, the Seljuk atabek at the time, annexed the fortresses of Grgham, Geghi, Kakavaberd and Kanots to his possessions. In 1170, Baghaberd was invaded, with over 10,000 Armenian manuscripts being burnt, thereby closing the chapter on

10450-506: The turning of sibilant fricative *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated plosives *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the voiceless unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp. The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among

10560-532: The vassal dependence upon the Bagratid Armenia. Both before and after the formation of the vassal Kingdom of Syunik, the paramount leaders of the region took part in all the politico-military actions of the Armenian statehood (974, 998, 1003, 1040), remaining true to the Bagratids' allies. In the early 990s, King Gagik I annexed the sovereign possession of Vayots Dzor while uniting Armenian lands under

10670-473: The village of Khoreay ( Խորեայ ) in the Haband district of the province of Syunik , which is mentioned by the thirteenth-century historian Stepanos Orbelian . According to this view, the name Khoreay developed from the earlier unattested form Khorean . Accepting Khorenatsi's claimed fifth-century dating, Malkhasyants proposes 410 as the approximate year of his birth, arguing that he probably would have been

10780-470: The war against the Seljuks. The Orbelians in Syunik traced their ancestral roots to Liparit, Elikum's son, while Vasak descended from the from Khakhbakyan dynasty who came from the neighboring Armenian region of Khachen. As recounted by Kirakos, a 13th-century historian, "They were natives of Khachen, people of noble origin. adherents of the Christian creed and Armenians by nationality". Enthroned in Syunik,

10890-410: The writing and his contention that Khorenatsi was merely an apologist work for the princely Bagratuni dynasty: If so, how does one explain then Moses's complete preoccupation with the events preceding A.D. 440 and his silence regarding the events leading up the Arab incursions and occupation of Armenia between 640–642? Moreover, if the definite purpose of the History was for "boosting the reputation of

11000-674: Was Vaghinak Siak (c. 330) and his successor was his brother Andok or Andovk (Antiochus, c. 340). In 379 Babik (Bagben) the son of Andok was re-established as a Naxarar by the Mamikonian family. Babik had a sister called Pharantzem who had married the Arsacid Prince Gnel , nephew of the Armenian King Arsaces II (Arshak II) and later married Arsaces II as her second husband. Babik's rule lasted for less than ten years and by about 386 or 387, Dara

11110-650: Was a big region in the east of historical Armenia. In the west and north-west, it bordered on the Ayrarat Province; in the east, the natural border between Syunik and Artsakh passed through the Hakari river (left inflow of the Aras ). In the north-west, Syunik shared a border with lands situated in the direct neighborhood of Ganja, and in the south-west, it bordered on Nakhichevan ( Vaspurakan Province). The north of Syunik comprised Gegharkunik and Sotk which lied on

11220-495: Was born in a place called Khoren or Khorean. According to one older view, Movses was born in the village of Khorni (also called Khoron or Khoronk) in the Armenian province of Taron or Turuberan . Some sources call Movses Taronatsi ('of Taron'). However, Malkhasyants contends that if Movses had been born in Khorni, he would have been known as Movses Khornetsi or Khoronatsi. Malkhasyants instead proposed as Khorenatsi's birthplace

11330-479: Was deposed by the Sassanid Empire . Valinak (c. 400–409) was followed by Vasak (409–452). Vasak had two sons: Babik (Bagben), Bakur and a daughter who married Vasak's successor, Varazvahan (452–472). Varazvahan's son Gelehon ruled from 470–477, who died in 483. Babik (Bagben) the brother of Varazvahan became the new Naxarar in 477. Hadz the brother of Gelehon died on September 25, 482. The Syunik Province

11440-410: Was divided into two princedoms between his sons. Prince Smbat came into possession of Western Syunik (Chaguk) and his brother, Sahak of the eastern part, the region of Balk along the river Akera. During the reign of King Ashot II , the northern part of Syunik – along Lake Sevan (to the north of Vardenis ridge) – was united to the estates of the Bagratid family. From 970 until 980 the political center of

11550-516: Was killed, presumably by the Emir of the Shaddadids . The latter, according to a medieval historian "cheated the Armenian king into death, seizing the land of Syunik". Afterwards, the territory of Syunk, like a range of other regions of Armenia, passed, little by little, under Seljuk control. In early 1103, the Seljuks, led by Chortman, destroyed Kapan, the kingdom's capital city. In 1104, they invaded

11660-428: Was later governed by Vahan (c. 570), Philip (Philipo, c. 580), Stephen (Stephanos, c. 590–597), Sahak (Isaac, c. 597) and Grigor (Gregory, until 640). Syunik was one of the most powerful houses of nakharars in ancient Armenia. Ancient records which have survived to the present bear vivid evidence. Thus, according to Zoranamak , a state register regulating the quantity and order of military troops in

11770-447: Was robbed of its lands which later became home to the nomad re-settlers; a part of the Armenian population was forced into exile from the historic homeland. In 1410, Qara Yusuf , the Qara Qoyunlu leader, appropriated Smbat Orbelian's possessions, forcing the latter to flee to Georgia with his sons Ivane, Beshken and Shah. In 1417, Ivane and Pashken were re-appointed as rulers of the lands under their control. According to Tovmen Motspatsi,

11880-466: Was ruled by representatives of the ancient Armenian Siunia dynasty identifying themselves as descendants of Hayk , the legendary patriarch and founder of the Armenian nation . The story was recounted by Movses Khorenatsi in his 5th-century History of Armenia . To the east, along the borders of the Armenian language (he appointed) two governors - ten-thousanders - from the noble families of Sisakan and Kadmean (?) ... The first known Nakharar ruler

11990-609: Was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and Kazakhstan . It was thus in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family , such as Thracian , Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe to the north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus ), according to

12100-469: Was written using an adapted Greek script . Movses Khorenatsi Movses Khorenatsi ( c. 410–490s AD; Armenian : Մովսէս Խորենացի , pronounced [mɔvˈsɛs χɔɾɛnɑˈtsʰi] ) was a prominent Armenian historian from late antiquity and the author of the History of the Armenians . Movses's History of the Armenians was the first attempt at a universal history of Armenia and remains

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