Frang Bardhi ( Latin : Franciscus Blancus , Italian : Francesco Bianchi , 1606–1643) was an Albanian Catholic bishop and Old Albanian author. Bardhi is best known as an author of the early eras of Albanian literature . He served as Bishop of Sapë (1635–1644).
135-533: Gjergj Kastrioti ( c. 1405 – 17 January 1468), commonly known as Skanderbeg , was an Albanian feudal lord and military commander who led a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire in what is today Albania , North Macedonia , Greece , Kosovo , Montenegro , and Serbia . A member of the noble Kastrioti family , he was sent as a hostage to the Ottoman court . He graduated from
270-630: A subaşı (governor) of the Krujë subaşılık before Hizir Bey was again appointed to that position in November 1438. Until May 1438, Skanderbeg controlled a relatively large timar (of the vilayet of Dhimitër Jonima ) composed of nine villages which previously belonged to his father (registered as "Giovanni's land", Turkish : Yuvan-ili ). According to İnalcık , at that time Skanderbeg was referred to in Ottoman documents as Juvan oglu Iskender bey . It
405-552: A manuscript written in the Serbo-Croatian Language traced back to the 17th century but published in the 20th century by Radoslav Grujic. It is a fragment of a once longer text that endeavours to explain the origins of peoples and languages in a question-and-answer form similar to a catechism . The fragmented manuscript differentiated the world into 72 languages and three religious categories including Christians, half-believers and non-believers. Grujic dated it to
540-514: A scorched earth strategy (thus denying the Ottomans the use of necessary local resources), Skanderbeg left a protective garrison of 1,500 men under one of his most trusted lieutenants, Vrana Konti , while, with the remainder of the army, which included many Slavs, Germans, Frenchmen and Italians, he harassed the Ottoman camps around Krujë by continuously attacking Sultan Murad II's supply caravans. The garrison repelled three major direct assaults on
675-521: A Venetian force of 15,000 men under the command of Daniele Iurichi, governor of Scutari . Skanderbeg instructed his troops on what to expect and opened battle by ordering a force of archers to open fire on the Venetian line. The battle continued for hours until large groups of Venetian troops began to flee. Skanderbeg, seeing his fleeing adversaries, ordered a full-scale offensive, routing the entire Venetian army. The Republic's soldiers were chased right to
810-546: A biography of George Kastrioti Skanderbeg , called The Apology of Scanderbeg published in Venice in 1636. The Apology of Scanderbeg was a polemic against Slavic Catholic priest Ivan Tomko Mrnavić , who claimed that Kastrioti was of Slav origin. Bardhi also complained that the Albanian language "was being lost and degenerating" under the blows of foreign occupiers, and in order to preserve it he saw himself contributing to
945-577: A gift to the King. More explicitly, Skanderbeg recognized Alfonso's sovereignty over his lands in exchange for help against the Ottomans. King Alfonso pledged to respect the old privileges of Krujë and Albanian territories and to pay Skanderbeg an annual 1,500 ducats, while Skanderbeg pledged to make his fealty to King Alfonso only after the expulsion of Ottomans from his lands, a condition never reached in Skanderbeg's lifetime. Skanderbeg married Donika ,
1080-525: A hardly accessible mountainous region, which helped them preserve their peculiar culture and language. The issue surrounding the origin of the Albanian people has long been debated by historians and linguists for centuries. They have Paleo-Balkan origins, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the Illyrians , but besides
1215-534: A hostage for an unspecified time; this way, the Sultan was able to exercise control in the area ruled by the hostage's father. The treatment of the hostages was not bad. Far from being held in a prison, the hostages were usually sent to the best military schools and trained to become future military leaders. Skanderbeg was sent as a hostage to the Ottoman court in Adrianople ( Edirne ) in 1415, and again in 1423. It
1350-579: A huge blow to Ottoman efforts whose Albanian operations were thus inhibited. Right after the Treaty of Gaeta, Alfonso V signed other treaties with the rest of the most important Albanian noblemen, including Gjergj Arianiti , and with the Despot of the Morea , Demetrios Palaiologos . These efforts show that Alfonso thought about a crusade starting from Albania and Morea , which however never took place. Following
1485-450: A nearby forest under the command of Hamza Kastrioti . At a given signal, they descended, encircled the Ottomans, and gave Skanderbeg a much needed victory. About 8,000 Ottomans were killed and 2,000 were captured. Skanderbeg's first victory echoed across Europe because this was one of the few times that an Ottoman army was defeated in a pitched battle on European soil. On 10 October 1445, an Ottoman force of 9,000–15,000 men under Firuz Pasha
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#17327730418521620-456: A new and generalised response by Albanians based on ethnic and linguistic consciousness to this new and different Ottoman world emerging around them was a change in ethnonym. Little is known about the Albanian people prior to the 11th century, though a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the Bulgarian language contains a possible reference to them. It is preserved in
1755-669: A possible member of the Serbian Branković family or a local Bulgarian noble family. Although there are no primary or archival sources linking Voisava to the Branković family. The other view is that she was a member of the Albanian Muzaka family , daughter of Domenico Moncino Musachi a relative of Muzaka house. Skanderbeg had three older brothers: Stanisha , Reposh and Constantine , and five sisters: Mara , Jelena , Angelina , Vlajka and Mamica . According to
1890-645: A reconciliatory intervention of the Pope, and in 1454, a peace treaty between them was finally reached. On 22 April 1453, Mehmed sent another expedition to Albania under Ibrahim Pasha. The same day, despite the storms, Skanderbeg launched a swift cavalry attack which broke into the enemy camp causing disorder and chaos. Ibrahim was killed in action along with 3,000 of his men. Skanderbeg's army continued looting before returning to Debar. He returned triumphantly with his army with whom he had split his booty. Five weeks later Mehmed II captured Constantinople , which deeply troubled
2025-505: A red standard with a black double-headed eagle on Krujë (Albania uses a similar flag as its national symbol to this day). Despite his military valor, he was only able to hold his own possessions within the very narrow area in today's northern Albania where almost all of his victories against the Ottomans took place. Skanderbeg abandoned Islam, reverted to Christianity, and ordered others who had embraced Islam or were Muslim settlers to convert to Christianity or face death. From that time on,
2160-518: A single galley and a modest sum of money, promising more ships and larger amounts of money in the future. On 23 December 1457, Calixtus III declared Skanderbeg a Captain-General of the Curia ( Holy See ) in the war against the Ottomans. The Pope gave him the title Athleta Christi , or Champion of Christ . Meanwhile, Ragusa bluntly refused to release the funds which had been collected in Dalmatia for
2295-644: A subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Vranoussi-Ducellier debate", Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vranoussi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans , while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" ( aubain ) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed. This debate has never been resolved. A newer synthesis about
2430-441: A term connoting "those who speak [intelligibly, the same language]". The words Shqipëri and Shqiptar are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëreshë amongst Albanian speakers. That era brought about religious and other sociopolitical changes. As such
2565-633: A trip to Split; Ruscus from Cattaro; and others. The Ragusan Gondola/Gundulić merchant family had a role similar to Gazulli. Correspondence was written in Slavic, Greek, Latin, and Italian. Documents in Latin were written by notaries from Italy or Venetian territories in Albania. In Albania, the rebellion against the Ottomans had already been smouldering for years before Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army. In August 1443, Gjergj Arianiti again revolted against
2700-480: Is also spoken in other countries whence it is officially recognised as a minority language in such countries as Croatia , Italy, Montenegro , Romania and Serbia . There are two principal dialects of the Albanian language traditionally represented by Gheg and Tosk . The ethnogeographical dividing line is traditionally considered to be the Shkumbin river, with Gheg spoken in the north of it and Tosk in
2835-543: Is assumed that he remained at Murad II 's court as iç oğlan for a maximum of three years, where he received military training at Enderun School . The earliest existing record of George's name is the First Act of Hilandar from 1426, when Gjon (John) Kastrioti and his four sons donated the right to the proceeds from taxes collected from two villages in Macedonia (in modern Mavrovo and Rostuša , North Macedonia ) to
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#17327730418522970-690: Is assumed to have been a comparison of Skanderbeg's military skill to that of Alexander the Great . This name was itself used by Skanderbeg even after his re-conversion to Christianity and was later held by his descendants in Italy who became known as the Castriota-Scanderbeg . Skanderbeg always signed himself in Latin : Dominus Albaniae ("Lord of Albania"), and claimed no other titles but that in surviving documents. There have been many theories on
3105-572: Is believed that he was delayed by Đurađ Branković , then allied with Sultan Murad II , although Brankovic's exact role is disputed. Skanderbeg was outraged at the fact that he had been prevented in participating in a battle which could have changed the fate of his homeland if not the entirety of the Balkan Peninsula. As a result of this he let his armies raid into Kosovo, he then set fire to Serbian villages and slaughtered their inhabitants to punish Brankovic. He then returned to Krujë towards
3240-580: Is first encountered on the works of Ptolemy (2nd century CE) also is encountered twice in the works of Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates , and the term "Arvanitai" (Αρβανίται) is used once by the same author. He referred to the "Albanoi" as having taken part in a revolt against the Byzantine Empire in 1043, and to the "Arbanitai" as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium (modern Durrës ). These references have been disputed as to whether they refer to
3375-423: Is generally accepted that Arbanitai refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. The use of the term Albanoi in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Ducellier-Vrannousi" debate, Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vrannousi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans , while
3510-449: Is remembered as the author of the first Albanian dictionary Dictionarium latino-epiroticum (Latin-Albanian dictionary) published in Rome in 1635, comprising 5,640 entries. Its appendix contains a list of 113 proverbs, phrases, and idioms, some of which are translations from other languages into Albanian with the vast majority being collected from the Albanian folklore . Bardhi also wrote
3645-471: Is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and Arbanitai in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It is generally accepted that Arbanitai refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. As such, it is considered to be the first attestation of Albanians as an ethnic group in Byzantine historiography. The use of the term Albanoi in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been
3780-589: The Adriatic , where his dreams for an empire were always opposed by the Venetians. One of the reasons Skanderbeg agreed to sign the peace treaty with Venice was the advance of John Hunyadi 's army in Kosovo and his invitation for Skanderbeg to join the expedition against the sultan. However, the Albanian army under Skanderbeg did not participate in this battle as he was prevented from joining with Hunyadi's army. It
3915-543: The Balkan Peninsula who share a common Albanian ancestry , culture , history and language . They are the main ethnic group of Albania and Kosovo , and they also live in the neighboring countries of North Macedonia , Montenegro , Greece , and Serbia , as well as in Italy , Croatia , Bulgaria , and Turkey . Albanians also constitute a large diaspora with several communities established across Europe and
4050-713: The Balkan Wars , Albanians declared the independence of their country . The demarcation of the new Albanian state was established following the Treaty of Bucharest and left about half of the ethnic Albanian population outside of its borders, partitioned between Greece, Montenegro and Serbia. After the Second World War up until the Revolutions of 1991 , Albania was governed by a communist government under Enver Hoxha where Albania became largely isolated from
4185-587: The Enderun School and entered the service of the Ottoman sultan Murad II ( r. 1421–1444 ) for the next twenty years. His rise through the ranks culminated in his appointment as sanjakbey of the Sanjak of Dibra in 1440. During the Battle of Nish in 1443, he deserted the Ottomans and became the ruler of Krujë and nearby areas extending from Petrelë to Modrič . In March 1444, he established
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4320-600: The Illyrians , but besides the Illyrians which specific Paleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate. The first mention of the ethnonym Albanoi occurred in the 2nd century AD by Ptolemy describing an Illyrian tribe who lived around present-day central Albania. The first certain reference to Albanians as an ethnic group comes from 11th century chronicler Michael Attaleiates who describes them as living in
4455-614: The League of Lezhë , with support from local noblemen , and unified the Albanian principalities . In 1451, through the Treaty of Gaeta , he recognized de jure the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Naples over Albania, ensuring a protective alliance, although he remained a de facto independent ruler. In 1460–61, he supported Ferdinand I of Naples ( r. 1458–1494 ) in his wars and led an Italian expedition against John II of Anjou ( r. 1453–1470 ). In 1463, he
4590-744: The Paleo-Balkan group . It had its formative core in the Western Balkans after the Indo-European migrations in the region from about 3000 to 2500 BCE. The Albanian language is spoken today by approximately 5 million people throughout the Balkan Peninsula as well as by a more substantial number by communities around the Americas, Europe and Oceania. Numerous variants and dialects of Albanian are used as an official language in Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia . The language
4725-580: The Republic of Venice . His uncle was Bishop of Sapa and Sarda. He studied theology in Italy . On 17 December 1635, Francesco Bianchi was appointed during the papacy of Pope Urban VIII as Bishop of Sapë . On 30 March 1636, he was consecrated bishop by Ciriaco Rocci , Cardinal-Priest of San Salvatore in Lauro , with Giovanni Battista Altieri , Bishop Emeritus of Camerino , and Ottavio Broglia , Bishop of Asti , serving as co-consecrators . Bardhi
4860-735: The UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages . The Cham dialect is spoken by the Cham Albanians , a community that originates from Chameria in what is currently north-western Greece and southern Albania; the use of the Cham dialect in Greece is declining rapidly, while Cham communities in Albania and the diaspora have preserved it. Most of the Albanians in Albania and the Former Yugoslavia are polyglot and have
4995-485: The battle of Oranik . Mustafa Pasha lost 3,000 men and was captured, along with twelve high officers. Skanderbeg learned from these officers that it was the Venetians who pushed the Ottomans to invade Albania. The Venetians, upon hearing of the defeat, urged to establish peace. Mustafa Pasha was soon ransomed for 25,000 ducats to the Ottomans. On 23 July 1448, Skanderbeg crossed the Drin River with 10,000 men, meeting
5130-440: The hit-and-run tactics of the Albanians. Skanderbeg fought a guerrilla war against the opposing armies by using the mountainous terrain to his advantage. During the first 8–10 years, Skanderbeg commanded an army of generally 10,000–15,000 soldiers, but only had absolute control over the men from his own dominions, and had to convince the other princes to follow his policies and tactics. Skanderbeg occasionally had to pay tribute to
5265-580: The theme of Dyrrhachium . The Shkumbin River roughly demarcates the Albanian language between Gheg and Tosk dialects. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century AD. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople . In 1054, after the Great Schism , the north gradually became identified with Roman Catholicism and
5400-518: The 13th and 16th centuries and came to be known as Arvanites . Other Albanian population groups settled across Southern Italy and Sicily between the 11th and 16th centuries and came to be known as Arbëreshë . Albanians have also migrated to Romania since the late 16th century. In the 18th century smaller Albanian population groups settled in Southern Croatia (who came to be known as Arbanasi ), and pockets of Southern Ukraine . By
5535-456: The 1450s. The Ottoman Turks gave him the name اسکندر بگ ( İskender bey or İskender beğ ), meaning "Lord Alexander", or "Leader Alexander". Skënderbeu and Skënderbej are the Albanian versions, with Skander being the Albanian form of "Alexander". Latinized in Barleti 's version as Scanderbegi and translated into English as Skanderbeg or Scanderbeg , the combined appellative
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5670-487: The 15th century, the expanding Ottoman Empire overpowered the Balkan Peninsula, but faced successful rebellion and resistance by the League of Lezhë , a union of Albanian principalities led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg . By the 17th and 18th centuries, a substantial number of Albanians converted to Islam , which offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire . Thereafter, Albanians attained significant positions and culturally contributed to
5805-584: The Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley. Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for
5940-528: The Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middle of the 20th century, a period in which Albanians formed a substantial community in Egypt . During the 19th century, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance . In 1912 during
6075-575: The Christian states of Europe. Mehmed, by then called "the Conqueror", turned his attention to finally defeating the Kingdom of Hungary and crossing into Italy. Skanderbeg informed King Alfonso that he had conquered some territories and a castle, and Alfonso replied some days later that soon Ramon d'Ortafà would return to continue the war against the Ottomans and promised more troops and supplies. In
6210-411: The Illyrians which specific Peleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate. The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work of Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080). Attaleiates mentions the term Albanoi twice and the term Arbanitai once. The term Albanoi is used first to describe
6345-703: The Ottoman Empire during its heyday. He became a central figure in the Albanian National Awakening of the 19th century. He is honored in modern Albania and is commemorated with many monuments and cultural works. Skanderbeg's military skills presented a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion, and many in Western Europe considered him to be a model of Christian resistance against the Ottomans. The Kastrioti, in comparison to other Albanian noble families, so far remain absent from historical or archival records until their first historical appearance at
6480-468: The Ottoman army and those of Durazzo supplied Skanderbeg's army. An angry attack by Skanderbeg on the Venetian caravans raised tension between him and the Republic, but the case was resolved with the help of the bailo of Durazzo who stopped the Venetian merchants from furnishing the Ottomans any longer. Venetian help to the Ottomans notwithstanding, by September 1450, the Ottoman camp was in disarray, as
6615-612: The Ottoman army. He immediately led his men to Krujë , where he arrived on 28 November, and by the use of a forged letter from Sultan Murad to the Governor of Krujë he became lord of the city that very day. To reinforce his intention of gaining control of the former domains of Zeta, Skanderbeg proclaimed himself the heir of the Balšić family . After capturing some less important surrounding castles ( Petrela , Prezë , Guri i Bardhë, Sfetigrad , Modrič , and others) he raised, according to Frashëri,
6750-499: The Ottoman force, resulting in them fleeing. The same day Skanderbeg attacked Tahip's army and defeated them, with Tahip killed and the Ottomans were thus left without their commander as they fled. Skanderbeg's victory over a ruler even more powerful than Murad came as a great surprise to the Albanians. During this period, skirmishes between Skanderbeg and the Dukagjini family , which had been dragging on for years, were put to an end by
6885-532: The Ottoman forces found and cut the water sources of the castle. Recent historians mostly concur with the Ottoman chronicler's version. Although his loss of men was minimal, Skanderbeg lost the castle of Sfetigrad, which was an important stronghold that controlled the fields of Macedonia to the east. At the same time, he besieged the towns of Durazzo (modern Durrës ) and Lezhë which were then under Venetian rule. In August 1448, Skanderbeg defeated Mustafa Pasha in Dibër at
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#17327730418527020-523: The Ottomans in the region of central Albania. Under Venetian patronage, on 2 March 1444, Skanderbeg summoned Albanian noblemen in the Venetian-controlled town of Lezhë and they established a military alliance known in historiography as the League of Lezhë . Among those who joined the military alliance were the powerful Albanian noble families of Arianiti , Dukagjini , Muzaka , Zaharia , Thopia , Zenevisi , Dushmani and Spani , and also
7155-515: The Ottomans referred to Skanderbeg as "hain (treacherous) İskender" . The small court of Skanderbeg consisted of persons of various ethnicities. He was supposedly also the manager of Skanderbeg's bank account in Ragusa. Members of the Gazulli family had important roles in diplomacy, finance, and purchase of arms. John Gazulli, a doctor, was sent to the court of king Matthias Corvinus to coordinate
7290-571: The Ottomans, but only in exceptional circumstances, such as during the war with the Venetians or his travel to Italy and perhaps when he was under pressure of Ottoman forces that were too strong. In the summer of 1444, in the Plain of Torvioll, the united Albanian armies under Skanderbeg faced the Ottomans who were under direct command of the Ottoman general Ali Pasha, with an army of 25,000 men. Skanderbeg had under his command 7,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry. 3,000 cavalry were hidden behind enemy lines in
7425-610: The Ottomans. In the month of September 1460, Skanderbeg dispatched a company of 500 cavalry under his nephew, Ivan Strez Balšić . Albanians Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Albanians are an ethnic group native to
7560-481: The Ragusans informed Pope Nicholas V. Through financial assistance, Skanderbeg managed to hold Krujë and regain much of his territory. Skanderbeg's success brought praise from all over Europe and ambassadors were sent to him from Rome, Naples , Hungary , and Burgundy . Although Skanderbeg had achieved success in resisting Murad II himself, harvests were unproductive and famine was widespread. After being rejected by
7695-638: The Serbian monastery of Hilandar . Afterwards, between 1426 and 1431, Gjon Kastrioti and his sons, with the exception of Stanisha, purchased four adelphates (rights to reside on monastic territory and receive subsidies from monastic resources) to the Saint George tower and to some property within the monastery as stated in the Second Act of Hilandar . The area which the Katrioti family had donated to
7830-419: The Serbian nobleman Stefan Crnojević of Zeta. This was the first time that much of Albania was united under a single leader. For 25 years, from 1443 to 1468, Skanderbeg's 10,000-man army marched through Ottoman territory, winning against consistently larger and better-supplied Ottoman forces. Skanderbeg organized a mobile defense army that forced the Ottomans to disperse their troops, leaving them vulnerable to
7965-534: The Sultan's hostage. According to Marin Barleti , a primary source, Skanderbeg and his three older brothers, Reposh, Kostandin, and Stanisha, were taken by the Sultan to his court as hostages; however, according to documents, besides Skanderbeg, only one of the brothers of Skanderbeg, probably Stanisha, was taken hostage and had been conscripted into the Devşirme system, a military institute that enrolled Christian boys, converted them to Islam , and trained them to become military officers. 21st-century historians are of
8100-611: The Venetians, Skanderbeg established closer connections with King Alfonso V who, in January 1451, appointed him as "captain general of the king of Aragon" . Following Skanderbeg's requests, King Alfonso V helped him in this situation and the two parties signed the Treaty of Gaeta on 26 March 1451, according to which Skanderbeg was formally a vassal in exchange for military aid. Authors have disagreed on whether Krujë belonged to Skanderbeg or to Alfonso V; while C. Marinesco claimed that Krujë no longer belonged to Skanderbeg, but to Alfonso, who exercised his power through his viceroy, this thesis
8235-442: The ability to understand, speak, read, or write a foreign language . As defined by the Institute of Statistics of Albania , 39.9% of the 25 to 64 years old Albanians in Albania are able to use at least one foreign language including English (40%), Italian (27.8%) and Greek (22.9%). The origin of the Albanian language remains a contentious subject that has given rise to numerous hypotheses . The hypothesis of Albanian being one of
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#17327730418528370-418: The act; however, his treason was discovered and he was sent to prison in Naples. In 1456, Skanderbeg's son, Gjon Kastrioti II , was born. Hamza Kastrioti , Skanderbeg's own nephew and his closest collaborator, lost his hope of succession after the birth of Skanderbeg's son and defected to the Ottomans in the same year. In the summer of 1457, an Ottoman army numbering approximately 70,000 men invaded Albania with
8505-472: The area, the Venetians offered rewards for his assassination. The Venetians sought to overthrow or assassinate Skanderbeg by any means, even offering a life pension of 100 golden ducats annually for the person who would kill him. During the conflict, Venice invited the Ottomans to attack Skanderbeg simultaneously from the east, facing the Albanians with a two-front conflict. On 14 May 1448, an Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad II and his son Mehmed laid siege to
8640-412: The beginning of 1454, Skanderbeg and the Venetians informed King Alfonso and the Pope about a possible Ottoman invasion and asked for help. The Pope sent 3,000 ducats while Alfonso sent 500 infantry and a certain amount of money to Skanderbeg. Meanwhile, the Venetian Senate was resenting Skanderbeg's alliance with Naples, an old enemy of Venice. Frequently they delayed their tributes to Skanderbeg and this
8775-478: The broader Muslim world . Innumerable officials and soldiers of the Ottoman State were of Albanian origin, including more than 40 Grand Viziers , and under the Köprülü , in particular, the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest territorial extension. Between the second half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century Albanian Pashaliks were established by Kara Mahmud pasha of Scutari , Ali pasha of Yanina , and Ahmet Kurt pasha of Berat , while
8910-423: The castle of Sfetigrad . The Albanian garrison in the castle resisted the frontal assaults of the Ottoman army, while Skanderbeg harassed the besieging forces with the remaining Albanian army under his personal command. On 23 July 1448, Skanderbeg won a battle near Shkodër against a Venetian army led by Andrea Venier . In late summer 1448, due to a lack of potable water, the Albanian garrison eventually surrendered
9045-430: The castle was still not taken, the morale had sunk, and disease was running rampant. Murad II acknowledged that he could not capture the castle of Krujë by force of arms before the winter, and in October 1450, he lifted the siege and made his way to Edirne . The Ottomans suffered 20,000 casualties during the siege, and many more died as Murad escaped Albania. A few months later, on 3 February 1451, Murad died in Edirne and
9180-475: The castle with the condition of safe passage through the Ottoman besieging forces, a condition which was accepted and respected by Sultan Murad II. Primary sources disagree about the reason why the besieged had problems with the water in the castle: While Barleti and Biemmi maintained that a dead dog was found in the castle well, and the garrison refused to drink the water since it might corrupt their soul, another primary source, an Ottoman chronicler, conjectured that
9315-431: The chroniclers of the early period ( Aşıkpaşazade and the " Tarih-i Al-ı Osman "), and the latter historians ( Müneccim Başı ) are not at all explicit, and regarding the dates, do not agree with the Western sources. The Turkish chronicles of Neshri , Idris Bitlisi , Ibn Kemal and Sadeddin only mention the first revolt of the "treacherous Iskander" in 846 H. (1442–43), the campaign of Sultan Murad in 851 H. (1447–48) and
9450-443: The city walls by the Ottomans, causing great losses to the besieging forces. Ottoman attempts at finding and cutting the water sources failed, as did a sapped tunnel, which collapsed suddenly. An offer of 300,000 aspra (Ottoman silver coins) and a promise of a high rank as an officer in the Ottoman army made to Vrana Konti, were both rejected by him. During the First Siege of Krujë, the Venetian merchants from Scutari sold food to
9585-406: The clerics Fra Lorenzo da Palerino and Fra Giovanni dell'Aquila to Albania with a flag embroidered with a white cross as a symbol of the Crusade which was about to begin. Even though this crusade never materialized, the Neapolitan troops were used in the Siege of Berat , where they were almost entirely annihilated and were never replaced. The Siege of Berat, the first real test between the armies of
9720-434: The country. The Albanian language was referred to as Arbnisht and Arbërisht . While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does have connotations to Classical Antiquity, the Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves as Shqip(ë)tarë and to their country as Shqipëria . Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym: one, derived from
9855-523: The crusade and which, according to the Pope, were to have been distributed in equal parts to Hungary, Bosnia, and Albania. The Ragusans even entered into negotiations with Mehmed. At the end of December 1457, Calixtus threatened Venice with an interdict and repeated the threat in February 1458. As the captain of the Curia, Skanderbeg appointed the duke of Leukas (Santa Maura), Leonardo III Tocco , formerly
9990-602: The daughter of Gjergj Arianiti , one of the most influential Albanian noblemen, strengthening the ties between them, a month after the treaty on 21 April 1451 in the Orthodox Ardenica Monastery , Their only child was Gjon Kastrioti II , however an elder daughter named Voisava is mentioned in some sources as well. In 1451, Mehmed was focused on defeating the Karamanids and Menteşe in the East, but it
10125-586: The descendant of the Illyrian languages ( Messapic language ) is based on geography where the languages were spoken however not enough archaeological evidence is left behind to come therefore to a definite conclusion. Another hypothesis associates the Albanian language with the Thracian language . This theory takes exception to the territory, since the language was spoken in an area distinct from Albania, and no significant population movements have been recorded in
10260-836: The early 11th century and, if this and the identification of the Arbanasi as Albanians are correct, it would be the earliest written document referring to the Balkan Albanians as a people or language group. It can be seen that there are various languages on earth. Of them, there are five Orthodox languages: Bulgarian , Greek , Syrian, Iberian ( Georgian ) and Russian. Three of these have Orthodox alphabets: Greek, Bulgarian and Iberian ( Georgian ). There are twelve languages of half-believers: Alamanians, Franks , Magyars ( Hungarians ), Indians, Jacobites, Armenians , Saxons , Lechs ( Poles ), Arbanasi (Albanians), Croatians , Hizi and Germans . Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080) mentions
10395-481: The end of March 1456. On 5 April 1456, Skanderbeg entered Kruja and Moisi fled to him professing his willingness to take up arms against the Ottomans, and Skanderbeg pardoned him, remaining loyal until his death in 1464. From time to time, Venice succeeded in stirring up Skanderbeg's relatives and weaker neighbors, who set up in opposition to him the elderly Gjergj Arianiti as "captain of all Albania" from Scutari to Durazzo in 1456, but in clan warfare Skanderbeg usually had
10530-729: The end of November. Antonio Bonfini an Italian courtier of the Hungarian king believed the battle could have been won if Skanderbeg had participated. He appears to have marched to join Hunyadi immediately after making peace with the Venetians, and to have been only 20 miles from Kosovo Polje when the Hungarian army finally broke. In June 1450, two years after the Ottomans had captured Sfetigrad, they laid siege to Krujë with an army numbering approximately 100,000 men and led again by Sultan Murad II himself and his son, Mehmed II . Following
10665-737: The end of the 14th century. The historical figure of Konstantin Kastrioti Mazreku is attested in Giovanni Andrea Angelo Flavio Comneno's Genealogia diversarum principum familiarum . Angelo mentions Kastrioti as Constantinus Castriotus, cognomento Meserechus, Aemathiae & Castoriae Princeps (Constantinus Castriotus, surnamed Meserechus, Prince of Aemathia and Castoria). The toponym Castoria has been interpreted as Kastriot , Kastrat in Has, Kastrat in Dibra or
10800-588: The eponymous league was established, was Venetian territory , and the assembly met with the approval of Venice. The later affirmation of Skanderbeg and his rise as a strong force on their borders, however, was seen as a menace to the interests of the Republic, leading to a worsening of relations and the dispute over the fortress of Dagnum which triggered the Albanian-Venetian War of 1447–48 . After various attacks against Bar and Ulcinj, along with Đurađ Branković and Stefan Crnojević , and Albanians of
10935-423: The etymology from the Albanian word for eagle (shqipe, var., shqiponjë). In Albanian folk etymology , this word denotes a bird totem , dating from the times of Skanderbeg as displayed on the Albanian flag . The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb 'to speak' ( me shqiptue ) from the Latin " excipere ". In this instance the Albanian endonym like Slav and others would originally have been
11070-445: The gates of Scutari, and Venetian prisoners were thereafter paraded outside the fortress. The Albanians managed to inflict 2,500 casualties on the Venetian force, capturing 1,000. Skanderbeg's army suffered 400 casualties, most on the right-wing. The peace treaty, negotiated by Georgius Pelino and signed between Skanderbeg and Venice on 4 October 1448, envisioned that Venice would keep Dagnum and its environs, but would cede to Skanderbeg
11205-487: The geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys. The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in the Southeast of Europe at the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west, but they also have historically inhabited
11340-423: The geopolitical contexts of the time, Gjon Kastrioti changed allegiances and religions when allied to Venice as a Catholic and Serbia as an Orthodox Christian. Gjon Kastrioti later became a vassal of the Sultan since the end of the 14th century, and, as a consequence, paid tribute and provided military services to the Ottomans (such as in the Battle of Ankara in 1402). In 1409, he sent his eldest son, Stanisha, to be
11475-549: The groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term Albanoi is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople . The term Arvanitai is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and Arbanitai in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It
11610-413: The hinterland of Durrës . Linguists believe that the alb part in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, from which other words such as alps are derived. Through the root word alban and its rhotacized equivalents arban , albar , and arbar , the term in Albanian became rendered as Arbëneshë/Arbëreshë for the people and Arbënia/Arbëria for
11745-409: The hope of destroying Albanian resistance once and for all. This army was led by Isak-Beg and Hamza Kastrioti, the commander who knew all about Albanian tactics and strategy. After wreaking much damage to the countryside, the Ottoman army set up camp at Ujebardha field, halfway between Lezhë and Krujë. After having avoided the enemy for months, calmly giving to the Ottomans and his European neighbours
11880-471: The impression that he was defeated, on 2 September Skanderbeg attacked the Ottoman forces in their encampments and defeated them killing 15,000 Ottomans, capturing 15,000 and 24 standards, and all the riches in the camp. This was one of the most famous victories of Skanderbeg over the Ottomans, which led to a five-year peace treaty with Sultan Mehmed II. Hamza was captured and sent to detention in Naples . After
12015-406: The last campaign of Mehmed II in 871 H. (1466–67). In early November 1443, Skanderbeg deserted the forces of Sultan Murad II during the Battle of Niš , while fighting against the crusaders of John Hunyadi . According to some earlier sources, Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army during the Battle of Kunovica on 2 January 1444. Skanderbeg quit the field along with 300 other Albanians serving in
12150-569: The microtoponym "Kostur" near the village of Mazrek in the Has region . In connection to the Kastrioti family name, it is very likely that the name of one the different Kastriot or Kastrat which were fortified settlements as their etymology shows ( castrum ) was as their family name. The Kastrioti may have originated from this village or probably had acquired it as pronoia . Angelo used the cognomen Meserechus in reference to Skanderbeg and this link to
12285-634: The name "Albanians" ( Byzantine Greek : Albanoi/Arbanitai/Arbanites ; Latin : Albanenses/Arbanenses ) was used in medieval documents and gradually entered European Languages from which other similar derivative names emerged, many of which were or still are in use, such as English "Albanians"; Italian "Albanesi"; German "Albaner"; Greek "Arvanites", "Alvanitis" (Αλβανίτης) plural: "Alvanites" (Αλβανίτες), "Alvanos" (Αλβανός) plural: "Alvanoi" (Αλβανοί); Turkish "Arnaut", "Arnavut"; South Slavic languages "Arbanasi" (Арбанаси), "Albanci" (Албанци); Aromanian "Arbinesh" and so on. The term "Albanoi" (Αλβανοί)
12420-476: The new sultan and Skanderbeg, ended up in an Ottoman victory. Skanderbeg besieged the town's castle for months, causing the demoralized Ottoman officer in charge of the castle to promise his surrender. At that point, Skanderbeg relaxed his grip, split his forces, and departed the siege, leaving behind one of his generals, Muzakë Topia , and half of his cavalry on the banks of the Osum River in order to finalize
12555-426: The offensive against Mehmed II. The knight Pal Gazulli was travelling frequently to Italy, and another Gazulli, Andrea, was ambassador of the despot of Morea in Ragusa before becoming a member of Skanderbeg's court in 1462. Some adventurers also followed Skanderbeg, such as a man named John Newport; Stefan Maramonte , who acted as Skanderbeg's ambassador to Milan in 1456; Stjepan Radojevic, who in 1466 provided ships for
12690-462: The opinion that while Stanisha might have been conscripted at a young age, and had to go through the Devşirme, this was not the case with Skanderbeg, who is assumed to have been sent hostage to the Sultan by his father only at the age of 18. It was customary at the time that a local chieftain, who had been defeated by the Sultan, would send one of his children to the Sultan's court, where the child would be
12825-457: The other continents. The language of the Albanians is an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch , which belongs to the Paleo-Balkan group . Albanians have a western Paleo-Balkanic origin, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from
12960-451: The people of Albania. Historian E. Vranoussi believes that these "Albanoi" were Normans from Sicily. She also notes that the same term (as "Albani") in medieval Latin meant "foreigners". The reference to "Arvanitai" from Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes
13095-568: The period when the shift from one language to the other is supposed to have occurred. The Komani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of North Macedonia . It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the Lezhë ( Praevalitana )- Dardania and Via Egnatia road networks which connected
13230-413: The place where Skanderbeg was born. One of the main Skanderbeg biographers, Frashëri, has, among others, interpreted Gjon Muzaka 's book of genealogies, sources of Raffaele Maffei ("il Volterrano"; 1451–1522), and the Ottoman defter (census) of 1467, and placed the birth of Skanderbeg in the small village of Sinë , one of the two villages owned by his grandfather Pal Kastrioti . Fan Noli 's placement of
13365-406: The planning of a new crusade which Alfonso would have presented to Pope Nicholas V in a meeting in 1453–54. During the five years which followed the first siege of Krujë, Albania was allowed some respite as the new sultan set out to conquer the last vestiges of the Byzantine Empire , but in 1452 the newly acceded Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II ordered his first campaign against Skanderbeg. An expedition
13500-469: The point where Pope Pius II suggested entrusting Skanderbeg's dominions to Venice during his Italian expedition. After Serbian Despot Stefan Branković was dethroned in April 1459, he travelled to Albania and stayed with Skanderbeg and supported his anti-Ottoman activities, forging plans to recapture Serbia from Ottomans and return to Smederevo . In November 1460 Despot Stefan married Angelina Arianiti ,
13635-614: The population in his father's former properties and also with other Albanian noble families . Skanderbeg's Rebellion (1443–1468) Contemporaneous Campaigns (1447–1462) Resistance until the Fall of Shkodra (1468–1479) Beside Barleti , other sources on this period are the Byzantine historians Chalcocondylas , Sphrantzes and Critoboulos , and the Venetian documents, published by Ljubić in "Monumenta spectantia historiam Slavorum Meridionalium". The Turkish sources –
13770-607: The prince of Arta and "despot of the Rhomaeans ", a figure known in Southern Epirus, as a lieutenant in his native land. On 27 June 1458, King Alfonso V died at Naples and Skanderbeg sent emissaries to his son and successor, King Ferdinand . According to historian C. Marinesco, the death of King Alfonso marked the end of the Aragonese dream of a Mediterranean Empire and also the hope for a new crusade in which Skanderbeg
13905-490: The relations that their father had with the Republic of Ragusa and the Republic of Venice ; in 1438 and 1439, they sustained their father's privileges with those states. During the 1438–43 period, he is thought to have been fighting alongside the Ottomans in their European campaigns, mostly against the Christian forces led by Janos Hunyadi . In 1440 Skanderbeg was appointed sanjakbey of Dibra . During his stay in Albania as Ottoman governor, he maintained close relations with
14040-463: The rest of Europe. In neighbouring Yugoslavia , Albanians underwent periods of discrimination and systematic oppression that concluded with the War of Kosovo and eventually with Kosovar independence . The Albanians ( Albanian : Shqiptarët ) and their country Albania ( Albanian : Shqipëria ) have been identified by many ethnonyms . The most common native ethnonym is "Shqiptar", plural "Shqiptarë";
14175-421: The same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians. The first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century (around 1285). The national ethnonym Albanian and its variants are derived from Albanoi , first mentioned as an Illyrian tribe in the 2nd century CE by Ptolemy with their centre at the city of Albanopolis , located in modern-day central Albania, somewhere in
14310-823: The same name is produced in other sources and reproduced in later ones like Du Cange 's Historia Byzantina (1680). These links highlight that the Kastrioti used Mazreku as a name that highlighted their tribal affiliation ( farefisni ). The name Mazrek(u), which means horse breeder in Albanian, is found throughout all Albanian regions. Skanderbeg's first name was Gjergj (George) in Albanian. Frang Bardhi in Dictionarium latino-epiroticum (1635) provides two first names in Albanian: Gjeç ( Giec ) and Gjergj ( Gierg ). In his personal correspondence in Italian and in most biographies produced after his death in Italy, his name
14445-533: The same year Gjon had to seek forgiveness from the Venetian Senate because Skanderbeg participated in Ottoman military campaigns against Christians. In 1430, Gjon was defeated in battle by the Ottoman governor of Skopje , Ishak Bey , and as a result, his territorial possessions were extremely reduced. Later that year, Skanderbeg continued fighting for Murad II in his expeditions, and gained the title of sipahi . Several scholars have assumed that Skanderbeg
14580-449: The second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" ( aubain ) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed. The debate has never been resolved. A newer synthesis about the second use of the term Albanoi by Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the term Albanoi may have referred to Albanians of the specific district of Arbanon , while Arbanitai to Albanians in general regardless of
14715-410: The second use of the term Albanoi by Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the term Albanoi may have referred to Albanians of the specific district of Arbanon , while Arbanitai to Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited. Albanians speak the Albanian language , which is an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch , which belongs to
14850-543: The sister of Skanderbeg's wife Donika . Skanderbeg gave the dethroned Despot Stefan an unknown estate as appanage. With Skanderbeg's recommendations, Despot Stefan moved to Italy in 1461 or 1466. In 1460, King Ferdinand had serious problems with another uprising of the Angevins and asked for help from Skanderbeg. This invitation worried King Ferdinand's opponents, and Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta declared that if Ferdinand of Naples received Skanderbeg, Malatesta would go to
14985-787: The south with Eastern Orthodoxy . In 1190 Albanians established the Principality of Arbanon in central Albania with the capital in Krujë . The Albanian diaspora has its roots in migration from the Middle Ages initially across Southern Europe and eventually across wider Europe and the New World . Between the 13th and 18th centuries, sizeable numbers migrated to escape various social, economic or political difficulties. Albanian population groups settled in Southern Greece between
15120-835: The south. Dialects of linguistic minorities spoken in Croatia ( Arbanasi and Istrian ), Kosovo , Montenegro and northwestern North Macedonia are classified as Gheg, while those spoken in Greece , southwestern North Macedonia and Italy as Tosk. The Arbëresh and Arvanitika dialects of the Albanian language, are spoken by the Arbëreshë and Arvanites in Southern Italy and Southern Greece , respectively. They retain elements of medieval Albanian vocabulary and pronunciation that are no longer used in modern Albanian; however, both varieties are classified as endangered languages in
15255-621: The specific region they inhabited. The name reflects the Albanian endonym Arbër/n + esh which itself derives from the same root as the name of the Albanoi Frang Bardhi Bardhi was born in Kallmet or Nënshat in the northern Albanian Zadrima region near Lezhë . He came from a family consisting of many figures high in the hierarchy of the Catholic Church and state officials or military commanders of
15390-401: The study of the transition between the classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and Vlachs ( Eastern Romance -speaking people). In Winnifrith's narrative,
15525-406: The surrender. It was a costly error—the Ottomans saw this moment as an opportunity for attack and sent a large cavalry force, led by Isak-Beg , to reinforce the garrison. The Albanian forces lulled into a false sense of security. The Ottomans caught the Albanian cavalry by surprise while they were resting on the banks of the Osum River , and almost all the 5,000 Albanian cavalry laying siege to Berat
15660-417: The term Albanoi twice and the term Arbanitai once. The term Albanoi is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term Albanoi is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople . The term Arvanitai
15795-401: The territory of Buzëgjarpri at the mouth of the river Drin , and also that Skanderbeg would enjoy the privilege of buying, tax-free, 200 horse-loads of salt annually from Durazzo. In addition, Venice would pay Skanderbeg 1,400 ducats. During the period of clashes with Venice, Skanderbeg intensified relations with Alfonso V of Aragon ( r. 1416–1458 ), who was the main rival of Venice in
15930-511: The treaty, in the end of May 1451, a small detachment of 100 Catalan soldiers, headed by Bernard Vaquer, was established at the castle of Krujë. One year later, in May 1452, another Catalan nobleman, Ramon d'Ortafà , came to Krujë with the title of viceroy . In 1453, Skanderbeg paid a secret visit to Naples and the Vatican , probably to discuss the new conditions after the fall of Constantinople and
16065-682: The upper hand. Skanderbeg took over possessions of the Zenevisi and the Balšić as well. Skanderbeg's followers that ruled over northern Albania and all of the chieftains on both sides of the Tomor mountains remained loyal to him. In 1456, one of Skanderbeg's nephews, George Strez Balšić , sold the Modrič fortress (now in North Macedonia ) to the Ottomans for 30,000 silver ducats. He tried to cover up
16200-497: The victorious Battle of Ujëbardha , Skanderbeg's relations with the Papacy under Pope Calixtus III were intensified. The reason was that during this time, Skanderbeg's military undertakings involved considerable expense in which the contribution of Alfonso V of Aragon was not sufficient to defray. In 1457, Skanderbeg requested help from Calixtus III. Being himself in financial difficulties, the pope could do no more than send Skanderbeg
16335-492: The year of his birth in 1405 is now largely agreed upon, after earlier disagreements, and lack of birth documents for him and his siblings. His father Gjon Kastrioti held territory between Lezhë and Prizren that included Mat , Mirditë and Dibër in north-central Albania. His mother was Voisava , whose origin is disputed. One view holds that she was a Slavic princess from the Polog region, which has been interpreted as her being
16470-466: Was assigned a leading role. The relationship of Skanderbeg with the Kingdom of Naples continued after Alfonso V's death, but the situation had changed. Ferdinand I was not as able as his father and now it was Skanderbeg's turn to help King Ferdinand to regain and maintain his kingdom. In 1459 Skanderbeg captured the fortress of Sati from the Ottoman Empire and ceded it to Venice in order to secure cordial relationship with Signoria. The reconciliation reached
16605-399: Was because of Skanderbeg's display of military merit in several Ottoman campaigns, that Murad II (r. 1421–51) had given him the title of vali . At that time, Skanderbeg was leading a cavalry unit of 5,000 men. After his brother Reposh's death on 25 July 1431 and the later deaths of Kostandin and Skanderbeg's father (who died in 1437), Skanderbeg and his surviving brother Stanisha maintained
16740-498: Was earmarked to be the chief commander of the crusading forces of Pope Pius II , but the Pope died while the armies were still gathering and the greater European crusade never took place. Together with Venetians, he fought against the Ottomans during the First Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479) until his death. Skanderbeg ranks high in the military history of that time as the most persistent—and ever-victorious—opponent of
16875-479: Was given a fiefdom in Nikopol in northern Bulgaria , because a certain "Iskander bey" is mentioned in a 1430 document holding fiefs there. Although Skanderbeg was summoned home by his relatives when Gjergj Arianiti and Andrew Thopia along with other chiefs from the region between Vlorë and Shkodër organized the Albanian revolt of 1432–1436 , he did nothing, remaining loyal to the sultan. In 1437–38, he became
17010-531: Was in his intentions to return to Albania. During this brief period of rest, Skanderbeg took up the rebuilding of Krujë and erected a new fortress in Modrica in the Drin Valley near Sfetigrad (which had been lost in a 1448 siege) where Ottoman forces had previously slipped through unhindered. The fortress was constructed in the heat of summer within a few months when few Ottoman posts were present. This came as
17145-420: Was killed along with 1,500 of his men. Skanderbeg defeated the Ottomans two more times the following year, once when Ottoman forces from Ohrid suffered severe losses, and again in the Battle of Otonetë on 27 September 1446. At the beginning of the Albanian insurrection, the Republic of Venice was supportive of Skanderbeg, considering his forces to be a buffer between them and the Ottoman Empire. Lezhë, where
17280-438: Was killed. Most of the forces belonged to Gjergj Arianiti, whose role as Skanderbeg's greatest support diminished after the defeat. The attitude of other Albanian nobility was also somewhat affected. Moisi Golemi defected to the Ottomans and returned to Albania in 1456 as the commander of an Ottoman army of 15,000 men, but he was defeated by Skanderbeg in the Battle of Oranik and lost his territory of Debar to Skanderbeg toward
17415-768: Was long a matter of dispute between the parties, with Skanderbeg threatening war on Venice at least three times between 1448 and 1458, and Venice conceding in a conciliatory tone. In June 1454, Ramon d'Ortafà returned to Krujë, this time with the title of viceroy of Albania, Greece, and Slavonia, with a personal letter to Skanderbeg as the Captain-General of the Neapolitan-aligned armed forces in parts of Albania ( Magnifico et strenuo viro Georgio Castrioti, dicto Scandarbech, gentium armorum nostrarum in partibus Albanie generali capitaneo, consiliario fideli nobis dilecto ). Along with d'Ortafà, King Alfonso V also sent
17550-582: Was referred to by the monks in Hilandar as the Arbanashki pirg or Albanian tower . Reposh Kastrioti is listed as dux illyricus or Duke of Illyria in Hilandar. After Skanderbeg graduated from Enderun , the sultan granted him control over one timar (land grant) which was near the territories controlled by his father. His father was concerned that the sultan might order Skanderbeg to occupy his territory and informed Venice about this in April 1428. In
17685-557: Was rejected by A. Gegaj , who claimed that the disproportion in numbers between the Spanish forces (100) and Skanderbeg's (around 10–15 thousand) clearly showed that the city belonged to Skanderbeg. It is presumed that Skanderbeg de facto had full control over his territories: while Naples' archives registered payments and supplies sent to Skanderbeg, they do not mention any kind of payment or tribute by Skanderbeg to Alfonso, except for various Ottoman war prisoners and banners sent by him as
17820-528: Was sent to prevent Skanderbeg from moving into Macedonia. Firuz had heard that the Albanian army had disbanded for the time being, so he planned to move quickly around the Black Drin valley and through Prizren. These movements were picked up by Skanderbeg's scouts, who moved to meet Firuz. The Ottomans were lured into the Mokra valley, and Skanderbeg with a force of 3,500 attacked and defeated the Ottomans. Firuz
17955-445: Was sent under the dual-command of Tahip Pasha, the main commander, and Hamza Pasha, his subordinate, with an army of c. 25,000 men split between the two. Skanderbeg gathered 14,000 men and marched against the Ottoman army. Skanderbeg planned to first defeat Hamza and then to move around Tahip and encircle him. Skanderbeg did not give Hamza much time to prepare and, on 21 July, he assaulted immediately. The fierce attack made short work of
18090-455: Was succeeded by his son Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481). After the siege, Skanderbeg was at the end of his resources. He lost all of his possessions except Krujë . The other nobles from the region of Albania allied with Murad II as he came to save them from the oppression. Even after the sultan's withdrawal, they rejected Skanderbeg's efforts to enforce his authority over their domains. Skanderbeg then traveled to Ragusa , urging for assistance, and
18225-502: Was written as Giorgio . His name on his official seal and signature was Georgius Castriotus Scanderbego (Latin). His correspondence with Slavic states ( Republic of Ragusa ), was written by scribes like Ninac Vukosalić . Skanderbeg's name in Slavic is recorded the first time in the 1426 act of sale of St. George's tower to his father Gjon Kastrioti in Hilandar as Геѡрг and appears as Гюрьгь Кастриѡть in his later correspondence in
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