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146-801: Longships were a type of specialised Scandinavian warships that have a long history in Scandinavia , with their existence being archaeologically proven and documented from at least the fourth century BC. Originally invented and used by the Norsemen (commonly known as the Vikings ) for commerce, exploration, and warfare during the Viking Age , many of the longship's characteristics were adopted by other cultures, like Anglo-Saxons , and continued to influence shipbuilding for centuries. The longship's design evolved over many centuries, and continued up until

292-671: A Viking Age farm in southern Greenland part of a circular disk with carvings was recovered. The discovery of the so-called Viking Sundial suggested a hypothesis that it was used as a compass. Archaeologists found a piece of stone and a fragment of wooden disk both featuring straight and hyperbolic carvings. It turned out that the two items had been parts of sundials used by the Vikings as a compass during their sea-crossings along latitude 61 degrees North. Archaeologists have found two devices which they interpret as navigation instruments. Both appear to be sundials with gnomon curves etched on

438-658: A French historian, a monk at the St. Omer monastery in Flanders, provides a detailed description of Viking ships, focusing on their elaborate decoration and organization. The account mentions that the Viking chieftains' ships were distinguished by unique designs on the bow, including gold lion figures, wind-vanes with birds, and animal carvings of drakes, bulls, and dolphins in bronze or precious metals. The ships' sides were painted in vibrant colors and adorned with wood carvings, particularly

584-621: A broad hull somewhat similar to the knarr. They were used for both war and ordinary transport, carrying people, cargo or livestock. Because they were able to navigate in very shallow water, they were also used for coasting. Karves typically had broad beams of approximately 17 feet (5.2 m). Viking ships varied from other contemporary ships, being generally more seaworthy and lighter. This was achieved through use of clinker ( lapstrake ) construction. The planks on Viking vessels were rived (split) from large, old-growth trees—especially oak. A ship's hull could be as thin as one inch (2.5 cm), as

730-459: A flat surface. The devices are small enough to be held flat in the hand at 70 mm (2.8 inches) diameter. A wooden version dated to about 1000 AD was found in Greenland. A stone version was also found at Vatnahverfi , Greenland. By looking at the place where the shadow from the rod falls on a carved curve, a navigator is able to sail along a line of latitude. Both gnomon curve devices show

876-463: A helpful guide to finding land. A Viking legend states that Vikings used to take caged crows aboard ships and let them loose if they got lost. The crows would instinctively head for land, giving the sailors a course to steer. The longships had two methods of propulsion: oars and sail. At sea, the sail enabled longships to travel faster than by oar and to cover long distances overseas with far less manual effort. Sails could be raised or lowered quickly. In

1022-503: A large and powerful war fleet. While longships were used by the Norse in warfare, they were mostly used as troop transports, not warships. Their main purpose was to swiftly carry as many warriors as possible to a scene of conflict. In the tenth century, longships would sometimes be tied together in offshore battles to form a steady platform for infantry warfare. During the ninth-century peak of the Viking expansion, large fleets set out to attack

1168-591: A length of 17 m (56 feet), a width of 2.5 m (8.2 feet), and a draught of only 0.5 m (1.6 feet). It would carry a crew of around 41 men (40 oarsmen and one cox). The snekkja was one of the most common types of ships. According to Viking lore, Canute the Great used 1,200 in Norway in 1028. The Norwegian type snekkja typically had more draught than the Danish ships designed for low coasts and beaches. A snekkja

1314-497: A length to width ratio of 7:1, the Karvi ships were closer to 9:2. The Gokstad Ship is a famous Karvi ship, built around the end of the ninth century, excavated in 1880 by Nicolay Nicolaysen. It was approximately 23 m (75 feet) long with 16 rowing positions. The snekkja (or snekke ) was typically the smallest longship used in warfare and was classified as a ship with at least 20 rowing benches. A typical snekkja might have

1460-733: A longship sailed across the North Atlantic. It was accurate to within ±5°. Hypothesis The Danish archaeologist Thorkild Ramskou suggested in 1967 that the " sun-stones " referred to in some sagas might have been natural crystals capable of polarizing skylight. The mineral cordierite occurring in Norway has the local name "Viking's Compass." Its changes in colour would allow determining the sun's position (azimuth) even through an overcast or foggy horizon. The sunstones are doubly refracting , meaning that objects viewed through them can be seen as double because of positively charged calcium ions and negatively charged carbonate ions. When looking at

1606-490: A means to intimidate enemies and protect the sailors during their journeys. These carvings were not merely decorative but symbolized the Vikings' reverence for nature and their societal beliefs. The quality and intricate design of the ship indicated the resources invested by its owner. Many Viking lords and nobles used large, elaborately carved ships to showcase their social status. Thus, ships were not only tools for war and exploration but also symbols of family identity. Possessing

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1752-465: A modern facsimile the mast can be lowered in 90 seconds. Oars were used when near the coast or in a river, to gain speed quickly, and when there was an adverse (or insufficient) wind. In combat, the variability of wind power made rowing the chief means of propulsion. The ship was steered by a vertical flat blade with a short round handle, at right angles, mounted over the starboard side of the aft gunwale. Longships were not fitted with benches. When rowing,

1898-416: A navigational tool that can only determine direction in such limited conditions. Viking sagas routinely tell of voyages where Vikings suffered from being "hafvilla" (bewildered)—voyages beset by fog or bad weather, where they completely lost their sense of direction. This description suggests they did not use a sunstone when the sun was obscured. Moreover, the fact that this same bewilderment could arise when

2044-542: A platter of significant value of possessions, that followed individuals of high esteem into the after life as a guide . In addition, they also served as a reservation for those in high authority in both life and in death. The ownership of a ship during the Viking Age carried along with it social implications by effectively reinforcing class distinctions and a hierarchy within the Viking society . A well-decorated and elaborated ship represented great wealth and influence due to

2190-486: A powerful naval force at his disposal. While longships were deployed by the Norse in warfare, there are no descriptions of naval tactics such as ramming, etc. Instead, the ships would sometimes be lashed together in battle to form a steady platform for infantry warfare. Longships were called dragonships ( drakuskippan ) by the Franks because they had a dragon-shaped prow . The Karve was a small type of Viking longship, with

2336-442: A removable section of decking. Sea chests were placed on top of the decking to use when rowing. Most likely on longer voyages sea chests were secured below decks to act as ballast when sailing. The centre section of the keel has little rocker and together with flat midships transverse section the hull shape is suited to medium to flat water sailing. When sailing downwind in strong winds and waves, directional control would be poor, so it

2482-473: A ribbon-animal, gripping-beasts rendered with humanoid heads, and more ambiguous forms that echo the bodies of creatures seen at the prow. Such style is called the Oseberg Style, which is the first phase of the development of the Viking aesthetic, lasting from the year 775 to the year 850. It is famous for its intertwining zoomorphic patterns of "Gripping Beasts" and "Ribbon-Animals". This citation from

2628-400: A rived plank is stronger than a sawed plank found in later craft, resulting in a strong yet supple hull. Working up from a stout oaken keel and ribs, the shipwrights would rivet on the planks using wrought iron rivets and roves, reinforced with added support ribs and thwarts. Each tier of planks overlapped the one below, and a caulking of tarred cow's hair was used between planks to create

2774-505: A ship with a dragon's head at either end, which might be intended to represent a dreki ship. The first longships can trace their origin back to between 500 and 300 BC, when the Danish Hjortspring boat was built. It was fastened with cord, not nailed, and paddled, not rowed. It had rounded cross sections and although 20 m (65 feet) long was only 2 m (6 feet) wide. The rounded sections gave maximum displacement for

2920-463: A single firing have been dated to between 680 AD and 900 AD. A drain plug hole about 25 mm (1 inch) was drilled in the garboard plank on one side to allow rain water drainage. The oars did not use rowlocks or thole pins but holes cut below the gunwale line. To keep seawater out, these oar holes were sealed with wooden disks from the inside, when the oars were not in use. The holes were also used for belaying mooring lines and sail sheets. At

3066-486: A sley, a weavers reed, or to a sheath that a knife slides into) and probably connoting 'speeder' (referring to a running race) (Zoega, Old Icelandic Dictionary). These ships were larger warships, consisting of more than 30 rowing benches. Ships of this classification are some of the largest (see Busse) longships ever discovered. A group of these ships were discovered by Danish archaeologists in Roskilde during development in

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3212-450: A spacing of about 850 mm (33 inches). Part of the reason for this spacing was to achieve the correct distance between rowing stations and to create space for the chests used by Norse sailors as thwarts (seats). The bottom futtocks next to the keel were made from natural L-shaped crooks. The upper futtocks were usually not attached to the lower futtocks to allow some hull twist. The parts were held together with iron rivets, hammered in from

3358-424: A very large amount of physical effort compared to the modern fore and aft tiller. Longships for the most part used two different kinds of anchors. The most common was a natural wood yoke formed from a tree branch. The weight was supplied by a stone passing laterally through the U of the yoke. The top of the yoke was closed by either a length of hardwood or a curved iron head, which kept the stone in place. One side of

3504-497: A waterproof hull. Remarkably large vessels could be constructed using traditional clinker construction. Dragon-ships carrying 100 warriors were not uncommon. Furthermore, during the early Viking Age, oar ports replaced rowlocks, allowing oars to be stored while the ship was at sail and to provide better angles for rowing. The largest ships of the era could travel five to six knots using oar power and up to ten knots under sail. Viking ships were manufactured with techniques that ensured

3650-598: A well-carved ship symbolized a family's wealth and influence, highlighting their place in Viking society. The craftsmanship of Viking ships was undoubtedly top-notch for its time. Constructing such a ship required highly skilled artisans and a significant amount of time, with materials and decorative elements often being costly. Therefore, these ships symbolized a family's honor and prosperity. Viking ships were not only works of art but also ways for people to display social status, particularly through their exquisite dragon head carvings and intricate geometric patterns, which reflected

3796-553: Is 23.80 metres (78.1 ft) long and 5.10 m (16.7 ft) wide. It is the largest in the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo . The ship was steered by a quarter rudder fastened to a large block of wood attached to the outside of the hull and supported by an extra stout rib. The block is known as the wart, and is fastened by osiers, bent willow shoots on the outside passed through both the rudder and wart to be firmly anchored in

3942-417: Is a plausible method for determining direction. By showing which direction light waves are oscillating, the sunstone has the potential to show the sun's position even when the sun is obscured by clouds. The stone changes to a certain color, based on the direction of the waves, but only when the object is held in an area with direct sunlight. Thus, most scholars debate the reliability and the plausibility of using

4088-623: Is an exact replica of the Gokstad ship. Gaia was constructed during the winter of 1989–1990 in Bjørkedal in Volda . On May 17, 1991, it was sailed by Ragnar Thorseth to North America to mark the 1000th anniversary of Leiv Eriksson ’s founding of Vinland . It was named Gaia on June 19, 1991, by Vigdis Finnbogadottir , the President of Iceland , during this voyage. In May 1993, the vessel

4234-457: Is by the number of rowing positions on board. Types ranged from the Karvi, with 13 rowing benches, to the Busse, one of which has been found with an estimated 34 rowing positions. Longships were the epitome of Scandinavian naval power at the time and were highly valued possessions. They were owned by coastal farmers and assembled by the king to form the leidang in times of conflict, in order to have

4380-559: Is impossible to know; but it is much more difficult to imagine that a king's body and accompanying treasures would have been simply pushed out to sea, where they would have been in danger of returning, or of falling into the hands of strangers or even enemies who might maltreat the one and plunder the other. Burial of ships is an ancient tradition in Scandinavia, stretching back to at least the Nordic Iron Age , as evidenced by

4526-450: Is light and seems to have been more common in later designs for internal hull battens (stringers). Although it is used for spars in modern times there is as yet no evidence the Vikings used spruce for masts. All timber was used unseasoned. The bark was removed by a bark spade . This consisted of a 1.2-metre long (3.9 ft) wooden handle with a T crossbar at the upper end, fitted with a broad chisel-like cutting edge of iron. The cutting edge

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4672-404: Is likely that some reefing system was used to reduce sail area. In such conditions the ship would take water aboard at an alarming rate if sailed at high speed. The method of fastening the planking to the frames above the waterline is by iron rivets in the form of iron nails driven from outside and then turned over a cinch plate on the inside. The lowest nine planks on each side of the keel up to

4818-476: Is offered as to how this could be accomplished with a square sail as the lower reefed portion of the sail would be very bulky and would prevent even an approximation of the laminar flow necessary for windward sailing. There is no evidence of any triangular sails in use. Masts were held erect by side stays and possibly fore and aft stays. Each side stay was fitted at its lower end with a 150-millimetre long (6 in) toggle. There were no chain plates. The lower part of

4964-439: Is the overlapping of planks riveted together. Some might have had a dragon 's head or other circular object protruding from the bow and stern for design, although this is only inferred from historical sources. Viking ships were used both for military purposes and for long-distance trade, exploration and colonization . In the literature, Viking ships are usually seen divided into two broad categories: merchant ships and warships,

5110-406: Is the smallest vessel that is considered a longship. According to the tenth-century Gulating Law , a ship with 13 rowing benches is the smallest ship suitable for military use. A ship with 6 to 16 benches would be classified as a Karvi. These ships were considered to be "general purpose" ships, mainly used for fishing and trade, but occasionally commissioned for military use. While most longships held

5256-429: Is to make the bottom of the ship lighter and more flexible. The 1893 'Viking' replica of the Gokstad ship reproduced this form of construction. The Viking's captain, Magnus Andersen, reported that the lightness and flexibility allowed the bottom to rise and fall up to 18 mm in heavy seas without leaking and the gunwale could twist up to 15 cm out of line. Speeds of around 10 or 11 knots were recorded. The ship

5402-413: Is uncertain if they were used in longship construction. Even though no longship sail has been found, accounts and depictions verify that longships had square sails. Sails measured perhaps 11 to 12 m (35 to 40 feet) across, and were made of rough wool cloth . Unlike in knarrs , a longship sail was not stitched. The sail was held in place by the mast which was up to 16 m (52 feet) tall. Its base

5548-417: Is waterproofed . Additionally, shields were often mounted on both sides of the ship for protection as well as portrayal of the idea of strength and power. This method significantly proved to be suitable for Viking ships as it ensured its speed which was ideal for both long journeys and raids. In addition to this, ships were strengthened with a combination of one floor timbers and crossbeams, therefore enabling

5694-795: The Baltic Sea to far from the Scandinavian homelands, to Iceland , the Faroe Islands , Greenland , Newfoundland , the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and Africa. The ship's shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one meter deep and permitted beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages . The ship has been functioning as the centerpiece of Scandinavian culture for millennia, serving both pragmatic and religious purposes, and its importance

5840-733: The Hjortspring boat (400–300 BC) or the Nydam boats (200–450 AD), for example. Ships and bodies of water have held major spiritual importance in the Norse cultures since at least the Nordic Bronze Age . Several original Viking ships have been found through the ages, but only a few have been relatively intact. The most notable of these few ships include: Examples of other Viking ships, including some that are relatively well-preserved and some, where only very small parts remain: Have been regarded as Viking ships, but from before or after

5986-547: The Nordic Bronze Age , depict ships in various situations and valuable ships were sacrificed as part of ceremonial votive offerings since at least the Nordic Iron Age , as evidenced by the Hjortspring and Nydam boats . The Viking Age saw the first local developments of trading ports into forts and coastal towns, all of which were deeply dependent on the North Sea and the Baltic Sea for survival and growth. Control of

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6132-556: The Roskilde 6 , at 37 m (121 feet) is the longest Viking ship ever discovered and has been dated to around 1025. Skuldelev 2 was replicated as Seastallion from Glendalough at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde and launched in 2004. In 2012, a 35-metre (115 ft) long skeid longship named Draken Harald Hårfagre was launched in Norway. It was built from scratch by experts, using original Viking and experimental archaeological methods. Dreki (singular, meaning 'dragon'),

6278-514: The bow of a boat while digging in the still frozen ground. As word of the find got out, Nicolay Nicolaysen , then President of the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments , reached the site during February 1880. Having ascertained that the find was indeed that of an ancient artifact, he liaised for the digging to be stopped. Nicolaysen later returned and established that

6424-418: The hull . The longships were characterized as graceful, long, narrow, and light, with a shallow- draft hull designed for speed. The ship's shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one meter deep and permitted arbitrary beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages or used bottom-up for shelter in camps. Longships were fitted with oars along almost the entire length of

6570-489: The English because some had a dragon-shaped decoration atop the bow beam. The Norse had a strong sense of naval architecture, and during the early medieval period, they were advanced for their time. Longships can be classified into a number of different types, depending on size, construction details, and prestige. The most common way to classify longships is by the number of rowing positions on board. The Karvi (or Karve )

6716-580: The Middle Ages, demanding that the freemen should build, man, and furnish ships for war if demanded by the king—ships with at least 20 or 25 oar-pairs (40–50+ rowers). However, by the late 14th century, these low-boarded vessels were at a disadvantage against newer, taller vessels—when the Victual Brothers , in the employ of the Hansa , attacked Bergen in the autumn of 1393, the "great ships" of

6862-544: The Sunstone, Polarized Light and the Horizon Board by Leif K. Karlsen. To derive a course to steer relative to the sun direction, he uses a sun-stone (solarsteinn) made of Iceland spar (optical calcite or silfurberg), and a "horizon-board." The author constructed the latter from an Icelandic saga source, and describes an experiment performed to determine its accuracy. Karlsen also discusses why on North Atlantic trips

7008-475: The University of Oslo asserted that the man was King Olaf Gudrodson , gout-ridden son of the elderly king Gudrod of Vestfold. But this has not been sufficiently proven. The grave was furnished with grave goods in addition to the ship itself: three small boats, a tent, a sledge, and riding equipment. Other grave goods were probably plundered in ancient times: the excavation in 1880 found no gold or silver. In

7154-499: The Viking Age have been excavated by archaeologists. A selection of vessels that has been particularly important to our understanding of the longships design and construction, comprise the following: A selection of important longships known only from written sources includes: There are many replicas of Viking ships – including longships – in existence. Some are just inspired by the longship design in general, while others are intricate works of experimental archaeology, trying to replicate

7300-924: The Viking Age: Viking ship replicas are one of the more common types of ship replica . Viking , the first Viking ship replica, was built by the Rødsverven shipyard in Sandefjord, Norway . In 1893 it sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to Chicago for the World's Columbian Exposition . There are a considerable number of modern reconstructions of Viking Age ships in service around Northern Europe and North America. The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde , Denmark, has been particularly prolific in building accurate reconstructions of archaeological finds in its collection. Gokstad ship The site where

7446-411: The Viking period, weapons were considered an important part of a man's grave goods, but again, none were found in the Gokstad ship. The ship, the reconstructed burial chamber, two of the small boats and two tent boards from the burial chamber are displayed in the Viking Ship Museum located on Bygdøy peninsula in Oslo, Norway . Some other artifacts that survived the plundering are also on display in

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7592-591: The Viking ship progressed into the most powerful, advanced naval vessel in Viking Age Europe. Knarr is the Norse term for ships that were built for cargo transport. A length of about 54 feet (16 m) and a beam of 15 feet (4.6 m) are not untypical, and the hull could be capable of carrying up to 24 tons. Overall displacement: 50 tons. This is shorter than the Gokstad type of longships, but knarrs are sturdier by design and they depended mostly on sail-power, only putting oars to use as auxiliaries if there

7738-492: The Vikings from Scandinavia and Iceland for trade, commerce, exploration, and warfare during the Viking Age . The longship's design evolved over many years, as seen in the Nydam and Kvalsund ships. The character and appearance of these ships have been reflected in Scandinavian boatbuilding traditions until today. The average speed of Viking ships varied from ship to ship but lay in the range of 5 to 10 knots (9 to 19 km/h), and

7884-419: The Vikings might have preferred to navigate by the sun rather than by stars, as at high latitudes in summer the days are long and the nights short. A Viking named Stjerner Oddi compiled a chart showing the direction of sunrise and sunset, which enabled navigators to sail longships from place to place with ease. Almgren, an earlier Viking, told of another method: "All the measurements of angles were made with what

8030-546: The Vikings needed to develop methods of relatively precise navigation. Most commonly, a ship's pilot drew on traditional knowledge to set the ship's course. Essentially, the Vikings simply used prior familiarity with tides, sailing times, and landmarks in order to route courses. For example, scholars contend that the sighting of a whale allowed the Vikings to determine the direction of a ship. Because whales feed in highly nutritious waters, commonly found in regions where landmasses have pushed deep-water currents towards shallower areas,

8176-418: The Vikings' appreciation of order, cycles, and vitality, making the ships more than just vehicles; they were spiritual symbols as well. Viking ships held significant roles in religious rituals, especially in Viking ship burial ceremonies. Vikings believed that death was not the end but a journey to another world. As a vessel that could cross boundaries, the ship became a symbol of this "journey," particularly in

8322-467: The advances that the Vikings implemented in order to make the longship a superior vessel. The longship was light, fast, and nimble. The true Viking warships, or langskips , were long and narrow, frequently with a length-breadth ratio of 7:1; they were very fast under sail or propelled by warriors who served as oarsmen. In Scandinavia, the longship was the usual vessel for war until the 12th–13th centuries. Leidang fleet-levy laws remained in place for most of

8468-449: The around the waterline are held to the frames by the archaic method of tying using withies . These nine bottom planks are also thinner than elsewhere being about 2.5 cm in thickness compared with a thickness of about 3 to 4 cm for the upper planks. The thinner bottom planks are formed with cleats projecting from their inner face to allow the planks and frames to be tied together using withies. The overall effect of this construction

8614-472: The boat itself. Later versions had a rectangular sail on a single mast, which was used to replace or augment the effort of the rowers, particularly during long journeys. The average speed of Viking ships varied from ship to ship, but lay in the range of 5–10 knots (9–19 km/h) and the maximum speed of a longship under favorable conditions was around 15 knots (28 km/h). The Viking Ship museum in Oslo houses

8760-459: The boat was discovered, situated on arable land, had long been named Gokstadhaugen or Kongshaugen (from the Old Norse words konungr meaning king and haugr meaning mound ), although the relevance of its name had been discounted as folklore, as other sites in Norway bear similar names. In 1880, sons of the owner of Gokstad farm, having heard of the legends surrounding the site, uncovered

8906-487: The bow and stern. Where long timber was not available or the ship was very long, the planks were butt-joined, although overlapping scarf joints fixed with nails were also used. As the planks reached the desired height, the interior frame (futtocks) and cross beams were added. Frames were placed close together, which is an enduring feature of thin planked ships, still used today on some lightweight wooden racing craft such as those designed by Bruce Farr. Viking boat builders used

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9052-461: The bow the cut water was especially strong, as longboats sailed in ice strewn water in spring. Hulls up to 5.60 m (18.4 feet) wide gave stability, making the longship less likely to tip when sailed. The greater beam provided more moment of leverage by placing the crew or any other mobile weight on the windward side. Oceangoing longships had higher topsides about 1 m (3 feet) high to keep out water. Higher topsides were supported with knees with

9198-566: The bow the forward upper futtock protruded about 400 mm (16 inches) above the sheerline and was carved to retain anchor or mooring lines. Analysis of timber samples from Viking long boats shows that a variety of timbers were used, but there was strong preference for oak , a tree associated with Thor in Viking mythology. Oak is a heavy, durable timber that can be easily worked by adze and axe when green (wet/unseasoned). Generally large and prestigious ships were made from oak. Other timber used were ash , elm , pine , spruce and larch . Spruce

9344-406: The bow, stern, and other wooden structures. These carvings were not only decorative but also embodied the Vikings' cultural and religious beliefs. Common Viking ship carving patterns and themes include animal motifs, geometric designs, mythological scenes, and inscriptions. Many Viking ships had intricately carved dragon heads or other mythical creatures on the bow and stern. These carvings served as

9490-459: The burial-place in a wagon drawn by horses. The deceased would be placed on the ship, along with many prized possessions. Horses, dogs and occasionally thralls and households might also be sacrificially killed and buried with the deceased. The origin and meaning of these customs remain unknown. Several examples of Viking ship burials have been excavated, e.g. the Oseberg ship in Norway, containing

9636-488: The burials of prominent individuals. Ships were used as grave goods to help the deceased "sail" to the afterlife. Large burial ships like the Oseberg Ship provide crucial evidence of Viking burial practices. In the Viking culture, the sizes of their ships were used as indicators of power and status. In further explanation, during the viking age, the sheer size of the ship, the details and materials used in manufacturing

9782-412: The centre. Each frame tapers from the turn of the bilge to the inwale. This suggests that knees were used to brace the upper two or three topside planks but have rotted away. The hull had a distinctive leaf shape with the bow sections much narrower than the stern quarters. There were nine wide planks per side. The ship had a light keel plank but pronounced stem and stern deadwood. The reconstruction suggests

9928-641: The construction process. In 1892–93, a full-size near-replica of the Gokstad ship, the Viking, was built by the Norwegian Magnus Andersen in Bergen. It was used to sail the Atlantic. It had a deeper keel with a 1.5 m (4.9 feet) draught to stiffen the hull, a range of non-authentic triangular sails to help performance, and big fenders on each gunwale filled with reindeer hair to give extra buoyancy in case of swamping. The skipper recorded that

10074-421: The crew sat on sea chests (chests containing their personal possessions) that would otherwise take up space. The chests were made the same size and were the perfect height for a Viking to sit on and row. Longships had hooks for oars to fit into, but smaller oars were also used, with crooks or bends to be used as oarlocks. If there were no holes then a loop of rope kept the oars in place. An innovation that improved

10220-421: The curve for 61° north very prominently. This was the approximate latitude that the Vikings would have sailed along to get to Greenland from Scandinavia. The wooden device also has north marked and had 32 arrow heads around the edge that may be the points of a compass. Other lines are interpreted as the solstice and equinox curves. The device was tested successfully, as a sun compass , during a 1984 reenactment when

10366-620: The degrading Frankish empire by attacking navigable rivers such as the Rhine, the Seine, the Loire and others. Rouen was sacked in 841, the year after the death of Louis the Pious, a son of Charlemagne. Quentovic, near modern Étaples , was attacked in 842 and 600 Danish ships attacked Hamburg in 845. In the same year, 129 ships returned to attack the Seine. They were called "dragon ships" by enemies such as

10512-409: The disc are disproportionately spaced, and so the object could not in fact function as an accurate compass. Rather it has been suggested that the instrument is instead a "confession disc" used by priests to count the number of confessions in their parish. Similarly, researchers and historians continually debate the use of the sunstone in Viking navigation. Because a sunstone is able to polarize light, it

10658-420: The durability and agility of the ships especially in regards to ships used in warfare.For instance, warships like the ‘Skeid’ and the ‘Snekka’ with features of shallow drafts that enabled them to efficiently approach shores and sail up rivers Viking builders used the ‘clinker-built’ method whereby oak or pine plants are overlapped and fastened with iron rivets and sealed with tar and wool in order to ensure that it

10804-408: The excavations, a human skeleton was found in a bed inside a timber-built burial chamber. The skeleton was that of a man aged approximately forty to fifty years old, of powerful build and between 181 and 183 cm (5’11" to 6') tall; his identity is unknown. The bones of twelve horses, six dogs, and one peacock were found laid out around the man's body. In the 1920s Professor Anton Willem Brogger of

10950-502: The fastening. Dendrochronological dating suggests that the ship was built of timber that was felled around 890 AD. This period is the height of Norse expansion in Dublin, Ireland and York, England . The Gokstad ship was commissioned at the end of the 9th century during the reign of King Harald Fairhair . The ship could carry a crew of between forty and seventy men. The ship's design has been demonstrated to be very seaworthy. During

11096-494: The futtocks roughly parallel to the keel. Longships had about five rivets for each yard (90 cm or 35 inches) of plank. In many early ships treenails (trenails, trunnels) were used to fasten large timbers. First, a hole about 20 mm (0.8 inches) wide hole was drilled through two adjoining timbers, a wooden pegs inserted which was split and a thin wedge inserted to expand the peg. Some treenails have been found with traces of linseed oil suggesting that treenails were soaked before

11242-678: The ghost ship of the Wulflings, is about 27 m × 4.5 m (89 by 15 feet) maximum beam and built about 625 AD. It is associated with the Saxons. The ship was crushed by the weight of soil when buried but most details have been reconstructed. The ship was similar in hull section to the Nydam ship with flared topsides. Compared to later longships, the oak planks are wide—about 250 mm (10 inches) including laps, with less taper at bow and stern. Planks were 25 mm (1 inch) thick. The 26 heavy frames are spaced at 850 mm (33 inches) in

11388-424: The grain is approximately at right angles to the surface of the plank. This provides maximum strength, an even bend and an even rate of expansion and contraction in water. This is called in modern terms quartersawn timber, and has the least natural shrinkage of any cut section of wood. The plank above the turn of the bilge, the meginhufr , was about 37 mm (1.5 inches) thick on very long ships, but narrower to take

11534-422: The harbour-area in 1962 and 1996–97. The ship discovered in 1962, Skuldelev 2 is an oak-built Skeid longship. It is believed to have been built in the Dublin area around 1042. Skuldelev 2 could carry a crew of some 70–80 and measures just less than 30 m (100 feet) in length. They had around 30 rowing chairs. In 1996–97 archaeologists discovered the remains of another ship in the harbour. This ship, called

11680-523: The head stuck out so it could dig into mud or sand. In the Ladby ship burial in Denmark, a unique iron anchor has been found, resembling the modern fisherman's anchor but without the crossbar. The cross bar may have rusted away. This anchor—made of Norwegian iron—has a long iron chain to which the hemp warp was attached. This construction has several advantages when anchored in deep waters or in rough seas. At

11826-677: The height of Viking expansion into Dublin and Jorvik 875–954 AD the longship reached a peak of development such as the Gokstad ship 890. Archaeological discoveries from this period at Coppergate , in York, show the shipwright had a large range of sophisticated woodwork tools. As well as the heavy adze, broad axe, wooden mallets and wedges, the craftsman had steel tools such as anvils, files, snips, awls, augers, gouges, draw knife, knives, including folding knives, chisels and small 300 mm (12 inches) long bow saws with antler handles. Edged tools were kept sharp with sharpening stones from Norway. One of

11972-430: The high level of craftsmanship and artistic value. In some archaeological discoveries, experts found that the hulls of ships were adorned with rich patterns, such as intertwining vines, geometric shapes, or animal totems. These patterns are filled with symbolic meanings, many of which can be traced back to Viking mythology and belief systems. The famous Oseberg Ship, for example, has an interlocking animal motif on its bow:

12118-540: The horizon. It makes sense that Norsemen were able to make use of sunstones, since much of the area they travelled and explored was near polar, where the sun is very close to the horizon for a good amount of the year. For example, in the Vinland sagas we see long voyages to North America, the majority sailed at over 61 degrees north. An ingenious navigation method is detailed in Viking Navigation Using

12264-501: The hull and other wooden parts of the ship. These patterns are not only beautiful but also contain religious and cosmic symbolism. For example, the interlocking designs symbolize ideas of life cycles and rebirth, resonating with the Norse mythological concept of Yggdrasil, the World Tree. In Viking mythology, Yggdrasil is a giant ash tree representing the center of the universe, connecting the heavens, earth, and underworld. It embodies

12410-498: The interweaving of all life and events. Vikings believed that by carving these patterns on ships, sailors could gain the tree's protective power. Furthermore, the designs on Viking ships were often symmetrical geometric shapes or repeated curves, which were not only visually appealing but also reflected the Vikings' profound understanding of nature. These decorative styles are common in Viking art, often referred to as "Viking Animal Style" or "Viking Geometric Style." This style indicates

12556-533: The keel amidships but a half-sized replica, the Soe Wylfing, sailed very well with a modest sail area. Sails started to be used from possibly the eighth century. The earliest had either plaited or chequered pattern, with narrow strips sewn together. In the late eighth century, the Kvalsund ship was built. It is the first with a true keel. Its cross sectional shape was flatter on the bottom with less flare to

12702-467: The keel bowed upwards as much as 20 mm (0.8 inches) and the gunwale flexed inwards as much as 150 mm (6 inches) in heavy seas. A half-size replica of the Sutton Hoo longship has been equipped with a substantial sail, despite the original having oar power only. They took a year to make. During the Viking Age (900–1200 AD) Vikings were the dominant seafarers of the North Atlantic. One of

12848-404: The keel in the centre of the boat. The kerling also had a companion: the "mast fish", a wooden timber above the kerling just below deck height that provided extra help in keeping the mast erect. It was a large wooden baulk of timber about 3 m (10 feet) long with a 1.4-metre long (4.6 ft) slot, facing aft to accommodate the mast as it was raised. This acted as a mechanism to catch and secure

12994-448: The keys to their success was the ability to navigate skillfully across the open waters. The Vikings were experts in judging speed and wind direction, and in knowing the current and when to expect high and low tides. Viking navigational techniques are not well understood, but historians postulate that the Vikings probably had some sort of primitive astrolabe and used the stars to plot their course. Viking Sundial During an excavation of

13140-469: The king's vessel, which was the most intricately decorated. This passage serves as valuable evidence of the Vikings' investment in ship artistry as a reflection of power, wealth, and rank. The choice of metal animal motifs and the intricate designs on prominent vessels reveal how these ships were not only functional but also designed to display status and intimidate. Viking ship carvings are renowned for their smooth, intricate swirling patterns, often found on

13286-526: The knarr later influenced the design of the cog , used in the Baltic Sea by the Hanseatic League . Examples of Viking Age knarr are Skuldelev 1 , which was excavated in Denmark in 1962 and is believed to be from about 1030 AD, and the Äskekärr ship  [ sv ] , which was found in Sweden in 1933 and is believed to be from about 930 AD. Longships were naval vessels made and used by

13432-402: The latter resembling narrow "war canoes" with less load capacity, but higher speed. However, these categories are overlapping; some transport ships would also form part of war fleets. As a rule, ship lanes in Scandinavia followed coastal waters, hence a majority of vessels were of a lighter design, while a few types, such as the knarr , could navigate the open ocean. The Viking ships ranged from

13578-472: The long axis fastened to the top of the crossbeams. The hull was waterproofed with animal hair, wool, hemp or moss drenched in pine tar. The ships would be tarred in the autumn and then left in a boathouse over the winter to allow time for the tar to dry. Evidence of small scale domestic tar production dates from between 100 AD and 400 AD. Larger industrial scale tar pits, estimated to be capable of producing up to 300 litres (80 US gal) of tar in

13724-400: The longship before its construction, based on previous builds, and the ship was then built from the keel up. The keel and stems were made first. The shape of the stem was based on segments of circles of varying sizes. The keel was an inverted T shape to accept the garboard planks. In the longships the keel was made up of several sections spliced together and fastened with treenails. The next step

13870-460: The lowest wetted surface area, similar to a modern narrow rowing skiff, so were very fast but had little carrying capacity. The shape suggests mainly river use. Unlike later boats, it had a low bow and stern. A distinctive feature is the two-prong cutaway bow section. The earliest rowed true longship that has been found is the Nydam ship , built in Denmark around 350 AD. It also had very rounded underwater sections but had more pronounced flare in

14016-402: The mast before the stays were secured. It was an early form of mast partner but was aligned fore and aft. In later longships there is no mast fish—the mast partner is an athwartwise beam similar to more modern construction. Most masts were about half the length of the ship so that it did not project beyond the hull when unstepped. When lowered the mast foot was kept in the base of the mast step and

14162-411: The maximum speed of a longship under favorable conditions was around 15 knots (28 km/h). The long-ship is as a graceful, long, narrow, light, wooden boat with a shallow draft hull designed for speed. The ship's shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one meter deep and permitted beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages . Longships were also double-ended,

14308-470: The middle of the ship, and could be lowered and raised. The hull's sides were fastened together to allow it to flex with the waves, combining lightness and ease of handling on land. The ships were large enough to carry cargo and passengers on long ocean voyages, but still maintained speed and agility, making the longship a versatile warship and cargo carrier. The Viking shipbuilders had no written diagrams or standard written design plan. The shipbuilder pictured

14454-408: The most sophisticated tools was a 25 mm (1 inch) diameter twist drill bit, perfect for drilling holes for treenails. Simple mechanical pole wood lathes were used to make cups and bowls. Since the discovery of the original longships in the 1800s, many boat builders have built Viking ship replicas . However, most have not been able to resist the temptation to use more modern techniques and tools in

14600-448: The mound still measured 50 metres by 43 metres, although its height had been diminished down to 5 metres by constant years of ploughing. With his team, he began excavating the mound from the side rather than from the top down, and on the second day of digging found the bow of the ship. The Gokstad ship is clinker-built and constructed largely of oak . The ship was intended for warfare, trade, transportation of people and cargo. The ship

14746-592: The museum. After thirteen years of debate regarding a possible relocation, Education Minister Kristin Halvorsen stated on May 3, 2012, that the ship would not be moved from Bygdøy . Viking , an exact replica of the Gokstad ship, crossed the Atlantic Ocean from Bergen, Norway to be exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893; it remains on exhibit near Chicago. The Gaia ship

14892-519: The originals as accurately as possible. Replicas important to our understanding of the original longships design and construction include: Viking ship Viking ships were marine vessels of unique structure, used in Scandinavia from the Viking Age throughout the Middle Ages. The boat-types were quite varied, depending on what the ship was intended for, but they were generally characterized as being slender and flexible boats, with symmetrical ends with true keel . They were clinker built, which

15038-421: The outside of the hull and fastened from the inside with a rove (washers). The surplus rivet was then cut off. A ship normally used about 700 kg (1,500 pounds) of iron nails in a 18 m (59 feet) long ship. In some ships the gap between the lower uneven futtock and the lapstrake planks was filled with a spacer block about 200 mm (8 inches) long. In later ships spruce stringers were fastened lengthwise to

15184-507: The outside of the hull. The Vikings were major contributors to the shipbuilding technology of their day. Their shipbuilding methods spread through extensive contact with other cultures, and ships from the 11th and 12th centuries are known to borrow many of the longships' design features, despite the passing of many centuries. Many historians, archaeologists and adventurers have reconstructed longships in an attempt to understand how they worked. These re-creators have been able to identify many of

15330-417: The outside the rope ran through the blade, through the round block and topsides and was fastened inside the hull. The flexibility of the hemp rope allowed the blade to pivot. When beached or in shallow water the tiller was moved to the lower hole, the blade rope was slackened and the rudder head pulled up so the rudder could operate in shallow waters. Modern facsimiles are reported to steer quite well but require

15476-458: The pegs were inserted. When dried the oil would act as a semi-waterproof weak filler/glue. The longship's narrow deep keel provided strength beneath the waterline. A typical size keel of a longer ship was 100 mm × 300 mm (4 by 10 inches) amidships, tapering in width at the bow and stern. Sometimes there was a false outer keel to take the wear while being dragged up a beach. These large timbers were shaped with both adze and broadaxe. At

15622-460: The pirates could not be boarded by the Norwegian levy ships called out by Margaret I of Denmark , and the raiders were able to sack the town with impunity. While earlier times had seen larger and taller longships in service, by this time the authorities had also gone over to other types of ships for warfare. The last Viking longship was defeated in 1429. Several of the original longships built in

15768-435: The planks lie straight and about 125 mm apart where the planks turn. At the bow, all of the planks taper to butt the stem. The stem is carved from a single curved oak log to form the cutwater and has one land for each plank. The inside of the stem is hollowed into a v shape so the inside of the rivets can be reached during construction or repair. Each of the crossbeams has a ledge cut about 25 mm wide and deep to take

15914-446: The planks sweep up to the curved bow and stern. There is considerable twist and bend in the end planks. This was achieved by use of both thinner (by 50%) and narrower planks. In more sophisticated builds, forward planks were cut from natural curved trees called reaction wood. Planks were installed unseasoned or wet. Partly worked stems and sterns have been located in bogs. It has been suggested that they were stored there over winter to stop

16060-402: The prow of the ship. Judith Jesch , an expert in runic inscriptions, says, "The word dreki for a ship derives from this practice of placing carved dragonheads on ships... but there is no evidence that it was a technical term for any particular kind of ship." The earliest mentioned dreki was the ship of unstated size owned by Harald Fairhair in the tenth century. The first dreki ship whose size

16206-558: The reason that only Vikings who were associated with power could access such expensive and delicate materials in the building of such a ship. Viking ships held a very spiritual significance in the Viking society. As a reflection of the Oseberg ship burial, speculations portray how Viking ships were also used as company for the dead in their journey in the afterlife. In the Viking culture, the dead particularly warriors, were placed in their ships which would be set on fire and sent out to sea by

16352-403: The regional forests, such as pine from Norway and Sweden, and oak from Denmark. Moreover, each Viking longship had particular features adjusted to the natural conditions under which it was sailed. They were owned by coastal farmers, and under the leidang system, every section in the king's realm was required to build warships and to provide men to crew them, allowing the king to quickly assemble

16498-456: The remains of three such ships, the Oseberg, the Gokstad and the Tune ship. The Viking longships were powerful naval weapons in their time and were highly valued possessions. Archaeological finds show that the Viking ships were not standardized. Ships varied from designer to designer and place to place and often had regional characteristics. For example, the choice of material was mostly dictated by

16644-740: The remains of two women, the Gokstad ship in Norway, and the Ladby ship in Denmark. There are literary sources such as the Norse Skjoldunga Saga and the Ynglinga Saga which describe more literal "ship burials" in which the deceased and goods are placed on a boat in the water and the vessel is launched into the sea, sometimes being shot with burning arrows and vanishing into the night, ablaze. Nothcotte Toller, however, states: Whether such fiery funerals ever actually took place

16790-468: The sail's performance was the beitaass , or stretching pole—a wooden spar stiffening the sail. The windward performance of the ship was poor by modern standards as there was no centreboard, deep keel or leeboard. To assist in tacking the beitaass kept the luff taut. Bracing lines were attached to the luff and led through holes on the forward gunwale. Such holes were often reinforced with short sections of timber about 500 to 700 mm (1.6 to 2.3 feet) long on

16936-534: The ship of a viking, publicly portrayed the wealth and power which the owner holds. For instance, extravagant ships like the Longships used by the Viking Chieftans and warriors significantly emphasized on their authority and prestige . Furthermore, in correlation to ship burials like the Oseberg and Gokstad, they highlight how these elaborate and detailed burials pinpoint the fact that ships were placed on

17082-454: The ship. There are 16 tapered planks per side. The garboard planks are near vertical where they attach to the keel. The garboard planks are narrow and remain only slightly wider to take the turn of the bilge. The topside planks are progressively wider. Each oak plank is slightly tapered in cross section to allow it to overlap about 30mm the plank above and below in normal clinker ( lapstrake ) style. Iron rivets are about 180 mm apart where

17228-451: The ships to gain structural strength . The keelson approach whereby a heavy timber is placed on the keel in order to stabilize the mast, supported both the longships and narrow ships with shallow drafts . This proved to be significantly ideal for navigating diverse waterways. With such technological improvements, the Vikings began to make more and more ocean voyages, as their ships were more seaworthy. However, in order to sail in ocean waters,

17374-424: The side stay consisted of ropes looped under the end of a knee of upper futtock which had a hole underneath. The lower part of the stay was about 500–800 mm (1.6–2.6 feet) long and attached to a combined flat wooden turnblock and multi V jamb cleat called an angel (maiden, virgin). About four turns of rope went between the angel and the toggle to give the mechanical advantage to tighten the side stays. At each turn

17520-409: The sighting of a whale functioned as a signal that land was near. On the other hand, some academics have proposed that the Vikings also developed more advanced aids to navigation, such as the use of a sun compass. A wooden half-disc found on the shores of Narsarsuaq , Greenland initially seemed to support this hypothesis. However, further investigation of the object revealed that the slits inscribed in

17666-405: The sixth century with clinker -built ships like Nydam . The character and appearance of these ships have been reflected in Scandinavian boatbuilding traditions to the present day. The particular skills and methods employed in making longships are still used worldwide, often with modern adaptations. They were all made out of wood, with cloth sails (woven wool), and had several details and carvings on

17812-416: The stern was much lower than the bow. It had a steering oar to starboard braced by an extra frame. The raised prow extended about 3.7 m (12 feet) above the keel and the hull was estimated to draw 750 mm (30 inches) when lightly laden. Between each futtock the planks were lapped in normal clinker style and fastened with six iron rivets per plank. There is no evidence of a mast, sail, or strengthening of

17958-412: The strain of the crossbeams. This was also the area subject to collisions. The planks overlapped by about 25–30 mm (1.0–1.2 in) and were joined by iron rivets. Each overlap was stuffed with wool or animal hair or sometimes hemp soaked in pine tar to ensure water tightness. Amidships, where the planks are straight, the rivets are about 170 mm (6.7 inches) apart, but they were closer together as

18104-400: The sun the stone, it will project two overlapping shadows on the crystal. The opacities of these shadows will vary depending on the sunstone's direction to the sun. When the two projected shapes have exactly the same opacity, it means the stone's long side is facing directly toward the sun. Since the stone uses light polarization, it works the best when the sun is at lower altitudes, or closer to

18250-508: The symmetrical bow and stern allowing the ship to reverse direction quickly without having to turn around. Longships were fitted with oars along almost the entire length of the boat itself. Later versions sported a rectangular sail on a single mast which was used to replace or augment the effort of the rowers, particularly during long journeys. Longships can be classified into a number of different types, depending on size, construction details, and prestige. The most common way to classify longships

18396-457: The tides and winds .This practice was seen as a way for Viking warriors to continue their journey of warfare in the afterlife with a guide. Such mythological portrayals emphasize on just how deeply the role of Viking ships were tied into the Viking understanding of life and death. Prominent men or women in Norse society sometimes received a ship burial. The body of the deceased would be prepared and dressed in fine clothes and then be transported to

18542-402: The tiller was inserted in the upper hole so that the tiller faced athwartwise. The shaft was attached to the gunwale by a U-shaped joint. Near the stern, about halfway down the starboard topsides, was a rounded wooden block about 150 mm (6 inches) in diameter and 100 mm (4 inches) high, with a central hole for a rope. This corresponded to a hole in the midsection of the rudder blade. From

18688-420: The top of the mast secured in a natural wooden crook about 1.5–2.5 m (5–8 feet) high, on the port side, so that it did not interfere with steering on the starboard side. There is a suggestion that the rig was sometimes used in a lateen style with the top cross spar dipped at an angle to aid sailing to windward i.e. the spar became the luff. There is little or no evidence to support this theory. No explanation

18834-423: The topsides, giving it more stability as well as keeping more water out of the boat at speed or in waves. It had no sail. It was of lapstrake construction fastened with iron nails. The bow and stern had slight elevation. The keel was a flattened plank about twice as thick as a normal strake plank but still not strong enough to withstand the downwards thrust of a mast. The Sutton Hoo longship, sometimes referred to as

18980-479: The topsides. This shape is far more stable and able to handle rougher seas. It had the high prow of the later longships. After several centuries of evolution, the fully developed longship emerged some time in the middle of the ninth century. Its long, graceful, menacing head figure carved in the stern, such as the Oseburg ship, echoed the designs of its predecessors. The mast was now square in section and located toward

19126-458: The v-shape at the bottom of the angel's "wings" jambed the stay, preventing slippage and movement. Early long boats used some form of steering oar but by the tenth century the side rudder (called a steerboard, the source for the etymology for the word starboard itself) was well established. It consisted of a length of timber about 2.4 m (7.9 feet) long. The upper section was rounded to a diameter of about 150 mm (6 inches). The lower blade

19272-451: The waterways was of great economical and political importance, and consequently, ships were in high demand. Because of their overwhelming importance, ships became a mainstay of the Viking religion, as they evolved into symbols of power and prowess. The Hedeby coins, among the earliest known Danish currency, have impressions of ships as emblems, showing the importance of naval vessels in the area. Through such cultural and practical significance,

19418-416: The winds died suggests that the Vikings relied on prevailing winds to navigate, as expected if their skills depended principally on traditional knowledge. Viking ships were not only tools for navigation but also cultural symbols with high artistic design value. The carved patterns on Viking ships are known for their intricate geometric patterns, mythological creatures, and symbolic designs, primarily found on

19564-400: The wood from drying and cracking. The moisture in wet planks allowed the builder to force the planks into a more acute bend, if need be; once dry it would stay in the forced position. At the bow and the stern builders were able to create hollow sections, or compound bends, at the waterline, making the entry point very fine. In less sophisticated ships short and nearly straight planks were used at

19710-653: Was 60 mm (2.4 inches) wide and 80 mm (3.1 inches) long with a 120-millimetre long (4.7 in) neck where the handle was inserted. It appears that in cold winters wood work stopped and partly completed timber work was buried in mud to prevent it drying out. Timber was worked with iron adzes and axes . Most of the smoothing was done with a side axe . Other tools used in woodwork were hammers , wedges , drawknives , planes and saws . Iron saws were probably very rare. The Domesday Book in England (1086 AD) records only 13 saws. Possibly these were pit saws and it

19856-484: Was about 1.8 m × 0.4 m (5.9 by 1.3 feet). The steerboard on the Gokstad ship in the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, Norway, is about 20 cm (8 inches) wide, completely flat inboard and with about a 7.6 cm (3 inches) maximum width at the center of the foil. The head of the rudder shaft had two square holes about 200–300 mm (8–12 inches) apart. When the rudder was in its normal position

20002-556: Was about 250 mm × 180 mm (10 by 7 inches). The mast was supported by a large wooden maststep called a kerling ("old woman" in Old Norse) that was semicircular in shape. (Trent) The kerling was made of oak, and about 700 mm (28 inches) wide and up to 6 m (20 feet) long in the larger ships. It usually heavily tapered into a joint with the internal keelson , although keelsons were by no means universal. The kerling lay across two strong frames that ran width-wise above

20148-471: Was already deeply rooted in the Scandinavian culture when the Viking Age began. Scandinavia is a region with relatively high inland mountain ranges, dense forests and easy access to the sea with many natural ports. Consequently, trade routes were primarily operated via shipping, as inland travel was both more hazardous and cumbersome. Many stone engravings from the Nordic Stone Age and in particular

20294-421: Was building the strakes—the lines of planks joined endwise from stem to stern. Nearly all longships were clinker (also known as lapstrake) built, meaning that each hull plank overlapped the next. Each plank was hewn from an oak tree so that the finished plank was about 25 mm (1 inch) thick and tapered along each edge to a thickness of about 20 mm (0.8 inches). The planks were riven (radially hewn) so that

20440-414: Was built to carry 32 oarsmen, and the oar holes could be hatched down when the ship was under sail. It utilized a square sail of approximately 110 square metres (1,200 sq ft), which, it is estimated, could propel the ship to over 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). The mast could be raised and lowered. While the ship was traveling in shallow water, the rudder could be raised very quickly by undoing

20586-475: Was called a 'half wheel' (a kind of half sun-diameter which corresponds to about sixteen minutes of arc). This was something that was known to every skipper at that time, or to the long-voyage pilot or kendtmand ('man who knows the way') who sometimes went along on voyages ... When the sun was in the sky, it was not, therefore, difficult to find the four points of the compass, and determining latitude did not cause any problems either." (Almgren) Birds provided

20732-644: Was donated to the city of Sandefjord by Knut Utstein Kloster of the Gaia Ship Foundation and this remains its home port. The ship's oak mast is constructed in one piece and stone provides ballast. Gaia can reach ten knots under its full canvas, which is 120 sq. m., and it has sixteen pairs of oars. Gaia also sailed to the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit via the Faroe Islands , Iceland , Greenland , and North America . Other replicas include Munin ,

20878-467: Was mentioned in the source was Olav Tryggvason's thirty-room Tranin, built at Nidaros circa 995. By far the most famous in this period was his later ship the Ormrinn Langi ('Long Serpent') of thirty-four rooms, built over the winter of 999 to 1000. No true dragon ship, as described in the sagas, has been found by archaeological excavation. The city seal of Bergen, Norway , created in 1299, depicts

21024-478: Was no wind on the open water. Because of this, the knarr was used for longer voyages, ocean-going transports and more hazardous trips than the Gokstad type. It was capable of sailing 75 miles (121 km) in one day, and held a crew of about 20–30. Knarrs routinely crossed the North Atlantic in the Viking Age, carrying livestock and goods to and from Greenland and the North Atlantic islands. The design of

21170-498: Was so light that it had no need of ports – it could simply be beached, and even carried across a portage. The snekkja continued to evolve after the end of the Viking age, with later Norwegian examples becoming larger and heavier than Viking age ships. A modern version is still being used in Scandinavia, and is now called snipa in Swedish and snekke in Norwegian. Skeid ( skeið ), meaning 'slider' (referring to

21316-402: Was used for ships with thirty rowing benches and upwards that are only known from historical sources, such as the 13th-century Göngu-Hrólfs saga . Here, the ships are described as most unusual, elegant, ornately decorated, and used by those who went raiding and plundering. These ships were likely skeids that differed only in the carvings of menacing beasts, such as dragons and snakes, carried on

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