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146-683: On July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing, US President George H. W. Bush announced plans for what came to be known as the Space Exploration Initiative ( SEI ). In a speech on the steps of the National Air and Space Museum he described plans calling for constructing Space Station Freedom , sending humans back to the Moon "to stay" and ultimately sending astronauts to explore Mars . He proposed not

292-534: A Nova class super heavy launch vehicle to minimize assembly and operations in LEO and on the surface of the Moon. FLO was a major change from previous SEI proposals as the vehicle was standalone and expendable rather than reusable and being staged off of Space Station Freedom. The design was based on massive yet simple launchers to carry massive amounts of payloads at once rather than many small and complicated launches. This

438-547: A 10-year Apollo -style plan, but a long-range continuing commitment based on the three above elements, ending with "a journey into tomorrow – a journey to another planet – a manned mission to Mars." The President noted it was humanity's destiny to explore, and America's destiny to lead. He asked Vice President Dan Quayle to lead the National Space Council in determining what was needed to carry out these missions in terms of money, manpower and technology. In

584-402: A Soviet Soyuz spacecraft, during Gerald Ford's presidency in 1975. Space policy had little momentum during the presidency of Gerald Ford , and Ford is generally not considered to have made any major contributions to U.S. space policy in part due to his term lasting less than 900 days. That said, NASA funding was increased somewhat, a change of direction from the decreases in funding during

730-514: A VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch. The CSM

876-535: A challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed the United States Congress on "Urgent National Needs" and declared: I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade [1960s]

1022-541: A crowd of about 40,000 people in the Rice University football stadium in Houston , Texas. A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation may never come again. But why, some say,

1168-476: A few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered a near-circular Earth orbit at an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the trans-lunar injection (TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in

1314-593: A half-a-trillion dollar price tag over 30 years. This, combined with problems on the Hubble Space Telescope and massive cost overruns for the Space Station, threatened funding for NASA, but in spite of this, and in spite of an economic downturn, Bush ordered a 20 percent increase in NASA's budget in a tight budget era. The Bush administration also commissioned another report on the future of NASA,

1460-593: A lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11", and they decided not to put their names on

1606-457: A lunar base and sustainable lunar transportation service. The plan would be a lunar surface rendezvous (LSR), where two vehicles would meet on the surface for refueling, rather than Apollo's Lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR). NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory proposed a LSR for Apollo but it was quickly turned down due to the amount of technology, such as In situ resource utilization , that would need to be developed. Apollo 11 Apollo 11

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1752-678: A malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. The Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories radio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong , Command Module Pilot (CMP) Jim Lovell , and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Buzz Aldrin on

1898-638: A quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit , and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoin Columbia . Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida , on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it

2044-479: A return to the Moon, with no money, no timetable, and no plan, President Bush offers the country not a challenge to inspire us, but a daydream to briefly entertain us, a daydream about as splashy as a George Lucas movie, with about as much connection to reality." President Bush sought international partners, but the program was thought too expensive even for an international endeavor. In August 1990, Vice President Quayle established an advisory committee , often called

2190-638: A satellite several years earlier than the Soviet launch of Sputnik-1 in 1957, but the Truman administration did not consider this a priority. He may also have been the coiner of the concept of space superiority , and he lobbied the Truman administration for the construction of a nuclearly armed space station , which was to be used as a weapon against the Soviet Union . He often spoke in public speeches about

2336-548: A scientific satellite program associated with the International Geophysical Year . As a supporter of small government , he sought to avoid a space race which would require an expensive bureaucracy to conduct, and was surprised by, and sought to downplay, the public response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik . In an effort to prevent similar technological surprises by the Soviets, Eisenhower authorized

2482-485: A series of Apollo-type missions, mostly robotic. One mission was entitled Outpost Site Survey and Resource Assessment , involving the use of rovers. The site selected was in Mare Tranquillitatis near 15° N 22° E. This point is on the boundary between mare material and the ejecta blanket of the huge (45 km diameter) crater Plinius , on the east margin of a 25–40 km-wide band of material separating

2628-597: A variety of physics, aeronomy, photography, weather, and biomedical missions, and reached beyond the 100 kilometres (62 mile) boundary of space in 1952. Meanwhile, the Navy fired its Viking rocket to a record-breaking 136 miles (219 km) in August 1951. In December 1953, the US Air Force had pulled together all its various satellite efforts into a single program known as Weapon Systems-117L (WS-117L). In October 1956,

2774-634: Is aimed at the exploration of the Moon and the subsequent colonization of Mars . United States space policy is drafted by the Executive branch at the direction of the President of the United States , and submitted for approval and establishment of funding to the legislative process of the United States Congress . Space advocacy organizations may provide advice to the government and lobby for space goals. These include advocacy groups such as

2920-472: Is launched from their territory. The Registration Convention requires countries to register launched space craft. The Moon treaty would change the Outer Space Treaty 's ban on claiming sovereignty of celestial bodies, and so has not been ratified by any state that engages in human spaceflight. Thus, it has little relevancy in international law. According to Nancy Griffin, although the United States

3066-472: Is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger than any now being developed, until certain which

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3212-561: Is set through the federal budget process , where it is mainly considered to be part of the nation's science policy . Other space activities are funded out of the research and development budget of the Department of Defense , and from the budgets of the other regulatory agencies involved with space issues. In 2020, NASA received $ 22.6 billion, approximately 0.5% of the total budget of the federal government. NASA funding has hovered around 0.5% since 2011, after steadily decreasing from 1% of

3358-555: Is superior. We propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned explorations—explorations which are particularly important for one purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon—if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there. On September 12, 1962, Kennedy delivered another speech before

3504-839: The Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program , also known as the Augustine Report. During the Clinton administration , Space Shuttle flights continued, and the construction of the International Space Station began. The Clinton administration's National Space Policy (Presidential Decision Directive/NSC-49/NSTC-8) was released on September 14, 1996. Clinton's top goals were to "enhance knowledge of

3650-511: The Constellation program and rejected immediate plans to return to the Moon on the premise that the current plan had become nonviable. He instead promised $ 6 billion in additional funding and called for development of a new heavy lift rocket program to be ready for construction by 2015 with crewed missions to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s. The Obama administration released its new formal space policy on June 28, 2010, in which it also reversed

3796-583: The Department of Commerce 's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration operates various services with space components, such as the Landsat program . Military space activities are implemented by the United States Space Force and United States Space Command . "Any citizen of or entity organized under the laws of the United States, as well as other entities, as defined by space-related regulations, which are intended to conduct in

3942-733: The Dyna-Soar spaceplane program and the Manned Orbiting Laboratory . Kennedy also had elevated the status of the National Advisory Space Council by assigning the Vice President as its chair. President Lyndon Johnson was committed to space efforts, and as Senate majority leader and Vice President, he had contributed much to setting up the organizational infrastructure for the space program, having actually been in personal charge of

4088-610: The Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979. After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy , assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to George Low , the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at

4234-540: The House Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics and the Senate Subcommittee on Science and Space . These committees may exercise oversight of NASA 's implementation of established space policies, monitoring progress of large space programs such as the Apollo program , and in special cases such as serious space accidents like the Apollo 1 fire, where Congress oversees NASA 's investigation of

4380-555: The Lockheed Aircraft Corp. got the first WS-117L production contract, but a diplomatic problem associated with aerial surveillance worried President Eisenhower and held back the spy satellite program. President Dwight Eisenhower was skeptical about human spaceflight , but sought to advance the commercial and military applications of satellite technology. Prior to the Soviet Union 's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Eisenhower had already authorized Project Vanguard ,

4526-506: The Moon Treaty . The five treaties and agreements of international space law cover "non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and

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4672-456: The National Advisory Space Council and who strongly supported NASA due to its Texas location. This changed with his January 1961 State of the Union address, when he suggested international cooperation in space. In response to the flight of Yuri Gagarin as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. At the time,

4818-509: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), responsible for civilian and scientific space programs, and with the Department of Defense , responsible for military space activities, which include communications, reconnaissance, intelligence, mapping, and missile defense. The President is legally responsible for deciding which space activities fall under the civilian and military areas. The President also consults with

4964-765: The National Security Council , the Office of Science and Technology Policy , and the Office of Management and Budget . The 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act , which created NASA , created a National Aeronautics and Space Council chaired by the President to help advise him, which included the Secretary of State , Secretary of Defense , NASA Administrator , Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission , plus up to one member of

5110-464: The National Space Council , chaired by Vice President Mike Pence . The Trump administration's first budget request keeps Obama-era human spaceflight programs in place: commercial spacecraft to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station , the government-owned Space Launch System , and the Orion crew capsule for deep space missions , while reducing Earth science research and calling for

5256-678: The Orion spacecraft , the Altair lunar lander, and the Ares I and Ares V rockets. The Ares I-X mission, a test launch of a prototype Ares I rocket, was successfully completed in October 2009. A new National Space Policy was released on August 31, 2006, that established overarching national policy that governs the conduct of U.S. space activities. The document, the first full revision of overall space policy in 10 years, emphasized security issues, encouraged private enterprise in space, and characterized

5402-607: The President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy was formed by President Bush on January 27, 2004. Its final report was submitted on June 4, 2004. This led to the NASA Exploration Systems Architecture Study in mid-2005, which developed technical plans for carrying out the programs specified in the Vision for Space Exploration . This led to the beginning of execution of Constellation program , including

5548-822: The Space Science Institute , Space Force Association , National Space Society , and the Space Generation Advisory Council , the last of which among other things runs the annual Yuri's Night event; learned societies such as the American Astronomical Society and the American Astronautical Society ; and policy organizations such as the National Academies . In drafting space policy, the President consults with

5694-581: The Sputnik crisis , and triggered the Space Race to prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability. President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and initiating Project Mercury , which aimed to launch a man into Earth orbit . But on April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became

5840-609: The United States from Germany for US government employment to gain a US military advantage in the Soviet–American Cold War . The Space Race was spawned when the Soviet Union comparably relocated more than 2200 German specialists in Operation Osoaviakhim one night in 1946. Von Braun was a strong proponent of spaceflight. It is believed that he and his team were technically capable of launching

5986-536: The Vietnam War and programs of the Great Society , which forced cuts to NASA 's budget as early as 1965. As a result, Johnson's administration proposed the 1967 Outer Space Treaty , which barred nuclear weapons from space and prohibited countries from claiming celestial objects as their own as a way to help slow down the Space Race . The actual flights of the space program were similarly tumultuous under

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6132-405: The "Augustine Commission", which recommended that NASA should focus on space and Earth science, and transition human exploration to a "go-as-you-pay" strategy. On April 1, 1992 Dan Goldin became NASA Administrator, and during his tenure near-term human exploration beyond Earth orbit was abandoned, and the "faster, better, cheaper" strategy was applied to space science robotic exploration . When

6278-481: The 1967 Outer Space Treaty . In these cases, the President negotiates and signs the treaty on behalf of the United States according to his constitutional authority, then presents it to the Congress for ratification. Once a request is submitted, the Congress exercises due diligence to approve the policy and authorize a budgetary expenditure for its implementation. In support of this, civilian policies are reviewed by

6424-399: The 21st century. On January 5, 1988 President Ronald Reagan approved a revised United States national space policy, which was classified . On February 11 a summary "Fact Sheet" about the policy was publicly released. The policy identified six goals of United States space activities, the last of which was, "to expand human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the solar system." In

6570-462: The Apollo 11 mission include the following. The Apollo 11 mission emblem was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose the bald eagle , the national bird of the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested an olive branch in its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added

6716-493: The Budget Committee, Senator Jim Sasser , stated "The President took one giant leap for starry-eyed political rhetoric, and not even a small step for fiscal responsibility. The hard fact is, this Administration doesn't even have its space priorities established for next year, much less for the next century." His fellow Tennessee Senator Al Gore also was quoted expressing his criticism of Bush's plan, saying "By proposing

6862-539: The Bush policy's rejection of international agreements to curb the militarization of space, saying that it would "consider proposals and concepts for arms control measures if they are equitable, effectively verifiable and enhance the national security of the United States and its allies." The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 , passed on October 11, 2010, enacted many of these space policy goals. On June 30, 2017, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to re-establish

7008-511: The CMP on the Apollo ;8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8. Apollo 11 was

7154-547: The Carter space policy stated, without much specification in the unclassified version, that "The United States will pursue Activities in space in support of its right of self-defense." Carter provided the first supplemental budget to NASA in 1979, allowing the Shuttle to continue its development. In an interview in 2016, Carter stated, "I was not enthusiastic about sending humans on missions to Mars or outer space... But I thought

7300-742: The Earth, the solar system and the universe through human and robotic exploration" and to "strengthen and maintain the national security of the United States ." The Clinton space policy, like the space policies of Carter and Reagan, also stated that "The United States will conduct those space activities necessary for national security." These activities included "providing support for the United States' inherent right of self-defense and our defense commitments to allies and friends; deterring, warning, and if necessary, defending against enemy attack; assuring that hostile forces cannot prevent our own use of space; and countering, if necessary, space systems and services used for hostile purposes." The Clinton policy also said

7446-687: The Johnson administration, as Johnson's term saw both the tragedy of Apollo 1 , where 3 astronauts died in a training fire, and the Apollo 8 mission, which carried the first men into lunar orbit, the latter of which occurring just before the end of his term in 1968. Apollo 11 , the first Moon landing , occurred early in Richard Nixon's presidency , and five more Apollo program Moon landings followed during his time in office. But NASA 's budget continued to decline and three planned Moon landings were cancelled . The Nixon administration approved

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7592-551: The MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The name Snowcone was used for the CM and Haystack was used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was named Eagle after the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was named Columbia after Columbiad ,

7738-720: The Moon already had a name: Project Apollo . When Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev , the Premier of the Soviet Union in June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer. Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly on September 20, 1963. The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision

7884-402: The Moon by the year 2020, in preparation for human exploration of Mars and other destinations; develop the innovative technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures both to explore and to support decisions about the destinations for human exploration; and to promote international and commercial participation in exploration to further U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests To this end,

8030-401: The Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic ? Why does Rice play Texas ? We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure

8176-580: The Nixon administration, the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project set up during the Nixon Administration occurred, the Shuttle program continued, and the Office of Science and Technology Policy was formed. Although coinciding with much of the development of the Shuttle program as begun during Nixon, the Jimmy Carter administration was like Ford, fairly inactive on space issues, stating that it was "neither feasible nor necessary" to commit to an Apollo-style space program, and his space policy included only limited, short-range goals. With regard to military space policy,

8322-452: The Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the US Gemini program and Soviet failure to develop the N1 launcher , which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of uncrewed probes . On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launched Luna 15 , which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent,

8468-404: The United States includes both the making of space policy through the legislative process, and the implementation of that policy in the United States' civilian and military space programs through regulatory agencies. The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s, which gave way to the Space Shuttle program . At the moment, the US space policy

8614-411: The United States a launch of a launch vehicle, operation of a launch or re-entry site, or re-entry of a re-entry vehicle, should obtain a license from the Secretary of Transportation ." Compliance is monitored by the FAA , FCC and the Secretary of Commerce . Research and development budget in the Obama administration 's federal budget proposal for fiscal year 2011: Funding for space programs

8760-459: The United States and to ensure the nation is on "a vigorous and sustainable path to achieving its boldest aspirations in space," covering human spaceflight options after the time NASA plans to retire the Space Shuttle . On April 15, 2010, President Obama spoke at the Kennedy Space Center announcing the administration's plans for NASA. None of the 3 plans outlined in the committee's final report were completely selected. The President cancelled

8906-461: The United States would develop and operate "space control capabilities to ensure freedom of action in space" only when such steps would be "consistent with treaty obligations." The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred early in George W. Bush 's term, leading to the report of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board being released in August 2003. The Vision for Space Exploration , announced on January 14, 2004, by President George W. Bush,

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9052-495: The United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts. President Richard Nixon viewed the launch from his office in the White House with his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronaut Frank Borman . Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 UTC (9:32:00 EDT ). At 13.2 seconds into

9198-429: The Vanguard, but after numerous embarrassing Vanguard failures, was forced to give the go-ahead to the Army's launch Later in 1958, Eisenhower asked Congress to create an agency for civilian control of non-military space activities. At the suggestion of Eisenhower's science advisor James R. Killian , the drafted bill called for creation of the new agency out of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics . The result

9344-404: The Vehicle Assembly Building atop the crawler-transporter , bound for Launch Pad 39A, part of Launch Complex 39 , while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried the mobile service structure back to its parking area. In the early hours of

9490-468: The White House National Science and Technology Council released their revision of the National Space Policy in September 1996, it specifically lacked any mention of human space exploration beyond Earth's orbit. The next day, President Clinton stated on a campaigning trip through the Pacific Northwest that a human mission to Mars was too expensive and instead affirmed America's commitment to a series of less expensive probes, thus removing human exploration from

9636-422: The accident. Military policies are reviewed and overseen by the House Subcommittee on Strategic Forces and the Senate Subcommittee on Strategic Forces , as well as the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence . The Senate Foreign Relations Committee conducts hearings on proposed space treaties, and the various appropriations committees have power over

9782-452: The administration believed that the Soviet Union would be able to land a man on the Moon by 1967, and Kennedy saw an American Moon landing as critical to the nation's global prestige and status. His pick for NASA Administrator , James E. Webb , however pursued a broader program incorporating space applications such as weather and communications satellites. During this time the Department of Defense pursued military space applications such as

9928-413: The annual federal budget around 1993, a percentage it had hovered around since 1975. Previously, the threat posed by the Soviet Union had increased NASA 's budget to around 4% of the total federal budget, peaking at 4.4% in 1966, but the apparent U.S. victory in the Space Race rendered NASA unable to sustain political support for its visions. NASA funding has been criticized over its entire lifetime on

10074-413: The astronauts back into lunar orbit. After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagle ' s ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in

10220-470: The backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of Gemini 12 . Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change. Michael Collins ,

10366-412: The backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39. Haise entered Columbia about three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking

10512-605: The beginning of the Space Shuttle program , but did not support funding of other projects such as a Mars landing , colonization of the Moon , or a permanent space station . On January 5, 1972, Nixon approved the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program , a decision that profoundly influenced American efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter. Under the Nixon administration, however, NASA 's budget declined. NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine

10658-726: The best in the continental US for this purpose, as it allowed for launches out over the Atlantic Ocean, and is closer to the equator than most other parts of the United States, allowing rockets to get a boost from the Earth's rotation. In 1951, the Air Force established the Air Force Missile Test Center at Cape Canaveral. The Army, Air Force, and the Applied Physics Laboratory started in 1950 their use of Aerobee sounding rockets on

10804-480: The best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a " moondoggle " by Norbert Wiener , a mathematician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . The effort to land a man on

10950-571: The budgets for space-related agencies. Space policy efforts are supported by Congressional agencies such as the Congressional Research Service and, until it was disbanded in 1995, the Office of Technology Assessment , as well as the Congressional Budget Office and Government Accountability Office . Congress' final space policy product is, in the case of domestic policy a bill explicitly stating

11096-434: The center couch. Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch. The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time. Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in the firing room . An estimated one million spectators watched

11242-427: The close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo 12 . Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship. Aldrin and Collins described the crew as "amiable strangers". Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said "... all

11388-466: The command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described

11534-589: The construction of Space Station Freedom , and the military Strategic Defense Initiative . Late in his term as president, Reagan sought to increase NASA's budget by 30 percent. However, many of these initiatives would not be completed as planned. The January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster led to the Rogers Commission Report on the causes of the disaster, and the National Commission on Space report and Ride Report on

11680-650: The crater Sabine D . The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges. It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi) southeast of the Surveyor ;5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi) southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered Eagle , and began

11826-651: The creation in 1958 of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), responsible for the development of advanced military technologies. Space programs such as the Explorer satellite were proposed by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), but Eisenhower, seeking to avoid giving the US space program the militaristic image Americans had of the Soviet program, had rejected Explorer in favor of

11972-475: The crews I was on worked very well together." The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, William Anders as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8. In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11

12118-435: The dark on the decision until late spring. Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, "Yes, that's the way to do it." The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first. Chris Kraft revealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be

12264-477: The descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, the LM guidance computer (LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineer Jack Garman told Guidance Officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning

12410-483: The ejecta blanket from highlands to the west. The First Lunar Outpost (FLO) was the most comprehensive Moon base study under the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI). It was intended to be the flagship of the program from which other proposals such as ILREC would have to compete against. The FLO concept incorporated many recommendations from the 1991 Stafford Synthesis report, mainly the use of

12556-538: The elimination of NASA's education office. On December 11, 2017, President Trump signed Space Policy Directive 1 , a change in national space policy that provides for a U.S.-led, integrated program with private sector partners for a human return to the Moon, followed by missions to Mars and beyond. The policy calls for the NASA administrator to "lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across

12702-410: The event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy , "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the United States

12848-433: The event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) of Site 2, and reported it was acceptable. During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, "Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?" Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it

12994-475: The event, execution of the initiative was assigned to NASA, but the initiative did not survive long into the administration of the next president, Bill Clinton . In August 1987 a committee chaired by former astronaut Dr. Sally Ride released a report entitled Leadership and America's Future in Space . The " Ride Report " advocated establishment of a permanent Moon base by 2010 and landing a crew on Mars early in

13140-505: The exploitation of natural resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes." More specifically, the Outer Space Treaty forbids placing weapons of mass destruction in outer space, limits the use of celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and establishes that space be freely explored and used by all nations. The Rescue Agreement requires that astronauts must be given all possible assistance by signatories. The Space Liability Convention makes countries bear responsibility for anything that

13286-452: The federal government, and up to three private individuals "eminent in science, engineering, technology, education, administration, or public affairs" appointed by the President. Before taking office as president, John F. Kennedy persuaded Congress to amend the Act to allow him to set the precedent of delegating chairmanship of this council to his vice president ( Lyndon B. Johnson ). The council

13432-434: The final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in

13578-522: The final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 Eagle separated from Columbia . Collins, alone aboard Columbia , inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed. Armstrong exclaimed: "The Eagle has wings!" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. Eagle

13724-447: The first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed

13870-457: The first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth. Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor, John F. Kennedy . Since the Soviet Union had higher lift capacity launch vehicles , Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA,

14016-601: The first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be like Charles Lindbergh , a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. The ascent stage of LM-5 Eagle arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, and CSM-107 Columbia on January 23. There were several differences between Eagle and Apollo 10's LM-4 Snoopy ; Eagle had

14162-503: The flight, the launch vehicle began to roll into its flight azimuth of 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine

14308-461: The fundamental right of the United States to operate in and acquire data from space," and that "The United States will oppose the development of new legal regimes or other restrictions that seek to prohibit or limit U.S. access to or use of space." The Obama administration commissioned the Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee in 2009 to review the human spaceflight plans of

14454-420: The future of the national space program. In commercial space travel, Ronald Reagan backed a plan which allowed American satellites to be exported and launched on China's Long March rockets . This was criticized by Bill Nelson , then a Florida representative, as delaying the U.S.'s own commercial space development, while industry leaders also opposed the idea of a nation-state competing with private entities in

14600-487: The giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) in Jules Verne 's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon . It also referred to Columbia , a historical name of the United States. In Collins' 1976 book, he said Columbia was in reference to Christopher Columbus . The astronauts had personal preference kits (PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on

14746-634: The grounds that more pressing concerns exist, such as social welfare programs, as well as for various other reasons. The United States is a party to four of the five space law treaties ratified by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space . The United States has ratified the Outer Space Treaty , Rescue Agreement , Space Liability Convention , and the Registration Convention , but not

14892-629: The guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them. Margaret Hamilton , the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at the MIT Charles Stark Draper Laboratory later recalled: To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs

15038-415: The international laws, as well as unified communication between countries. The five declarations and principles are: In the aftermath of World War II , President Harry S.Truman approved Operation Paperclip between 1945 and 1959, a secret US intelligence program in which more than 1600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians, including Wernher von Braun and his V-2 rocket team, were brought to

15184-611: The launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General William Westmoreland , four cabinet members , 19 state governors , 40 mayors , 60 ambassadors and 200 congressmen . Vice President Spiro Agnew viewed the launch with former president Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife Lady Bird Johnson . Around 3,500 media representatives were present. About two-thirds were from

15330-425: The left seat and at the controls, the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver was performed. This involved separating Columbia from the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking with Eagle still attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon. This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with

15476-542: The lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of the Lunar Orbiter program and information about surface conditions provided by the Surveyor program . The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required. The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify

15622-459: The mission. Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed on Columbia before launch, and two on Eagle . Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from the Wright brothers ' 1903 Wright Flyer ' s left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing, along with a diamond-studded astronaut pin originally given to Slayton by

15768-455: The morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled with liquid hydrogen . Fueling was completed by three hours before launch. Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in the ATOLL programming language . Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and

15914-452: The national agenda. Construction of Space Station Freedom . The Lunar Orbiter Missions would yield further information on the distribution of high-TiO regolith on the whole Moon, through gamma-ray spectroscopy. The purpose was stated to be to provide a detailed geochemical and mineralogical map of the Moon. Global stereo imaging to aid in site selection was also given as a function of the mission. The CLL program would have consisted of

16060-551: The need and feasibility of such a space station, to garner public support for the idea, although he never talked publicly about its intended armament. Similarly, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the RAND Project was secretly recommending to the US government a major effort to design a man-made satellite that would take photographs from space, and to develop the rockets necessary to put such a satellite in orbit. Already in May 1946,

16206-523: The only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a single Saturn V rocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini . The Apollo project

16352-576: The organization released a Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship , which was a proposal for a United States satellite program. Truman established the Joint Long Range Proving Ground at Cape Canaveral, which would later on become the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station . From 1949, the United States government used the site to test missiles. The location was among

16498-490: The patch, so it would "be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing". An illustrator at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval. The design was rejected. Bob Gilruth , the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked "too warlike". After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons. When

16644-433: The policy objectives and the budget appropriation for their implementation to be submitted to the President for signature into law, or else a ratified treaty with other nations. Civilian space activities have traditionally been implemented exclusively by NASA , but the nation is transitioning into a model where more activities are implemented by private companies under NASA 's advisement and launch site support. In addition,

16790-407: The prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them. For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, Ronald Evans and Bill Pogue . The capsule communicator (CAPCOM)

16936-454: The rocketry market. The China satellite export deal continued through Bush and Clinton administrations. President George H. W. Bush continued to support space development, announcing the bold Space Exploration Initiative (SEI), which had as goals, among other things, a permanent settlement on the Moon and crewed missions to Mars. The SEI faced a number of political hurdles, and opposition only increased when follow-up analysis of SEI reveled

17082-456: The role of U.S. space diplomacy largely in terms of persuading other nations to support U.S. policy. The United States National Security Council said in written comments that an update was needed to "reflect the fact that space has become an even more important component of U.S. Economic security , National security , and homeland security ." The Bush policy accepted current international agreements, but stated that it "rejects any limitations on

17228-489: The second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience, the first being Apollo 10. The next was STS-26 in 1988. Deke Slayton gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13 ). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of

17374-589: The shuttle was a good way to continue the good work of NASA. I didn't want to waste the money already invested." The first flight of the Space Shuttle occurred in April 1981, early in President Ronald Reagan 's first term. Reagan in 1982 announced a renewed active space effort, which included initiatives such as privatization of the Landsat program , a new commercialization policy for NASA,

17520-407: The space program while Vice President. As a result, he initially pushed strongly for the continuation and expansion of the Space Race and Kennedy's vision of a Moon landing , stating that "I do not believe that this generation of Americans is willing to resign itself to going to bed each night by the light of a Communist moon". However, his ambitions would be restricted by the prohibitive costs of

17666-514: The space technology research started by DARPA . NASA also took over the US crewed space program, Man In Space Soonest , from the Air Force , as Project Mercury . Early in John F. Kennedy's presidency , he was inclined to dismantle plans for the Apollo program , which he had opposed as a senator, but postponed any decision out of deference to his vice president whom he had appointed chairman of

17812-470: The spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. A slingshot effect from passing around the Moon threw it into an orbit around the Sun . On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit . In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of

17958-564: The subsequent investigation. In October 1968, Apollo 7 evaluated the command module in Earth orbit, and in December Apollo 8 tested it in lunar orbit. In March 1969, Apollo 9 put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit, and in May Apollo 10 conducted a "dress rehearsal" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning

18104-457: The task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found. Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility ( Mare Tranquillitatis ); Site 3

18250-420: The view of NASA, the July 20, 1989 speech by President Bush, "provided specificity" to that policy goal. Following this announcement NASA Administrator Richard Truly initiated a study of the options to achieve the President's goals, headed by Johnson Space Center Director Aaron Cohen . A report on that study, called, "the 90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars" (or simply, "the 90-Day Study"),

18396-463: The widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of

18542-479: Was "not based on individual desire". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions, where the commander had never performed the spacewalk. Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate Administrator George Mueller told reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be

18688-553: Was a spaceflight conducted by the United States from July 16 to July 24, 1969. It marked the first time that humans landed on the Moon . Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC , and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and

18834-583: Was an active participant in the formulation of the Moon Treaty, it has never signed the agreement due to a variety of opposition from a variety of sources, instead opting to postpone a final decision regarding ratification of the 1979 treaty until it has had time to thoroughly evaluate its principles. As a result, the United States has ratified all space law treaties all other spacefaring countries have. The United Nations General Assembly adopted five declarations and legal principles which encourage exercising

18980-579: Was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were: Charles Duke , Ronald Evans, Bruce McCandless II , James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, Don L. Lind , Owen K. Garriott and Harrison Schmitt . The flight directors for this mission were: Other key personnel who played important roles in

19126-417: Was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over both direct ascent and Earth orbit rendezvous . A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the Apollo spacecraft would have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and

19272-405: Was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly on Apollo 14 , but the three of them were bumped to Apollo 13 : there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them except Edgar Mitchell flew in space again. George Mueller rejected the crew and this

19418-444: Was discontinued in 1973 during the presidency of Richard M. Nixon . In 1989, President George H. W. Bush re-established a differently constituted National Space Council by executive order , which was discontinued in 1993 by President Bill Clinton . President Donald Trump reestablished the council by executive order in 2017. International aspects of US space policy may involve diplomatic negotiation with other countries, such as

19564-560: Was drawing up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected this proposal. On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program , which would culminate in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project , a joint-mission of an American Apollo and

19710-613: Was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor device , including metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts Gus Grissom , Ed White , and Roger B. Chaffee died, and

19856-517: Was engaged in the Cold War , a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union . On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite . This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority. This precipitated

20002-609: Was in the Central Bay ( Sinus Medii ); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms ( Oceanus Procellarum ). The final site selection was based on seven criteria: The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month. A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience. The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with Sites 3 and 5 as backups in

20148-427: Was incorporated into the software. The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather than almost forcing an abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful Moon landing it was. National Space Policy The space policy of

20294-662: Was mated on January 29, and moved from the Operations and Checkout Building to the Vehicle Assembly Building on April 14. The S-IVB third stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by the S-II second stage on February 6, S-IC first stage on February 20, and the Saturn V Instrument Unit on February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly departed

20440-562: Was published by NASA on November 20, 1989. The 90-Day Study estimated SEI's long-term cost at approximately 500 billion dollars spread over 20 to 30 years. According to Steve Dick, NASA Chief Historian, the National Academy of Sciences largely concurred with the NASA study, but White House and Congressional reaction to the NASA plan was hostile, primarily due to the cost estimate. In particular, Democratic members of Congress had almost immediate criticism over Bush's plan. Chairman of

20586-581: Was seen as a response to the Columbia disaster and the general state of human spaceflight at NASA , as well as a way to regain public enthusiasm for space exploration . The Vision for Space Exploration sought to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the Solar System and beyond; extend human presence across the Solar System , starting with a human return to

20732-486: Was the National Aeronautics and Space Act passed in July 1958, which created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Eisenhower appointed T. Keith Glennan as NASA 's first Administrator, with the last NACA Director Hugh Dryden serving as his Deputy. NASA as created in the act passed by Congress was substantially stronger than the Eisenhower administration's original proposal. NASA took over

20878-429: Was the fifth crewed mission of NASA 's Apollo program . The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM) , which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place

21024-457: Was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To give Alan Shepard more training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced by Jack Swigert as CMP on Apollo 13. During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured

21170-456: Was to reduce cost and development time. The program would have almost completely consisted of existing technology such as the Saturn and Space Station with only the landing vehicle needing to be developed. The International Lunar Resources Exploration Concept was a proposed mission architecture by Kent Joosten, an engineer at Johnson Space Center . The plan would have used the help of international partners, mainly Soviet Union , to assemble

21316-420: Was traveling too fast. The problem could have been mascons —concen­tra­tions of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains a gravitational anomaly , potentially altering Eagle 's trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result of Eagle ' s pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into

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