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102-485: The first Skeleton Canyon Massacre occurred in 1879 when a group of Mexican Rurales were ambushed by cattle rustlers. In July 1879, several rustlers attacked a rancho in northern Sonora , killing several of the inhabitants. After the attack on the rancho, the survivors reported the attacks to Commandant Francisco Neri, who sent out a detachment of Rurales, including Captain Alfredo Carrillo. The Rurales crossed

204-529: A yellow fever outbreak. The Imperial couple's arrival at the capital was more celebrated, with fireworks and hundreds of triumphant arches. Maximilian and Carlota were crowned at the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral . He had the backing of Mexican conservatives, nobility, clergy, some Native American populations, and numerous European monarchs, but from the very outset he found himself involved in serious difficulties, since

306-480: A certain extent the regime saw the Rurales as a counterweight to the much larger Federal army and in the later years of the regime they were increasingly used to control industrial unrest, in addition to the traditional task of patrolling country areas. While in theory a centralized organisation, the rural guards often came under the direct control of local politicians ( Jefes ) or landowners. The Rurales achieved

408-516: A committee of thirty-five Mexicans, the Junta Superior who then elected three Mexican citizens to serve as the government's executive. In turn this triumvirate then selected 215 Mexicans to form together with the Junta Superior , an Assembly of Notables. The Assembly met in July 1863 and resolved to invite Maximilian to be Emperor of Mexico. The executive triumvirate was formally changed into

510-577: A country retreat at Cuernavaca , a villa known as the Jardín Borda . Although Maximilian had been brought to power with the support of Mexican conservatives expecting he would reverse the reforms of Mexican liberals, codified in the Constitution of 1857 , Maximilian and Napoleon III did not want hardline Mexicans to control the regime. Napoleon III had a confidential policy known to his military commander François Achille Bazaine to marginalize

612-407: A decisive role. After the overthrow of Díaz in 1911, the Rurales continued in existence under Presidents Francisco I. Madero (1911–1913) and Victoriano Huerta (1913–1914). Madero left the force essentially unchanged, although introducing legislation intended to prevent corpsmen, other than senior officers, from carrying out summary executions without due trial process. In practice

714-399: A farce", but Maximilian accepted the proclamation that a majority of Mexicans voted in favor of him as emperor. The crown of Mexico came at a high cost to Maximilian. Although he had extracted promises from Napoleon III to militarily support the regime, he was to be entirely dependent on him. Emperor Franz Joseph isolated his younger brother Maximilian by forcing him to renounce any rights to

816-550: A foreign outsider. When Maximilian was first mentioned as a possible emperor of Mexico, the idea seemed farfetched, but circumstances changed and made it viable. His tenure as emperor was just three years, ending with his execution by firing squad by forces of the Restored Republic on 19 June 1867. Political conflicts in Mexico in the 1850s between conservative and liberal factions were domestic disputes initially, but

918-579: A former President of Mexico , and Tomás Mejía Camacho in June 1867. His death marked the end of monarchism as a major force in Mexico. In reassessments of his brief rule, he is portrayed in Mexican history less as the villain of nationalist, republican history and more as a liberal in Mexico, along with Presidents of the Republic Juárez, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada , and Porfirio Díaz . Maximilian

1020-423: A former ally of Juárez. Maximilian's lack of understanding of the political situation on the ground in Mexico is seen in his offer to Juárez of amnesty and the post of prime minister. Juárez refused and continued to assert his role as the legitimate head of the Mexican state, despite being forced to decamp from the capital to Mexico's north. He never left Mexico's national territory, continuing to be recognized by

1122-587: A high profile internationally, rather like that of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police or the Texas Rangers , whose roles they paralleled. They wore a distinctive dove grey uniform braided in silver, which was modelled on the national charro dress and included wide felt sombreros , bolero jackets, tight fitting trousers with silver buttons down the seams, and red or black neckties. Senior officers wore elaborate rank insignia in

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1224-559: A liberal and conciliatory spirit.” Maximilian's tenure as viceroy was short-lived, lasting only two years during a period of rising local tensions. Although holding title of viceroy, his jurisdiction did not fully extend over the Austrian garrison, which was opposed to any sort of liberal reforms. Maximilian went to Vienna in April 1858 to ask his brother the emperor to grant him both military and administrative jurisdiction, while continuing

1326-449: A low proportion that may have been influenced by slow and limited promotion. Never numbering more than about 4,000 men and located in small detachments, the Rurales were too thinly spread to ever completely eliminate unrest in the Mexican countryside. They did however impose a superficial order, especially in the central regions around Mexico City , which encouraged the foreign investment sought by Díaz and his científico advisers. To

1428-536: A pledge of French military support and at the formal invitation of a Mexican delegation, Maximilian accepted the crown of Mexico on 10 April 1864 following a bogus referendum in Mexico that purportedly showed the Mexican people backed him. Maximilian's hold on power in Mexico was shaky from the beginning. Rather than enacting policies that would return power to Mexican conservatives, Maximilian instead sought to implement liberal policies, losing him his domestic conservative backers. Internationally, his legitimacy as ruler

1530-431: A policy of concessions. Franz Joseph rejected the appeal. That left Maximilian with only the limited role of prefect of police while tensions with Piedmont were rising. On 3 January 1859, for security reasons, Carlota was asked to return to Miramar, and she sent her valuables out of Lombardy-Venetia. Only while safe in the royal Palace of Milan did she share her concerns with her mother-in-law Sophie. In February 1859,

1632-515: A political position that those of royal blood adhered to. The appointment of the young progressive Maximilian to the office of viceroy was made in response to the growing discontent of the Italian population with the rule of the older Joseph Radetzky von Radetz . The appointment of an Archduke, indeed the Emperor's own brother, was also intended to encourage the local population's personal loyalty to

1734-764: A proposal to make him the emperor of Mexico. The Habsburg family had ruled the Viceroyalty of New Spain from its establishment until the Spanish throne was inherited by the Bourbons . As a member of the House of Habsburg, Maximilian was considered to have more potential legitimacy than other royal figures. He was unlikely to ever rule in Europe because of his elder brother's position as emperor and disapproval of his younger brother's liberalism. In that year, Maximilian declined

1836-803: A refined education. The pair fell in love. His brother Franz Joseph and his mother approved of a prospective marriage between them. Unfortunately, in February 1852, Maria Amélia contracted scarlet fever . Her health worsened over the months, developing tuberculosis. Her doctors advised her to leave Lisbon and go to Madeira , where she arrived in August 1852. At the end of November, she had lost hope of ever recovering her health. Maria Amélia died on February 4, 1853, which deeply shocked Maximilian. Other travels in this era included Italy, Spain, Madeira, Tangiers , and Algeria. He visited Beirut , Palestine , and Egypt . During his visit to Spain in 1854, he visited

1938-477: A rival conservative government. The three-year civil war (1858–61) between liberals and conservatives was won by liberals on the battlefield. Conservatives regrouped after the defeat and sought external allies for their monarchist cause. Mexican diplomat José Hidalgo had been officially tasked by the Santa Anna administration to sound European courts for interest in establishing a Mexican monarchy, but after

2040-474: A secret entry way in his Cuernavaca residence , allowing him to discreetly have encounters with women, but that Maximilian fathered a child by a Mexican woman in Cuernavaca , Concepción Sedano y Leguizano, who died shortly after Maximilian's execution. Unacknowledged as the emperor's offspring, the boy was allegedly taken to Paris and educated with funds by a Mexican ex-patriate there. During World War I , he

2142-603: The Cochise County Cowboys , who were cattle rustlers and bandits, claimed to have been at the ambush. He said others there who participated in the murders were Old Man Clanton , brothers Ike and Billy Clanton , "Curly Bill" Brocius , Florentino Cruz , and brothers Frank and Tom McLaury . In July 1881, "Curly Bill" Brocius learned that several Mexican smugglers carrying silver were heading to Arizona through Skeleton Canyon. Curly Bill and around twenty other men including Johnny Ringo and Jim Crane ambushed

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2244-530: The First Mexican Empire . Agustin's mother, Alicia Iturbide, an American who was born Alice Green, agreed to give up her child. Soon after, she changed her mind and sent messages to Maximilian to renounce the adoption contract, but she was simply deported from Mexico without her child. Agustín and his cousin were granted the title Prince de Iturbide and the style of Highness by an imperial decree of 16 September 1865, and were ranked next in line after

2346-583: The Mexican Revolution . The modern Cuerpo de Defensa Rural ('Rural Defense Corps') is a modern part-time voluntary militia, generally used to support Federal forces. The Guardia Rural was established as a federal constabulary by the Liberal regime of Benito Juárez in 1861. This mounted rural police force became best known during the long rule of President Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911). As originally constituted under President Juárez

2448-458: The Novara during its Atlantic crossing. Wrote du Barail: "If you succeed in bringing order out of this chaos, fortune into this misery, union into these hearts you will be the greatest sovereign of modern times. Go poor fool! You may regret your beautiful castle of Miramar!" The new emperor of Mexico landed at Veracruz on 29 May 1864, and received a sparse reception from the townspeople due to

2550-622: The Porfiriato . They were variously described as "the world's most picturesque policemen" and "mostly bandits". The former may have been true but the latter was a distorted memory of the rough-and-ready early days of the corps. Some of the Mexican states maintained their own rural mounted police forces and a separate city police force operated in Mexico City, but none matched the Federal Rurales in notoriety or glamour. During

2652-559: The Rurale ranks. The Rurales were heavily armed; carrying cavalry sabers, Remington carbines , lassos and pistols. They were divided into ten corps, each comprising three companies of about 76 men. The Porfirian regime deliberately fostered the image of the Rurales as a ruthless and efficient organization which – under the notorious ley fuga ("law of flight") – seldom took prisoners and which inevitably got its man. However research by Professor Paul J. Vanderwood, during

2754-528: The Rurales lacked the numbers and organization to effectively control the banditry widespread in Mexico during the 1860s and 1870s. The concept of an armed and mobile rural police organized on military lines, was derived from Spain's Civil Guard (" Guardia Civil "). Established in 1844 the Spanish Guardia Civil had quickly won a reputation as an effective but often oppressive force. On May 6, 1861 four corps of Rural Police were authorized by

2856-495: The SMS Novara . He enjoyed that voyage so much that he anticipated in his diary “I shall fulfill one of my most beloved dreams, a voyage by sea. I depart with my memories of my beloved Austrian homeland in a very emotional moment for me.“ This voyage took him to Lisbon , where he met the princess Maria Amélia of Braganza , daughter of the late Brazilian Emperor Pedro I . She was described as beautiful, pious, clever, and of

2958-734: The royal gardens of Venice , while in Milan, the avenues gained priority, the Piazza del Duomo was widened, and a new piazza was built between the Teatro alla Scala and the Palazzo Marino . The Biblioteca Ambrosiana library was also restored. The British minister of foreign relations wrote in 1859 that “the administration of the provinces of Lombardy-Venetia were directed by the Archduke Maximilian with great talent, and both

3060-538: The tombs of his ancestors Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabel I of Castile in Granada . Later travels took him to the Empire of Brazil . In an 1859 letter to his father-in-law King Leopold I of Belgium he wrote "It seems to me like a legend that I am the first descendant of Ferdinand and Isabela who since early childhood has thought it his mission to tread on the continent that has attained such gigantic importance for

3162-463: The 18th Corps were ambushed by rebel machine gunners in the centre of Mexico City, losing 67 dead and wounded. It is uncertain whether the destruction of the 18th Corps was the result of a tactical blunder or a measure deliberately arranged by General Huerta to weaken the Madero forces. Huerta then proposed to expand the existing Rurale units into a field force of over ten thousand men serving alongside

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3264-427: The 1970s involving detailed examination of the records of the corps, indicated that the Rurales were neither as effective nor as brutal as regime publicists had suggested. The daily pay of 1.30 pesos was not high and up to 25% of recruits deserted before completing their four-year enlistments. This term of service was extended to five years after 1890. Only one rurale in ten re-enlisted after completing his first term;

3366-589: The Austrian military cracked down, making numerous arrests in Milan and Venice. The prisoners came from the upper classes and were transported to Mantua and various prisons throughout the realm. The city of Brescia was occupied by militia, while several battalions were camped in Piacenza , and on the shores of the River Po . Maximilian hoped to moderate the severe dispositions of General Ferenc Gyulay . Maximilian had just received permission from his brother to open

3468-496: The Austrian throne or as an archduke of Austria. On 9 April 1864 Maximilian reluctantly agreed to the "Family Pact". Maximilian formally accepted the crown of Mexico at Miramar on 10 April 1864. In April 1864, Maximilian stepped down from his duties as Chief of Naval Section of the Austrian Navy. He traveled from Trieste aboard SMS Novara , escorted by the frigates SMS  Bellona (Austrian) and Thémis (French), and

3570-487: The Austrian viceroy of Lombardy–Venetia , but was removed by the emperor. Two years before his dismissal, he briefly met with French emperor Napoleon III in Paris, where he was approached by conservative Mexican monarchists seeking a European royal to rule Mexico. Initially Maximilian was not interested, but following his dismissal as viceroy, the Mexican monarchists' plan was far more appealing to him. Since Maximilian

3672-614: The Duke of Brabant, and future Leopold II , in contrast, wrote to Queen Victoria , who was Charlotte's cousin, “Max is a youth filled with ingenuity, knowledge, talent and kindness.” The engagement was formally concluded on 23 December 1856. On 27 July 1857 Maximilian and Charlotte were married in the Royal Palace of Brussels . Distinguished European royals attended the ceremony, including the first cousin of Charlotte and husband of Queen Victoria, Prince Albert . The marriage also enhanced

3774-592: The Empress Eugénie . There he also met Mexican conservatives, who would later prove to be decisive in Maximilian's life. The Archduke would write about this initial meeting in his diary “although the emperor lacks the genius of his famous uncle , he retains fortunately for France, a grand personality. He stands tall over the century and shall surely leave his mark on it.” In May 1856, Franz Joseph asked Maximilian to return from Paris to Vienna, stopping on

3876-529: The House of Habsburg consider Maximilian an important ancestor. But in terms of the Mexican political reality, they are not in the spotlight. The nearest living agnatic relative to Maximilian is the head of the Habsburg family, Karl von Habsburg , and members of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine still reside in Mexico, among them Carlos Felipe de Habsburgo , the first male of the former ruling house to be born in

3978-503: The House of Habsburg. Charlotte made efforts to win over her subjects, speaking Italian, visiting charitable institutions, inaugurating schools, and dressing in native Lombard dress. On Easter 1858, Maximilian and Charlotte sailed down the Grand Canal of Venice in ceremonial dress. Despite their efforts, anti-Austrian sentiment continued to spread rapidly throughout the Italian population. Maximilian's efforts in administering

4080-627: The Imperial yacht Fantasie led the warship procession from his Miramare Castle out to sea. They received a blessing from Pope Pius IX , and Queen Victoria ordered the Gibraltar garrison to fire a salute for Maximilian's passing ship. The widespread doubts amongst informed persons concerning the wisdom of Maximilian's venture were reflected by the French colonel François Claude du Barail , who while returning from arduous service in Mexico sighted

4182-571: The Juárez government; each having an establishment of 20 officers and 255 other ranks. Recruitment was intended to be by voluntary enlistment. Pay was set at a higher level than that of the conscript based army. Control of the new force was divided between the Ministers of the Interior and of War - a policy intended to maintain a balance of power within the government. The existing Corps of Rurales

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4284-618: The Liberal forces led by President Benito Juárez refused to recognize his rule. There was continuous fighting between the French expeditionary forces (who were supplemented by Maximilian's locally recruited Imperial Mexican troops) on one side and the Mexican Republicans on the other. After a brief stay at the National Palace , the emperor and empress decided to set up their residence at Chapultepec Castle , located on

4386-483: The Mexican monarchists on potential candidates for a Mexican throne. It was perceived as impolitic to propose a noble from one of the nations involved in the expedition and Maximilian already had a reputation as a capable administrator from his time spent as viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia. In 1859, Maximilian was first approached by Mexican monarchists—members of the Mexican nobility , led by José Pablo Martínez del Río —with

4488-580: The Regency of the Mexican Empire. An official delegation left Mexico, arriving in Europe in October. Upon meeting the delegation, Maximilian set forth the condition that he would only accept the throne if a national plebiscite approved of it. By February 1864 French forces controlled territory comprising the majority of Mexico's population. The Mexican plebiscite duly held in occupied territory "was

4590-516: The Rurales to nearly 2,000 by 1889 as part of his programme of modernization and (eventually) repression. Initially some captured guerrilleros were forcibly inducted into the Rurales , as had been the case under Juárez. The system of recruitment however subsequently became a more conventional one of volunteer enlistment. Officers were either seconded from the Federal Army or promoted through

4692-600: The South that seceded and formed the Confederate States of America and the northern states that denied their right to secede. In these circumstances, the U.S. government could not enforce the Monroe Doctrine , which asserted U.S. pre-eminence in the hemisphere and excluded foreign intervention. In July 1861, Mexican President Benito Juárez had suspended the payment of foreign debts that had been incurred by

4794-447: The U.S. government. Juárez had appointed Matías Romero as minister plenipotentiary to the U.S. government, an effective advocate for the Mexican republic even as the U.S. was embroiled in its civil war. Juárez's continued presence in Mexico denied Maximilian assertion of legitimacy as ruler. A major aspect of liberalism in Mexico was the curtailment of the power and privileges of the ideologically conservative Catholic Church, including

4896-459: The battle fleet with which Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff would later secure his victories. He was however criticized for diverting massive funds to ship building from the training, sea going experience, and morale of sailors. He also initiated a large-scale scientific expedition (1857–1859) . At the end of 1855, he sought refuge for his ship in the Gulf of Trieste during poor sailing weather. He

4998-473: The border into Arizona. As they entered Skeleton Canyon, shots were fired against them. Of the large group that crossed, only three of the Rurales survived. No action was taken by the Mexican Government, but it protested the killings to President Chester Arthur , although acknowledging the Mexican policemen had crossed into Arizona. Johnny Ringo , considered to be one of an outlaw group known as

5100-505: The conservatives and create a moderate monarchy with wide support. Maximilian was in agreement and sought to establish a regime that included liberals. In the summer of 1864 Maximilian declared a political amnesty for all liberals wishing to join the Empire. His conciliatory efforts eventually won over some moderate liberals such as José Fernando Ramírez , José María Lacunza , Manuel Orozco y Berra , and northern strongman Santiago Vidaurri ,

5202-425: The conservatives' loss on the battlefield to the liberal regime during a three-year civil war (1858–61) meant conservatives sought ways to return to power with outside allies, opening a path for France under Napoleon III to intervene in Mexico and set up a puppet regime with conservative Mexican support. When the liberal government of Mexican President Benito Juárez suspended payment on foreign debts in 1861, there

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5304-457: The corps numbered about one thousand members, organized in forty-two squads primarily responsible for patrolling the Mexico valley region. While their performance was uneven - with charges being made of both aggressive behavior against the public and slackness in enforcing their responsibilities - the rural guards had been successful in eliminating a number of bandit groups. Following his accession to power in 1877, President Porfirio Díaz expanded

5406-512: The country. Carlos Felipe is an academic who has given many interviews, conferences, and presentations regarding his family's history, Maximilian and Carlota, and the Second Mexican Empire. On 28 February 1857, Franz Joseph named Maximilian as viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia , an Italian-speaking region of the empire. On 6 September 1857, Maximilian and Charlotte made their entrance to the capital Milan . During their stay there

5508-612: The couple lived at the Royal Palace of Milan and occasionally resided at the Royal Villa of Monza . As viceroy, Maximilian lived as a sovereign surrounded by an imposing court of chamberlains and servants. During his two years as viceroy, Maximilian continued the construction of Miramar Castle, which would not be finished until three years later. Charlotte's royal dowry aided in the construction. Her brother Leopold would remark in his diary that “the construction of that palace amounts to endless madness.” Maximilian worked on developing

5610-532: The couple's feelings advised Maximilian to propose. From the Belgian viewpoint, the marriage was highly advantageous, since the nation was newly established and could benefit from ties to the Great Powers . Having been unlucky in love twice before, Maximilian's marriage to the daughter of a reigning European monarch was suitable and would seem to be a happy conclusion to his bachelorhood. Maximilian proposed and

5712-522: The defeated conservative government, providing a pretext for foreign intervention. Juárez's government could ill-afford and had no desire to pay off the debts contracted by those that had challenged its legitimacy to rule. The suspension gave Napoleon III an opportunity to establish a French client state which could also serve as a buffer to the expansion of the United States. France gained the aid of Britain and Spain , which also had loaned money to

5814-528: The defeated conservatives, under the pretext of arranging an expedition simply to renegotiate Mexico's debt agreements. Plans for such an expedition were formalized at the Convention of London on 31 October 1861. Gutiérrez de Estrada received Maximilian's answer at the beginning of October. The Archduke would accept the throne on two conditions: first, the Mexican people themselves should spontaneously ask for him; and second, that he should also be assured of

5916-524: The early stages of the Mexican Revolution of 1910, detachments of Rurales served alongside Federal troops against the rebel forces. While retaining an elite image (one revolutionary fighter commented to a US writer that Rurales never surrendered "because they are police", and a report to the U.S. Army rated them as individually superior to any of Pancho Villa 's irregulars), the force was too weak in numbers and dispersed in deployment to play

6018-503: The empire. Only in 1849 would the revolution be stamped out in Austria, with hundreds of rebels executed and thousands imprisoned. Maximilian was horrified at what he regarded as senseless brutality and openly complained about it. He would later remark, "We call our age the Age of Enlightenment , but there are cities in Europe where, in the future, men will look back in horror and amazement at

6120-559: The face of a renewed U.S. interest in enforcing the Monroe Doctrine, under orders by Napoleon III, the French armies that had propped up Maximilian's regime began withdrawing from Mexico in 1866. With no popular support and republican forces in the ascendant, Maximilian's monarchy collapsed. Maximilian was captured in Querétaro . He was tried and executed by the restored Republican government alongside his generals Miguel Miramón ,

6222-494: The fall of Santa Anna in 1853 with the successful liberal Revolution of Ayutla , Hidalgo had lost his official accreditation and continued his efforts independently. Hidalgo's childhood friend, the Spanish noblewoman Eugénie de Montijo was now wife of Napoleon III , Emperor of France, and it was through her that Hidalgo managed to gain the attention of the French ruler. The name of Maximilian came up swiftly in discussions among

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6324-507: The forced sale of Church-owned property and freedom of religion, removing Catholicism as the sole religion of the nation. The papal nuncio, Pier Francesco Meglia , arrived in Mexico in December 1864, and informed Maximilian that the liberal laws were to be reversed, Church property was to be returned and religious toleration rescinded and Catholicism as the sole religion reinstated. Maximilian refused, decreeing freedom of worship and confirmed

6426-449: The form of Austrian knots and sombrero braiding, which cost hundreds of pesos . The corps number appeared in silver on both the headdress and a leather carbine cross-belt. Protective leather chaps and canvas fatigue clothing were often worn as field service dress. The grey and silver dress, the frequent involvement of Rurales in ceremonial parades and their general reputation, drew the attention of foreign visitors to Mexico during

6528-455: The fortunes of humanity." Maximilian learned to command sailors and received a solid education regarding the technical aspects of navigation. On 10 September 1854, he was named Commander-in-Chief of the Austrian Navy and was granted the rank of counter admiral . As commander-in-chief, Maximilian carried out several reforms to modernize the naval forces. He was instrumental in creating the naval ports at Trieste and Pola (now Pula ), as well as

6630-540: The imperial navy, and he organized the expedition of the ship Novara , which would turn out to be the first circumnavigation of the globe conducted by the Austrian Empire, a scientific expedition, which lasted more than two years from 1857 to 1859, and which involved the participation of many Viennese intellectuals. Politically, the Archduke was strongly influenced by nineteenth-century liberalism, generally not

6732-502: The induction of large numbers of Maderista fighters on a temporary basis while awaiting discharge simply diluted such efficiency as the corps had retained. Huerta saw a more central role for the Rurales and directed officers of the Corps to murder Madero after the " Ten Tragic Days " of 1913. During the fighting that marked this internecine conflict, part of the rurales remained loyal to the Madero government. Three hundred rural guardsmen of

6834-456: The injustice of tribunals, which in a spirit of vengeance condemned to death those whose only crime lay in wanting something different to the arbitrary rule of governments which placed themselves above the law." At a court ball in Vienna, Maximilian met and fell in love with a young Moldavian noblewoman , Viktoria Keșco (1835–1856), paternal aunt of the future Queen of Serbia . But the match

6936-556: The liberals in the War of Reform. After Charles de Lorencez 's expeditionary force was repulsed at the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862 , Napoleon III sent reinforcements, ultimately numbering about 38,900, and placed them under the command of General Élie Forey . Even so, it took the French a year to take Puebla , and then the capital in June 1863. The French now sought to establish a friendly Mexican provisional government. Forey appointed

7038-433: The marriage was fruitful, and after four miscarriages, four sons – including Maximilian – would reach adulthood. Rumors at the court alleged that Maximilian was the product of an extramarital affair between his mother and Napoleon II , Duke of Reichstadt. The existence of an illicit affair between Sophie and the duke, and any possibility that Maximilian was conceived from such a union, are dubious. Maximilian's upbringing

7140-565: The movement for Italian unification , the Count of Cavour , who declared that In Lombardy, our worst enemy...was the Archduke Maximilian; young, active, enterprising, who dedicated himself completely to the difficult task of winning over the Milanese, and who was about to triumph in it. The Lombardian provinces had never been so prosperous or well administered. Thank God that the good government of Vienna intervened, and as usual, took advantage of

7242-411: The offer, but several attempts were made by the Mexican royalists. Later it was decided to again to make the offer to Maximilian, and that José María Gutiérrez de Estrada , because of his pivotal role in the history of Mexican monarchism, was to be given the role of again inviting Maximilian to assume a Mexican throne. In early 1861, the United States was embroiled in its Civil War between the states of

7344-464: The opportunity to commit a blunder, an impudent act, one most fatal to Austria, but most advantageous to Piedmont...Lombardy shall now fall into our grasp. After gaining independence in 1821 Mexico had soon divided itself into liberal and conservative parties, the latter of which had a monarchist faction. The failed monarchy of Agustín I that saw him forced to abdicate, swearing to remain in exile, met its final demise when he returned to Mexico and

7446-614: The presidency of Mariano Paredes and during the last presidency of Santa Anna , but by the late 1850s the liberals had appeared to have achieved a decisive victory through the promulgation of the Constitution of 1857 , which constrained the powers of the Mexican Catholic Church and the Mexican Army , two traditional bastions of conservativism. Conservatives declared the Constitution null and void and formed

7548-520: The prestige of the newly established Belgian dynasty as the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha once more found itself allied with the powerful House of Habsburg . The marriage was not fruitful, producing no children. However, when they were Emperor and Empress of Mexico, they adopted on 9 September 1865 Agustín de Iturbide y Green and his cousin Salvador de Iturbide y Marzán , both grandsons of Agustín de Iturbide , who had briefly reigned as emperor of

7650-565: The private law schools in Pavia and Padua . In March 1859, there were incidents between the Milanese police and the Veronese public. In Pavia, one of the cities governed by Maximilian, Austria created a veritable state of military occupation. The Italian situation was becoming critical, and order could no longer be maintained without troops. The Austrian archduke's conciliatory efforts ultimately fell apart when his various projects for improving

7752-463: The province included a revision of the tax registry, a more equitable distribution of tax revenue, the establishment of medical districts, dredging the Venetian canals, expanding the port of Cuomo, draining swamps to put a stop to malaria, fertilization projects and the irrigation of the plains of Friuli . There was also a series of urban development projects. The Riva degli Schiavoni was extended to

7854-577: The regular Federal troops. Recruiting problems and desertions prevented this ever becoming a realistic project. The remains of the Guardia Rural were finally disarmed and disbanded during July–August 1914, along with the old Federal Army, when Huerta fled into exile. Cuba also maintained the Cuban Rural Guard ( Spanish : Guardia Rural Cubana ) from 1898 until the revolution of 1959. A militarized and mounted constabulary, it performed

7956-501: The reigning family. In October 1866, as the Empire began to falter, Maximilian wrote to Alice Iturbide that he was returning her son, Agustín, to her care." One biographer claims that Maximilian took a mistress in Mexico. Historian Enrique Krauze suggests that Maximilian was rendered sterile due to venereal disease contracted from a Brazilian woman when he spent time in the country following his dismissal as viceroy. However, another biographer contends that not only did Maximilian have

8058-688: The rurales were reconstituted in 1869 as part of the reconstruction of the Mexican Republic following the Franco/Maximilian episode. The corps was placed under the Ministro de Gobernación and specifically tasked with providing mounted patrols for rail and road links, escorting gold and other valuable shipments, providing support for the Federal Army when called upon, and ensuring security when local elections were held. By 1875

8160-456: The same rural policing functions as its Mexican and Spanish counterparts. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Country Studies . Federal Research Division . Maximilian I of Mexico Maximilian I ( Spanish : Fernando Maximiliano José María de Habsburgo-Lorena ; German : Ferdinand Maximilian Josef Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen ; 6 July 1832 – 19 June 1867)

8262-420: The small Imperial Austrian Navy . He displayed zeal in his naval career and his direct link with Emperor Franz Joseph enabled the diversion of resources to what had previously been a neglected service. Maximilian embarked on the corvette Vulkan , for a brief cruise through Greece. In October 1850, he became a navy lieutenant. At the beginning of 1851, he embarked on another much more distant cruise on board

8364-764: The smugglers, killing four and stealing $ 4,000 in bullion and livestock. Two months after the attack was reported by the surviving smugglers, Commandant Neri again sent a detachment of Rurales led by Captain Carrillo across the border. This time, the Rurales successfully ambushed the Cowboys, killing five including Old Man Clanton and Jim Crane, in what became known as the Guadalupe Canyon Massacre . 31°35′24″N 109°2′10″W  /  31.59000°N 109.03611°W  / 31.59000; -109.03611 Rurales Modern militia: In Mexico,

8466-732: The support of France and Great Britain. Maximilian's older brother, Franz Joseph Emperor of Austria, now sent Count von Rechberg , the Austrian minister of foreign affairs to brief Maximilian on what lay in store in the event that France did militarily intervene in Mexico, and a Mexican plebiscite approved of Maximilian. In the interim, the agreement among France, the United Kingdom, and Spain broke down as it became increasingly clear that France intended to overthrow Juárez's liberal government of Mexico. France began military operations in April 1862. They were eventually joined by conservative Mexican generals who were not reconciled to their loss to

8568-513: The term Rurales ( Spanish ) is used to refer to two armed government forces. The historic Guardia Rural ('Rural Guard') was a rural mounted police force, founded by President Benito Juárez in 1861 and expanded by President Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911). Under Díaz, it served as an effective force of repression and a counterweight to the Mexican Army during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The rurales were dissolved during

8670-514: The top of a hill formerly on the outskirts of Mexico City that had been a retreat of Aztec emperors and Spanish viceroys. Maximilian ordered a wide avenue cut through the city from Chapultepec to the city center and named it the Paseo de la Emperatriz, the project would survive him and the Empire and is today one of the central avenues of Mexico City, the Paseo de la Reforma . Maximilian also acquired

8772-670: The way at Brussels , in order to visit the King of the Belgians, Leopold I . On 30 May 1856, he arrived in Belgium where he was received by Prince Philippe , younger son of King Leopold. He was accompanied by the Belgian princes, visiting the cities of Tournai , Kortrijk , Bruges , Ghent , Antwerp, and Charleroi . In Brussels, Maximilian met the only daughter of the king and the late queen Louise of Orleans , Charlotte of Belgium , and romance blossomed. Leopold I, upon becoming aware of

8874-423: The wellbeing of the Italian public were shut down. Franz Joseph was intent on preventing any concessions to the populace. The emperor considered Maximilian too liberal and generous with the rebellious Italian population. Franz Joseph relieved his brother of his post as viceroy on 10 April 1859. In Italy, news of Maximilian's dismissal was received with sarcastic enthusiasm by statesmen there. A pivotal figure in

8976-740: Was a descendant of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , King of Spain when the Spaniards conquered the Aztecs (1519–21) and first brought Mexico into the Spanish Empire , a status it held until the Mexican independence in 1821, Maximilian seemed a perfect candidate for the conservatives' plans for monarchy in Mexico. Maximilian was interested in assuming the throne, but only with guarantees of French support. Mexican conservatives did not take sufficient account of Maximilian's embrace of liberalism, and Maximilian failed to understand he would be viewed as

9078-671: Was absorbed into the Republican Army and irregular forces opposing the French intervention of 1862–1867. However the Imperial regime of Emperor Maximilian (1862–1867) created a parallel force known as the Resguardo , which by October 1865 numbered 12,263; indicating that the concept of a rural mounted police force had become well established. Following the Republican victory, Los Cuerpos Rurales were re-established. Described as "well-mounted active men ... in handsome uniform"

9180-541: Was an Austrian archduke who became emperor of the Second Mexican Empire from 10 April 1864 until his execution by the Mexican Republic on 19 June 1867. A member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine , Maximilian was the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria . Prior to his becoming Emperor of Mexico, he was commander-in-chief of the small Imperial Austrian Navy and briefly

9282-403: Was an opening for European powers to intervene militarily in Mexico. The intention of the French and Mexican conservatives was for regime change to oust the liberals, backed by the power of the French army. Mexican monarchists sought a European head of state and, with the brokering of Napoleon III, Maximilian was invited to establish what would come to be known as the Second Mexican Empire . With

9384-599: Was born on 6 July 1832 in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, capital of the Austrian Empire . He was baptized the following day as Ferdinand Maximilian Josef Maria . The first name honored his godfather and paternal uncle, the future Emperor Ferdinand I , and the second honored his late maternal grandfather, Maximilian I Joseph , King of Bavaria . His father was Archduke Franz Karl , the second surviving son of Emperor Francis I , during whose reign he

9486-443: Was born. Maximilian was thus a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine . His mother was Princess Sophie of Bavaria , a member of the House of Wittelsbach . Intelligent, ambitious and strong-willed, Sophie had little in common with her husband, whom historian Richard O'Conner characterized as "an amiably dim fellow whose main interest in life was consuming bowls of dumplings drenched in gravy". Despite their different personalities,

9588-617: Was closely supervised. Until his sixth birthday, he was cared for by Baroness Louise von Sturmfeder , who was his aja (then rendered "nurse", now nanny ). His education was then entrusted to a tutor. Most of Maximilian's day was spent in study. The hours per week of classes steadily increased from 32 at age seven to 55 by the time he was 17. The disciplines were diverse, ranging from history, geography, law and technology, to languages, military studies, fencing and diplomacy. From an early age, Maximilian tried to surpass his older brother Franz Joseph in everything, attempting to prove to all that he

9690-627: Was impossible for Archduke Maximilian since her family was Orthodox and did not belong to the family reigning or former reigning monarchs. When their romance was discovered, her father Ioan Keșco (1809–1863), who served as Russian Marshal of Nobility in Bessarabia , quickly sent her back home and forcibly married her off to her longtime admirer, local rich nobleman of Greek descent, Alexander Dimitrievich Inglezi (1826–1903), son of Dimitri Spiridonovich Inglezi (1771–1846). Not destined to rule, Maximilian entered military service, training in

9792-519: Was impressed enough to immediately consider building a residence there, a goal which he actually carried out in March 1856, when he began construction of what would later be called Miramare Castle , located near the city of Trieste. At end of the Crimean War in March 1856 that brought a period of peace to Europe, Maximilian traveled to Paris to meet Emperor of the French, Napoleon III and his wife

9894-566: Was in doubt since the United States continued to recognize Benito Juárez as the legal head of state rather than Emperor Maximilian. The U.S. saw the French invasion as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine , but the U.S. was unable to intervene politically due to the American Civil War (1861–1865). With the end of the American Civil War in 1865, the United States began providing material aid to Juárez's republican forces. In

9996-478: Was living in Spain, where he was recruited by German intelligence. He was arrested as a traitor by the French and executed by firing squad in 1917. According to the biographer's account, citing no sources in his publication, the charge read out at his execution began "Sedano, son of Emperor Maximilian of Mexico." Since Maximilian and Carlota had no offspring, there are no direct descendants. However, today members of

10098-556: Was often the instigator of pranks – including even his uncle, the emperor, among his victims. His attempts to outshine his older brother and his ability to charm opened a rift between himself and the aloof and self-contained Franz Joseph that widened as years passed, and their close relationship in childhood would be all but forgotten. During revolutionary unrest in Europe in 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of Maximilian's older brother Franz Joseph. Maximilian accompanied his brother on campaigns to put down rebellions throughout

10200-401: Was shot in 1824. Nonetheless, Conservatives continued to see monarchy as a viable option. Monarchist plans had most clearly been laid out in an 1840 essay by the statesman José María Gutiérrez de Estrada , which argued that after two decades of chaos, the republic had failed, and that a European prince ought to be invited to establish a Mexican throne. Such ideas received official interest during

10302-447: Was the better qualified of the two and thus deserving of more than second-place status, but with primogeniture, Maximilian was destined for secondary status. The highly restrictive environment of the Austrian court was not enough to repress Maximilian's natural openness. He was joyful, highly charismatic, and able to captivate those around him with ease. Although he was a charming boy, he was also undisciplined. He mocked his teachers and

10404-651: Was welcomed into the Belgian Court. He later remarked on the contrast of the Belgian Palace of Laeken to the splendor of the Imperial Viennese royal residences, not surprising since Belgium was but a small and new kingdom. Prince George of Saxony , who previously had been rejected by Charlotte, warned Leopold I of the “calculating character of the Viennese archduke." The son of Leopold I,

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