Francoist victory
149-638: The Maquis ( [ˈmaki(s)] ; Basque : Maki ; also spelled maqui ) were Spanish guerrillas who waged an irregular warfare against the Francoist dictatorship within Spain following the Republican defeat in the Spanish Civil War until the early 1960s, carrying out sabotage, robberies (to help fund guerrilla activity) and assassinations of alleged Francoists as well as contributing to
298-422: A proposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken. Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature with Morocco's first opposition-led government coming to power. King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI . He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation. Mohammed VI paid
447-577: A church. The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb that had begun during the mid-7th century was completed under the Umayyad Caliphate by 709. The caliphate introduced both Islam and the Arabic language to the area; this period also saw the beginning of a trend of Arab migration to the Maghreb which would last for centuries and effect a demographic shift in the region. While constituting part of
596-685: A controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002. Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in 2007. The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal. Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in New York City but failed to come to any agreement. In 2010, security forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent demonstrations in
745-612: A distinctive Maghrebi ancestry formed from a mixture of Near Eastern and African ancestry, which is still found as a part of the genome of modern Northwest Africans. Later during the Neolithic , from around 7,500 years ago onwards, there was a migration into Northwest Africa of European Neolithic Farmers from the Iberian Peninsula (who had originated in Anatolia several thousand years prior), as well as pastoralists from
894-741: A great force that was moved into the area by Franco, made up of the Civil Guard , Armed Police Corps , battalions of the Spanish Army , and 40,000 Moroccan ( Army of Africa ) troops. The guerrilla army conquered various towns and villages, raising the Spanish Republican flag , carrying out anti-Franco meetings in the plazas, as well as controlling part of the French border for several days, through which they were able to bring in trucks, material and reinforcements from France. However,
1043-548: A joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions of Moroccan soldiers ( Goumiers or regular troops and officers) served in the French army in both World War I and World War II , and in the Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after ( Regulares ). The institution of slavery was abolished in 1925. Between 1921 and 1926, an uprising in
1192-400: A limited area ( Gascony and Old Castile ) that corresponds almost exactly to areas where heavy Basque bilingualism is assumed, and as a result has been widely postulated (and equally strongly disputed). Substrate theories are often difficult to prove (especially in the case of phonetically plausible changes like /f/ to /h/ ). As a result, although many arguments have been made on both sides,
1341-622: A modest comeback. In the Spanish part, Basque-language schools for children and Basque-teaching centres for adults have brought the language to areas such as western Enkarterri and the Ribera del Ebro in southern Navarre, where it is not known to ever have been widely spoken; and in the French Basque Country, these schools and centres have almost stopped the decline of the language. Historically, Latin or Romance languages have been
1490-537: A new constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a landslide victory in a referendum on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate the Arab Spring protests. In the first general elections that followed, the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party won a plurality of seats, with Abdelilah Benkirane being designated as head of government per the new constitution. Despite
1639-622: A normal civilian life were most of the time treated as deserters and shot, even at the rearguard guerrilla camps in France. In 1948 the PCE changed its strategy, and at the behest of Stalin , renounced the guerrilla fight, preferring to try to change the state-sanctioned Spanish Syndical Organization from within. This began the decline of the agrupaciones , already quite beaten by government repression. The Agrupaciones Guerrilleras renamed themselves Comités de Resistencia . The new orientation, however,
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#17327811706741788-465: A policy of total silence on the actions of the maquis. For this reason, outside of the areas of maquis activity, the population had practically no knowledge of the maquis. On the rare occasion that an item appeared in the press, the maquis were always referred to as " bandoleros " (bandits), in order to strip the actions of all political context. Steadily, Francoist forces isolated the guerrillas. Most of their members were middle-aged or older by 1950, with
1937-812: A population of 2,634,800 over 16 years of age (1,838,800 in the Autonomous community, 546,000 in Navarre and 250,000 in the Northern Basque Country), 806,000 spoke Basque, which amounted to 30.6% of the population. Compared to the 1991 figures, this represents an overall increase of 266,000, from 539,110 speakers 30 years previously (430,000 in the BAC , 40,110 in FCN , and 69,000 in the Northern provinces). This number has tended to increase, as in all regions
2086-491: A population of approximately 37 million. Islam is both the official and predominant religion, while Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Additionally, French and the Moroccan dialect of Arabic are widely spoken. The culture of Morocco is a mix of Arab , Berber , African and European cultures. Its capital is Rabat , while its largest city is Casablanca . The region constituting Morocco has been inhabited since
2235-464: A sole mother tongue has decreased from 19% in 1991 to 15.1% in 2016, while Basque and another language being used as mother language increased from 3% to 5.4% in the same time period. General public attitude towards efforts to promote the Basque language have also been more positive, with the share of people against these efforts falling from 20.9% in 1991 to 16% in 2016. In 2021, the study found that in
2384-418: A state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965. In 1971 and 1972, there were two failed attempts to depose the king and establish a republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission. In 1963,
2533-566: A strong reaction from the German Empire ; and a crisis loomed in 1905. The matter was resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 increased tensions between European powers. The 1912 Treaty of Fez made Morocco a protectorate of France, and triggered the 1912 Fez riots . Spain continued to operate its coastal protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over
2682-641: A variety of terms denoting the Sharifi heritage of the 'Alawi dynasty , such as al-Mamlakah ash-Sharīfah ( المملكة الشريفة ), al-Iyālah ash-Sharīfah ( الإيالة الشريفة ) and al-Imbarāṭūriyyah ash-Sharīfah ( الإمبراطورية الشريفة ), rendered in French as l'Empire chérifien and in English as the 'Sharifian Empire'. The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since at least Paleolithic times , beginning sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. A recent publication has suggested that there
2831-485: Is al-Maghrib ( المغرب , transl. the land of the sunset; the west ), with the Kingdom's official Arabic name being al-Mamlakah al-Maghribīyah ( المملكة المغربية ; transl. the kingdom of sunset/the west ). In Turkish , Morocco is known as Fas , a name derived from its medieval capital of Fes which is derived from the Arabic word Faʾs ( فأس ; transl. pickaxe ), as
2980-590: Is a language spoken by Basques and other residents of the Basque Country , a region that straddles the westernmost Pyrenees in adjacent parts of northern Spain and southwestern France. Basque is classified as a language isolate (unrelated to any other known languages) and the only language isolate in Europe. The Basques are indigenous to and primarily inhabit the Basque Country. The Basque language
3129-434: Is challenging since written material and documentation only is available for some few hundred years. Almost all hypotheses concerning the origin of Basque are controversial, and the suggested evidence is not generally accepted by mainstream linguists. Some of these hypothetical connections are: The region where Basque is spoken has become smaller over centuries, especially at the northern, southern, and eastern borders. Nothing
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#17327811706743278-455: Is distinguished from atso "old woman". In the westernmost parts of the Basque country, only the apical ⟨s⟩ and the alveolar affricate ⟨tz⟩ are used. Basque also features postalveolar sibilants ( /ʃ/ , written ⟨x⟩ , and /tʃ/ , written ⟨tx⟩ ). Morocco Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country in
3427-730: Is evidence for even earlier human habitation of the area: Homo sapiens fossils that had been discovered in the late 2000s near the Atlantic coast in Jebel Irhoud were recently dated to roughly 315,000 years ago. During the Upper Paleolithic , the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling a savanna , in contrast to its modern arid landscape. DNA studies of Iberomaurusian peoples at Taforalt , Morocco dating to around 15,000 years ago have found them to have
3576-582: Is generally referred to as Aquitanian and is assumed to have been spoken in the area before the Roman Republic 's conquests in the western Pyrenees . Some authors even argue for late Basquisation , that the language moved westward during Late Antiquity after the fall of the Western Roman Empire into the northern part of Hispania into what is now the Basque Country . Roman neglect of this area allowed Aquitanian to survive while
3725-693: Is known about the limits of this region in ancient times, but on the basis of toponyms and epigraphs, it seems that in the beginning of the Common Era it stretched to the river Garonne in the north (including the south-western part of present-day France); at least to the Val d'Aran in the east (now a Gascon -speaking part of Catalonia ), including lands on both sides of the Pyrenees ; the southern and western boundaries are not clear at all. The Reconquista temporarily counteracted this contracting tendency when
3874-496: Is known of its origins, but it is likely that an early form of the Basque language was present in and around the area of modern Basque Country before the arrival of the Indo-European languages in western Europe during the 3rd millennium BC. Authors such as Miguel de Unamuno and Louis Lucien Bonaparte have noted that the words for "knife" ( aizto ), "axe" ( aizkora ), and "hoe" ( aitzur ) appear to derive from
4023-639: Is one strong loanword candidate, ezker , long considered the source of the Pyrenean and Iberian Romance words for "left (side)" ( izquierdo , esquerdo , esquerre ). The lack of initial /r/ in Gascon could arguably be due to a Basque influence but this issue is under-researched. The other most commonly claimed substrate influences: The first two features are common, widespread developments in many Romance (and non-Romance) languages. The change of /f/ to /h/ occurred historically only in
4172-407: Is spoken by 806,000 Basques in all territories. Of these, 93.7% (756,000) are in the Spanish area of the Basque Country and the remaining 6.3% (50,000) are in the French portion. Native speakers live in a contiguous area that includes parts of four Spanish provinces and the three "ancient provinces" in France. Gipuzkoa , most of Biscay , a few municipalities on the northern border of Álava and
4321-653: The Ley de fugas (extralegal executions predicated on detainees' actual or supposed attempts to escape custody) taking a heavy toll among maquis combatants and their supporters. Following its decline, it fully disappeared in the 1960s. Referring to the contribution of the Spanish Maquis to the French resistance movement , Martha Gellhorn wrote in The Undefeated (1945): During the German occupation of France,
4470-708: The Abbasids in the Hejaz . He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a major regional power . The Idrisids were ousted in 927 by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa broke off relations with
4619-724: The Algonquian peoples in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Strait of Belle Isle . The Basque language features five vowels: /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , /o/ and /u/ (the same that are found in Spanish , Asturian and Aragonese ). In the Zuberoan dialect, extra phonemes are featured: There is no distinctive vowel length in Basque, although vowels can be lengthened for emphasis. The mid vowels /e/ and /o/ are raised before nasal consonants. Basque has an a-Elision Rule, according to which
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4768-578: The Aran Valley but were driven back after ten days. Few details of the maquis' actions in Spain have been made public because of the secrecy of the Franco government, but guerrillas, including Francesc Sabaté Llopart , Jose Castro Veiga , and Ramon Vila Capdevila were responsible for the deaths of hundreds of Guardia Civil ( Civil Guard ) officers, and uncountable acts of industrial sabotage . Between 1943 and 1952, 2,166 maquis were reported arrested by
4917-566: The Asturian Xíriga . Part of the Romani community in the Basque Country speaks Erromintxela , which is a rare mixed language , with a Kalderash Romani vocabulary and Basque grammar. A number of Basque-based or Basque-influenced pidgins have existed. In the 16th century, Basque sailors used a Basque–Icelandic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland. The Algonquian–Basque pidgin arose from contact between Basque whalers and
5066-874: The Banu Hilal Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Zenata Berber Marinids held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads through military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by the Wattasids . In the 15th century, the Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Iberia and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco. Portuguese efforts to control
5215-582: The Berber people . Its total area is about 446,300 km (172,317 sq mi). Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast, though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994. Spanish territory in Northwest Africa neighbouring Morocco comprises five enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta , Melilla , Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera , Peñón de Alhucemas ,
5364-638: The Chafarinas islands, and the disputed islet Perejil . Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese . To the north, Morocco is bordered by the Strait of Gibraltar, where international shipping has unimpeded transit passage between the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The Rif mountains stretch over the region bordering the Mediterranean from
5513-664: The French Basque Country , Basque was still spoken in all the territory except in Bayonne and some villages around, and including some bordering towns in Béarn . In the 20th century, however, the rise of Basque nationalism spurred increased interest in the language as a sign of ethnic identity, and with the establishment of autonomous governments in the Southern Basque Country , it has recently made
5662-513: The German Army had been driven from the south of France. The invasion was named "Operation Reconquest of Spain". Operation Reconquest of Spain was planned by the AGE staff . To carry out the invasion they created the 204th Division, made up of 12 brigades. The division was commanded by Vicente López Tovar . The objective of the offensive was to retake the sector of Spanish territory comprising
5811-516: The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA . This code was used as the basis for Morocco's internet domain, .ma . In area, Morocco's climate is mainly " hot summer Mediterranean " ( Csa ) and " hot desert " ( BWh ) zones. Central mountain ranges and the effects of the cold Canary Current , off the Atlantic coast, are significant factors in Morocco's relatively large variety of vegetation zones, ranging from lush forests in
5960-640: The Iberian and Tartessian languages became extinct. Through the long contact with Romance languages, Basque adopted a sizeable number of Romance words. Initially the source was Latin, later Gascon (a branch of Occitan ) in the north-east, Navarro-Aragonese in the south-east and Spanish in the south-west. Since 1968, Basque has been immersed in a revitalisation process, facing formidable obstacles. However, significant progress has been made in numerous areas. Six main factors have been identified to explain its relative success: While those six factors influenced
6109-649: The King of Morocco and the prime minister , while legislative power is vested in the two chambers of parliament: the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors . Judicial power rests with the Constitutional Court, which may review the validity of laws, elections, and referendums. The king holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military , foreign policy and religious affairs; he can issue decrees called dahirs , which have
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6258-577: The Latin script is used for the Basque alphabet . In Basque, the name of the language is officially euskara (alongside various dialect forms). In French, the language is normally called basque , though euskara has become common in recent times. Spanish has a greater variety of names for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as vasco , lengua vasca , or euskera . Both terms, vasco and basque , are inherited from
6407-440: The Levant , both of whom also significantly contributed to the ancestry of modern Northwest Africans. The proto-Berber tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the late Bronze - and early Iron ages. In the early part of Classical Antiquity , Northwest Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by the Phoenicians , who established trading colonies and settlements there,
6556-452: The Ley de Fugas ("law of fugitives"). Although the period of major guerrilla activity ranged from 1938 through to the early 1950s, some groups continued to fight. The end was marked by the shooting deaths of Francisco Sabate Llopart (El Quico) in 1960, and Ramon Vila " Caracremada " in 1963, both in Catalonia, and José Castro Veiga [ es ] in Galicia in March 1965. Maquis were active mostly in mountainous areas throughout
6705-413: The Maghreb region of North Africa . It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to the east , and the disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south . Morocco also claims the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta , Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera , and several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast. It has
6854-415: The Paleolithic era over 300,000 years ago. The Idrisid dynasty was established by Idris I in 788 and was subsequently ruled by a series of other independent dynasties, reaching its zenith as a regional power in the 11th and 12th centuries, under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, when it controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb. Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since
7003-430: The Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim , led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif . The Spanish used anti-civilian bombing raids and mustard gas to prevent the Rif republic from gaining independence. They lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August 1921 alone. The Riffi were eventually suppressed by 1927 by the Franco-Spanish military. The casualties on the Spanish-French side were 52,000 and from
7152-424: The Rif Mountains . It was founded by Salih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client state to the Umayyad Caliphate. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata . The founder of the Idrisid dynasty and the great-grandson of Hasan ibn Ali , Idris ibn Abdallah , had fled to Morocco after the massacre of his family by
7301-467: The SADR 's admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985. Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in Algeria to be 165,000. Diplomatic relations with Algeria were restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over
7450-436: The Sand War was fought between Algerian and Moroccan troops over Moroccan claims to parts of Algerian territory. A formal peace agreement was signed in February 1964; however, relations remained strained between the two countries following the conflict. The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was returned to Morocco in 1969. The Polisario movement was formed in 1973, with the aim of establishing an independent state in
7599-435: The Spanish name for the country, Marruecos , derived from the name of the city of Marrakesh , which was the capital of the Almoravid dynasty , the Almohad Caliphate , and the Saadian dynasty . During the Almoravid dynasty, the city of Marrakesh was established under the name of Tāmurākušt , derived from the city's ancient Berber name of amūr n Yakuš ( lit. ' land/country of God ' ). In English,
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#17327811706747748-431: The Spanish Republican Army until the collapse of the front in the north. The short-term objectives of this Corps were the interruption of the communications and supply lines to the Nationalist troops, and the carrying out of special operations. In the long term, they were to continue the war against Franco in the case of defeat on the conventional fronts. At the end of the war, such activities had been set in motion on
7897-438: The Spanish language is the official language of the nation, but allows autonomous communities to provide a co-official language status for the other languages of Spain . Consequently, the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Autonomous Community establishes Basque as the co-official language of the autonomous community. The Statute of Navarre establishes Spanish as the official language of Navarre, but grants co-official status to
8046-404: The fifth-largest economy in Africa and wields significant influence in both Africa and the Arab world ; it is considered a middle power in global affairs and holds membership in the Arab League , the Arab Maghreb Union , the Union for the Mediterranean , and the African Union . Morocco is a unitary semi- constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The executive branch is led by
8195-402: The local inhabitants . In 1979, Mauritania relinquished its claim to the area, but the war continued to rage. In 1991, a ceasefire agreement was reached, but the issue of sovereignty remained unresolved. Today, Morocco occupies two-thirds of the territory, and efforts to resolve the dispute have thus far failed to break the political deadlock. The English Morocco is an anglicisation of
8344-508: The occupation of France . On October 11, 1940 the Vichy regime started the Companies of Foreign Workers ( Compagnies de Travailleurs Etrangers , CTE), which permitted prisoners to leave the concentration camps , if they would go to work in factories. This increased the possibilities of escape. Shortly after the Vichy regime established the Obligatory Work Service ( Service du travail obligatoire , STO) for French citizens, with similar objectives: to provide manual labor to armament factories and
8493-416: The siege of Melilla against the Spanish ended in defeat in 1775. Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution , American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attacks by other fleets. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under
8642-445: The voiceless apicoalveolar fricative [s̺] is written ⟨s⟩ ; the tip of the tongue points toward the upper teeth and friction occurs at the tip (apex). For example, zu "you" (singular, respectful) is distinguished from su "fire". The affricate counterparts are written ⟨tz⟩ and ⟨ts⟩ . So, etzi "the day after tomorrow" is distinguished from etsi "to give up"; atzo "yesterday"
8791-414: The 14th century when a law passed in Huesca in 1349 stated that Item nuyl corridor nonsia usado que faga mercadería ninguna que compre nin venda entre ningunas personas, faulando en algaravia nin en abraych nin en basquenç : et qui lo fara pague por coto XXX sol —essentially penalising the use of Arabic, Hebrew, or Basque in marketplaces with a fine of 30 sols (the equivalent of 30 sheep). Although
8940-433: The 17th century. Morocco faced aggression from Spain in the north, and the Ottoman Empire's allies pressing westward. Under the Saadis, the sultanate ended the Portuguese Aviz dynasty in 1578 at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir . The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a large expedition to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhay Empire in 1591. However, managing
9089-417: The 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Morocco faced external threats to its sovereignty, with Portugal seizing some territory and the Ottoman Empire encroaching from the east. The Marinid and Saadi dynasties otherwise resisted foreign domination, and Morocco was the only North African nation to escape Ottoman dominion. The 'Alawi dynasty , which rules
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#17327811706749238-434: The Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland. In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad : first the Saadi dynasty who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then the 'Alawi dynasty , who have remained in power since
9387-557: The BAC, when both parents were Basque speakers, 98% of children were only communicated to in Basque, while 2% were communicated to in both Basque and Spanish. When only one parent was a Basque speaker and their first language was Basque, 84% used Basque and Spanish and 16% only Spanish. In Navarre, the family language of 94.3% of the youngest respondents with both Basque parents was Basque. In the Northern Basque Country, however, when both parents were Basque speaking, just two-thirds transmitted only Basque to their offspring, and as age decreased,
9536-412: The Basque Country, excluding the southern part of Navarre, the south-western part of Álava , and the western part of Biscay, and including some parts of Béarn . In 1807, Basque was still spoken in the northern half of Álava—including its capital city Vitoria-Gasteiz —and a vast area in central Navarre, but in these two provinces, Basque experienced a rapid decline that pushed its border northwards. In
9685-403: The Basque language could be used—and easily understood by all Basque speakers—in formal situations (education, mass media, literature), and this is its main use today. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque for education varies from region to region and from school to school. Basque is the only surviving language isolate in Europe . The current mainstream scientific view on the origin of
9834-399: The Basque language in the Basque-speaking areas of northern Navarre. Basque has no official status in the French Basque Country and French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law. However, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is permitted (with translation), as Basque is officially recognised on the other side of the border. The positions of
9983-481: The Basque language is geographically surrounded by Romance languages , it is a language isolate that is unrelated to them or to any other language. Most scholars believe Basque to be the last remaining descendant of one of the pre-Indo-European languages of prehistoric Europe . Consequently, it may be impossible to reconstruct the prehistory of the Basque language by the traditional comparative method except by applying it to differences between Basque dialects. Little
10132-564: The Basques and of their language is that early forms of Basque developed before the arrival of Indo-European languages in the area, i.e. before the arrival of Celtic and Romance languages in particular, as the latter today geographically surround the Basque-speaking region. Typologically, with its agglutinative morphology and ergative–absolutive alignment , Basque grammar remains markedly different from that of Standard Average European languages. Nevertheless, Basque has borrowed up to 40 percent of its vocabulary from Romance languages, and
10281-417: The Christian lords called on northern Iberian peoples — Basques, Asturians , and " Franks " — to colonise the new conquests. The Basque language became the main everyday language , while other languages like Spanish , Gascon , French , or Latin were preferred for the administration and high education. By the 16th century, the Basque-speaking area was reduced basically to the present-day seven provinces of
10430-635: The Civil Guard, nearly wiping out the movement. The term maquis comes from the French term maquis , which in turn comes from the Corsican term macchia , the maquis shrubland , a type of biome found in the Mediterranean basin, mostly associated with Corsica . In France, the term was first used to refer to a group of guerrillas of the French resistance against the German occupation of France during World War II. The resistance fighters in these encampments were referred to as maquisards . The so-called huidos (Spanish for "those who've fled" or are "fugitive") originated in 1936 when many people fled from
10579-402: The Fatimids in 932, they were removed from power by the Maghrawa of Sijilmasa in 980. From the 11th century onward, a series of Berber dynasties arose. Under the Sanhaja Almoravid dynasty and the Masmuda Almohad dynasty , Morocco dominated the Maghreb, al-Andalus in Iberia , and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century onward the country saw a massive migration of
10728-519: The French Resistance. By 1944, with the German forces in retreat, many of the guerrillas refocused their fight towards Spain. Despite the failure of the invasion of the Val d'Arán that year, some columns continued to progress into the Spanish interior and to connect with the groups that had remained in the mountains since 1939. The apogee of guerrilla action was between 1945 and 1947. After this,
10877-855: The French border ahead of the advancing Nationalist troops in Catalonia . Once on the other side, they were put in concentration camps by the authorities. There were 22 camps in total: Barcarès , Agde , Saint-Cyprien , Argelès-sur-Mer , Berck-Plage , Montpellier Chapallete , Fort Mahon Plage , Tour de Carol , Septfonds , Baste-les-Foages , Bram , Haros , Gurs , Vernet d'Ariège , Rivesaltes , Fort Colliure , and Rieucros in Metropolitan France and, in French North Africa , Camp Morand , Meridja , Djelfa , Hadjerat-OM'Guil , and Ain-el-Curak . In these camps, exiles began to reorganize themselves into guerrilla groups. In
11026-572: The Kingdom of Morocco, the United States of America and the State of Israel was signed on 22 December 2020. On 24 August 2021, neighbouring Algeria cut diplomatic relations with Morocco, accusing Morocco of supporting a separatist group and hostile actions against Algeria. Morocco called the decision unjustified. On 8 September 2023, a 6.8 magnitude earthquake hit Morocco killing more than 2,800 people and injuring thousands. The epicentre of
11175-554: The Kingdom of Morocco. A month later Spain forsook its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves ( Ceuta and Melilla ) on the Mediterranean coast which dated from earlier conquests, but over which Morocco still claims sovereignty to this day. Sultan Mohammed became King in 1957. Upon the death of Mohammed V, Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. Morocco held its first general elections in 1963 . However, Hassan declared
11324-519: The Latin ethnonym Vascones , which in turn goes back to the Greek term Οὐάσκωνες ( ouáskōnes ), an ethnonym used by Strabo in his Geographica (23 CE, Book III). The Spanish term Vascuence , derived from Latin vasconĭce , has acquired negative connotations over the centuries and is not well-liked amongst Basque speakers generally. Its use is documented at least as far back as
11473-481: The Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and the annexed Western Sahara. It is one of only three nations (along with Spain and France ) to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the centre and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by
11622-535: The Pyrenees during the previous weeks, with the objective of distracting Franco's forces. These other attacks were intended also to evaluate the situation in the interior of Spain, and make contact with other groups of exiles. The most important points of penetration in the long chain of mountains were Roncesvalles , Roncal , Hecho , Canfranc , Val d'Aran , Andorra , and Cerdanya , though there were also operations at smaller points. The offensives were repelled by
11771-602: The Rebel ( franquista ) faction to the mountains after becoming isolated in places like León, Galicia, Extremadura, and the province of Huelva. Those in Extremadura and Huelva were rapidly annihilated by Rebels, with only those in the North of the country managing to survive past the war. The outbreak of World War II so soon after the civil war surprised a large part of the Spanish Republican exiles in France; many of them joined
11920-578: The Riffi 10,000 died. In 1943, the Istiqlal Party (Independence Party) was founded to press for independence, with discreet US support. Moroccan nationalists drew heavily on transnational activist networks for lobbying to end colonial rule, primarily at the United Nations. The Istiqlal Party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement. France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his replacement by
12069-529: The Sierra de Bermeja near Cádiz, and at its peak boasted a force of 50 resistance fighters. All these groups were extremely sectarian in their aims and organization, following invariably the strategies dictated by the Central Committee (controlled by Moscow). The will to keep fighting was maintained by strict discipline imposed by the PCE kommisars. People in these groups who wanted to leave and rejoin
12218-538: The Soviet Union to France, to purge the heads of the party who had remained in France fighting the Germans. Most were either kidnapped and assassinated or summarily judged and shot. In spite of the setback of Arán in 1944, the expectations of the exiled Spanish Communist Party ( PCE ) remained high, given that all seemed still possible in an international context of general collapse of fascism. All throughout Spain,
12367-405: The Spanish Maquis engineered more than four hundred railway sabotages, destroyed fifty-eight locomotives, dynamited thirty-five railway bridges, cut one hundred and fifty telephone lines, attacked twenty factories, destroying some factories totally, and sabotaged fifteen coal mines. They took several thousand German prisoners and - most miraculous considering their arms - they captured three tanks. In
12516-493: The Spanish Sahara. On 6 November 1975, King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara. Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the " Green March ". A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara, soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied
12665-658: The Spanish refugees joined French resistance groups, while others formed autonomous groups. In April 1942 a meeting of several Spanish combat groups decided to take the name of the XIV Cuerpo del Ejército de Guerrilleros Españoles , considering themselves the Corps' successors. In May 1944 the XIV Corps re-formed as the Agrupación de Guerrilleros Españoles (AGE, roughly Spanish Guerrilla Group ), because they consisted for
12814-416: The age group most likely to speak Basque was those between 16 and 24 years old. In the BAC, the proportion in this age group who spoke the language (74.5%) was nearly triple the comparable figure from 1991, when barely a quarter of the population spoke Basque. While there is a general increase in the number of Basque speakers during this period, this is mainly because of bilingualism . Basque transmission as
12963-544: The camp of Argelès-sur-Mer a series of meetings were held. Members of the PCE and the Juventudes Socialistas Unificadas ( Unified Socialist Youth ) participated. In October 1940, the decision was made to organize anti-fascist actions in France, together with the French resistance, against the Vichy government . This was the beginning of the Spanish involvement on a grand scale in the fight against
13112-604: The city's founder Idris I ibn Abd Allah reputedly used a silver and gold pickaxe to trace the outlines of the city. In other parts of the Islamic world, for example in Egyptian and Middle Eastern Arabic literature before the mid-20th century, Morocco was commonly referred to as Murrakush ( مراكش ). The term is still used to refer to Morocco today in several Indo-Iranian languages, including Persian , Urdu , and Punjabi . Morocco has also been referred to politically by
13261-492: The consequent detriment of their physical capacities accelerated by years of living exposed to the elements and the lack of proper medical and food supplies. In these last years, many attempted to escape to France. Of those who stayed in Spain, some were sentenced only to jail (some spent up to 20 years in prison), some were judged summarily and shot, and others died at the hands of the Guardia Civil through application of
13410-594: The construction of the Atlantic Wall . Those French who were released through the STO began to escape to the forests and mountains, where they came together with Spanish who escaped from the CTE. The French escapees were mainly civilians, rather than remnants of the defeated French army. From this time, the French term "maquis" began to be used to refer to the camps, and "maquisards" for those that occupied them. Some of
13559-446: The corresponding fricatives [β] , [ð] , and [ɣ] . Basque has a distinction between laminal and apical articulation for the alveolar fricatives and affricates. With the laminal alveolar fricative [s̻] , the friction occurs across the blade of the tongue, the tongue tip pointing toward the lower teeth. This is the usual /s/ in most European languages. It is written with an orthographic ⟨z⟩ . By contrast,
13708-673: The country to this day, seized power in 1631, and over the next two centuries expanded diplomatic and commercial relations with the Western world . Morocco's strategic location near the mouth of the Mediterranean drew renewed European interest; in 1912, France and Spain divided the country into respective protectorates , reserving an international zone in Tangier . Following intermittent riots and revolts against colonial rule, in 1956, Morocco regained its independence and reunified. Since independence, Morocco has remained relatively stable. It has
13857-538: The debate largely comes down to the a priori tendency on the part of particular linguists to accept or reject substrate arguments. Examples of arguments against the substrate theory, and possible responses: Beyond these arguments, a number of nomadic groups of Castile are also said to use or have used Basque words in their jargon, such as the gacería in Segovia , the mingaña , the Galician fala dos arxinas and
14006-607: The early 1950s when guerrilla activity was in its death throes, groups were still incorporating new men and women. The number of enlaces was much higher than that of actual combatants. During the years of guerrilla activity, 20,000 people were arrested for collaborating with the maquis. El último guerrillero abatido en España fue José Castro Veiga El Piloto que cayó, sin haber abandonado las armas, en la provincia de Lugo (Galicia), en marzo de 1965. Basque language France Basque ( / ˈ b æ s k , ˈ b ɑː s k / ; euskara [eus̺ˈkaɾa] )
14155-458: The fight against Nazi Germany and the Vichy regime in France during World War II . They also took part in occupations of the Spanish embassy in France. Maquis activity in Spain had its heyday towards 1946, after which the resistance fighters were heavily repressed during the Trienio del Terror (1947–1949), which included such instances of White Terror as paseos and applications of
14304-554: The first guerrilla organization of the post-war era. The most active group from the AG was the Agrupación Guerrillera de Levante y Aragón (AGLA) , which was active in the area between the southern part of Teruel , the interior of Castellón and the north of Cuenca . Also noteworthy was the Agrupación de Guerilleros "Stalingrado" (Stalingrad Group) headed up by Manolo el Rubio (Pablo Pérez Hidalgo), which operated in
14453-830: The first vowel has been changed, likely influenced by the word "Moor". Historically, the territory has been part of what Muslim geographers referred to as al-Maghrib al-Aqṣā [ ar ] ( المغرب الأقصى , 'the Farthest West [of the Islamic world]' designating roughly the area from Tiaret to the Atlantic ) in contrast with neighbouring regions of al-Maghrib al-Awsaṭ [ ar ] ( المغرب الأوسط , 'the Middle West': Tripoli to Béjaïa ) and al-Maghrib al-Adnā [ ar ] ( المغرب الأدنى , 'the Nearest West': Alexandria to Tripoli ). Morocco's modern Arabic name
14602-444: The force of law, and can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the prime minister and the president of the constitutional court. Morocco claims ownership of the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara , which it has designated its Southern Provinces . In 1975, after Spain agreed to decolonise the territory and cede its control to Morocco and Mauritania , a guerrilla war broke out between those powers and some of
14751-548: The fronts of Teruel , Andalusia , Extremadura , and Toledo . The action with the greatest significance was the liberation, on May 23, 1938, of 300 Asturian political prisoners in Granada . Throughout 1938 and 1939 the Corps brought together many of the exiles of Andalucía and Extremadura; however, the Republican defeat brought the dissolution of the Corps. Hundreds of thousands of Republican soldiers and civilians crossed
14900-574: The idea of the possibility of a guerrilla war at the rearguard of Franco's Nationalists was proposed. The idea came to fruition at the initiative of Juan Negrín , at the time head of the Republican government and of the Ministry of Defense. He created the XIV Cuerpo de Ejército Guerrillero [ es ] ( Guerrilla Army Corps ) in October 1937. This name was used for the Basque section of
15049-605: The illegal migrants to Morocco from Melilla. In 2006, the Spanish Premier Zapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories. The following year, Spanish King Juan Carlos I visited Ceuta and Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the enclaves. During the 2011–2012 Moroccan protests , thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and
15198-403: The influence of the neighbouring Romance languages on the Basque language (especially the lexicon, but also to some degree Basque phonology and grammar) has been much more extensive, it is usually assumed that there has been some feedback from Basque into these languages as well. In particular Gascon and Aragonese , and to a lesser degree Spanish are thought to have received this influence in
15347-540: The invasion failed to take Vielha e Mijaran , its principal objective. Finally, overwhelmed by the Nationalists' numerical and material advantage, the guerrillas pulled back. The retreat ended October 28, when the last guerrillas re-crossed the border back into France, without the hoped-for uprising. The failure of the invasion was used by the Stalinist members of the PCE's Central Committee, recently arrived from
15496-418: The kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribes Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727) began to create a unified state. With his Riffian army, he re-occupied Tangier from the English who had abandoned it in 1684 and drove the Spanish from Larache in 1689. The Portuguese abandoned Mazagão , their last territory in Morocco, in 1769. However,
15645-546: The land between the Cinca and Segre Rivers and the French border. Later, the zone was declared conquered by the Spanish Republican government in exile , with the intention of provoking a general uprising against Franco throughout Spain. It was hoped that it would force the Allies to "liberate" Spain the same way it was "liberating" the rest of Europe. The main attack in the valley was accompanied by operations in other valleys of
15794-530: The larger empire, Morocco was initially organised as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya , with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan . The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary laws . They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration. The first independent Muslim state in the area of modern Morocco was the Kingdom of Nekor , an emirate in
15943-903: The late 3rd century, direct Roman rule had become confined to a few coastal cities, such as Septum ( Ceuta ) in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis . When, in 429 AD, the area was devastated by the Vandals , the Roman Empire lost its remaining possessions in Mauretania, and local Mauro-Roman kings assumed control of them. In the 530s, the Eastern Roman Empire , under Byzantine control, re-established direct imperial rule of Septum and Tingi , fortified Tingis and erected
16092-585: The level of guerrilla activity went up, precipitated by the incorporation of new contingents forced to cross the border from France and the reorganization of the groups with structures of a more military character. The exiled PCE promoted the creation of the Agrupaciones Guerrilleras (Guerrilla Groups) in several geographic zones, coordinating the actions between them. It was modeled after the Federación de Guerrillas de León - Galicia ,
16241-469: The main political parties of Navarre, divides Navarre into three language areas: Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed. Support for the language and the linguistic rights of citizens vary, depending on the area. Others consider it unfair, since the rights of Basque speakers differ greatly depending on the place they live. The 2021 sociolinguistic survey of all Basque-speaking territories showed that, of all people aged 16 and above: In 2021, out of
16390-565: The maquis in Spain lie with those who fled the advancing forces of Franco's Nationalists. The insecurity engendered by the repressive tactics of the Nationalist insurgency turned their political opponents—even many who were not politically active but simply known to sympathize with the republic—into fugitives. At first many hid in relatives' homes, but some sought refuge in the mountains. Their numbers were enhanced by deserters and by escapees from prisons and concentration camps. These constituted
16539-514: The maquis' character was predominantly communist, supported by the PCE. Their activities did not, however, last long. On the other hand, the maquis acting in Barcelona, were mainly anarchists. This city was the last urban place to see activity of maquis. Attempts to extend the fight to other capitals like Valencia and Bilbao were unsuccessful. The generally rural and isolated character of the areas of guerrilla activity constituted an obstacle to
16688-556: The maquis' objectives. In effect, given the silence of the press and government on the situation, very few and scattered inhabitants of areas of maqui activity were actually aware of the conflict. The greater part of the Spanish population was ignorant of a guerrilla war going on in their mountains. Sustaining guerrilla activity was dependent on sectors of the population known as " enlaces " ( [enˈlaθes] , literally, "links" or "relationships"). There were others called "passive militias", and " guerrilleros del llano " ("guerrillas of
16837-605: The modern state of Mauritania ) flourished around 225 BC or earlier. Mauretania became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 33 BC. Emperor Claudius annexed Mauretania directly in 44 AD, making it a Roman province ruled by an imperial governor (either a procurator Augusti , or a legatus Augusti pro praetore ). During the Crisis of the Third Century , parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berbers. By
16986-599: The most divergent Basque dialects. Modern Basque dialectology distinguishes five dialects: These dialects are divided in 11 subdialects, and 24 minor varieties among them. According to Koldo Zuazo , the Biscayan dialect or "Western" is the most widespread dialect, with around 300,000 speakers out of a total of around 660,000 speakers. This dialect is divided in two minor subdialects: the Western Biscayan and Eastern Biscayan, plus transitional dialects. Although
17135-570: The most part of Spanish combatants on French soil. This conveyed the group's distancing from the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans (FTP), the armed branch of the French Communist Party , with whom they had previously worked closely. By this time, the Spanish resistors had participated in numerous armed actions against the German army, even liberating various populations in the south of France. The numbers of Spanish combatants in
17284-561: The most substantial of which were Chellah , Lixus , and Mogador . Mogador was established as a Phoenician colony as early as the 6th century BC. Morocco later became a realm of the Northwest African civilisation of ancient Carthage , and part of the Carthaginian empire. The earliest known independent Moroccan state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania , under King Baga . This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with
17433-544: The mountains of León, the maquis would relatively often pass periods of time more or less "undercover", in small groups, in support houses in villages, especially during the winter months. Among the areas of major maquis activity were the Cornisa Cantábrica , from Galicia to Cantabria, especially the mountains of Lugo, Asturias and the area north of León; the Iberian System , specifically the area between
17582-472: The north-west to the north-east. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the northeast to the southwest. Most of the southeast portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that
17731-485: The northern and central mountains, giving way to steppe, semi-arid and desert areas in the eastern and southern regions. The Moroccan coastal plains experience moderate temperatures even in summer. In the Rif, Middle and High Atlas Mountains, there exist several different types of climates: Mediterranean along the coastal lowlands, giving way to a humid temperate climate at higher elevations with sufficient moisture to allow for
17880-571: The northern area of Navarre formed the core of the remaining Basque-speaking area before measures were introduced in the 1980s to strengthen Basque fluency. By contrast, most of Álava, the westernmost part of Biscay, and central and southern Navarre are predominantly populated by native speakers of Spanish , either because Basque was replaced by Spanish over the centuries (as in most of Álava and central Navarre), or because it may never have been spoken there (as in parts of Enkarterri and south-eastern Navarre). In Francoist Spain , Basque language use
18029-606: The northern coastal and southern Saharan zones. Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of rich agricultural land, while others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco – with some Moroccan tribes allying with the French against other competing tribes from early on in its conquest. The French colonial administrator, Governor general Marshal Hubert Lyautey , sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing
18178-592: The nucleus of those who decided to keep fighting from the forests and mountains. The political character of the guerrillas was as varied as that of the Popular Front , containing communists , socialists , and anarchists . Despite the diverse ideologies, due to the organizational persistence of the Communist Party of Spain until 1948, the Communists dominated the other currents. During the war,
18327-618: The official languages in this region. However, Basque was explicitly recognised in some areas. For instance, the fuero or charter of the Basque-colonised Ojacastro (now in La Rioja ) allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries. Basque was allowed in telegraph messages in Spain thanks to the royal decree of 1904. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 states in Article 3 that
18476-614: The past. In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this would have been through substrate interference following language shift from Aquitanian or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, including place names around the Pyrenees. Although a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated (e.g. anchoa 'anchovies', bizarro 'dashing, gallant, spirited', cachorro 'puppy', etc.), most of these have more easily explicable Romance etymologies or not particularly convincing derivations from Basque. Ignoring cultural terms, there
18625-427: The peninsula, preferring forests or areas of dense vegetation that would provide shelter and cover. Another important factor in the location of maqui groups and their survival was the social situation. They had to choose areas in which they could count on the collaboration of at least part of the population, given that without local support they could hardly sustain a guerrilla group. In areas of harsher weather, like in
18774-417: The plains"), who supplied aid, from food to armaments when necessary, as well as information. They would also deliver mail or correspondence for the groups. The enlaces were much more exposed to the repressive actions of the government. However, they made up a source of combatants, since in the event of being discovered, their only chance to avoid being jailed was to flee to the mountains. Because of this, in
18923-426: The protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The 1786 Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship stands as the United States' oldest unbroken friendship treaty. As Europe industrialised, Northwest Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of
19072-636: The provinces of Teruel, Castellón, Valencia, and Cuenca; Centro, which consists of Extremadura , the north of Cordova , Ciudad Real , Toledo and the mountains of the Sistema Central ; and two independent areas in the south of Andalusia: Cádiz on one hand and Granada - Málaga on the other. There was also activity in other areas, such as La Mancha and High Aragon . Armed resistance groups were also active in cities, although only prominently in Madrid , Barcelona , Málaga and Granada . In Madrid,
19221-410: The public use of Basque was suppressed, with people fined for speaking it. Public use of Basque was frowned upon by supporters of the regime, often regarded as a sign of anti-Francoism or separatism . Overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish. As a part of this process, a standardised form of the Basque language, called Euskara Batua ,
19370-610: The quake was around 70 km southwest of city of Marrakech. Morocco has a coast by the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea . It is bordered by Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with three small Spanish-controlled exclaves , Ceuta , Melilla , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ), Algeria to the east, and Western Sahara to
19519-499: The ranks of the Resistance vary quite a bit amongst sources, but in general they accept a number around 10,000. After the German army was driven from France, Spanish maquis returned their focus to Spain. The most notable operation of the Spanish maquis was the invasion of Spain by between 4,000 and 7,000 guerrillas through Val d'Aran and other parts of the Pyrenees , well equipped and with heavy weapons, on October 19, 1944, after
19668-512: The reforms made by Mohammed VI, demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012. Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms. On 10 December 2020, Israel–Morocco normalisation agreement was announced and Morocco announced its intention to resume diplomatic relations with Israel. Joint Declaration of
19817-431: The regional capital El Aaiún . In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the disputed island of Perejil . Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag. There were renewed tensions in 2005, as dozens of African migrants stormed the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. In response, Spain deported dozens of
19966-417: The repression from the Franco government intensified, and one by one the groups were destroyed. Many of their members died or were incarcerated. Others escaped to France or Morocco . In 1952, the last important contingents evacuated from Spain. After that, those who resisted in the forested and mountainous regions, refusing to choose either exile or surrender, fought only for their own survival. The origins of
20115-487: The revitalisation process, the extensive development and use of language technologies is also considered a significant additional factor. Many linguists have tried to link Basque with other languages, but no hypothesis has gained mainstream acceptance. Apart from pseudoscientific comparisons , the appearance of long-range linguistics gave rise to several attempts to connect Basque with geographically very distant language families such as Georgian . Historical work on Basque
20264-419: The south-west part of France where no Allied armies have ever fought, they liberated more than seventeen towns. Also during World War II, Spaniards were involved in the assassination of Julius Ritter, an SS Colonel in charge of recruiting forced labor , as well as in the planned assassination of General Ernst Schaumburg. In October 1944 a group of 6,000 maquis including Antonio Téllez Solà invaded Spain via
20413-609: The south. Since Morocco controls most of Western Sahara, its de facto southern boundary is with Mauritania . The internationally recognised borders of the country lie between latitudes 27° and 36°N, and longitudes 1° and 14°W . The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara desert. Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and
20562-525: The strategic position of Morocco with coasts on the Mediterranean and the open Atlantic. In 1860, a dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In 1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco. In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco. Recognition by the United Kingdom of France's sphere of influence provoked
20711-572: The territories across the Sahara proved too difficult. Upon the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among his sons. After a period of political fragmentation and conflict during the decline of the Saadi dynasty, Morocco was finally reunited by the Alawi sultan al-Rashid in the late 1660s, who took Fez in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1668. The 'Alawis succeeded in stabilising their position, and while
20860-438: The territory. Moroccan and Algerian troops soon clashed in Western Sahara . Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at
21009-401: The transmission rate also decreased. Basque is used as a language of commerce both in the Basque Country and in locations around the world where Basques immigrated throughout history. The modern Basque dialects show a high degree of dialectal divergence, sometimes making cross-dialect communication difficult. This is especially true in the case of Biscayan and Souletin, which are regarded as
21158-417: The unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets. France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. In March 1956 Morocco regained its independence from France as
21307-453: The various existing governments differ with regard to the promotion of Basque in areas where Basque is commonly spoken. The language has official status in those territories that are within the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre. The Ley del Vascuence ("Law of Basque"), seen as contentious by many Basques, but considered fitting Navarra's linguistic and cultural diversity by some of
21456-453: The vowel /a/ is elided before any following vowel. This does not prevent the existence of diphthongs with /a/ present. There are six diphthongs in Basque, all falling and with /i̯/ or /u̯/ as the second element. In syllable-final position, all plosives are devoiced and are spelled accordingly in Standard Basque. When between vowels, and often when after /r/ or /l/ , the voiced plosives /b/ , /d/ , and /ɡ/ , are pronounced as
21605-515: The word for "stone" ( haitz ), and have therefore concluded that the language dates to prehistoric Europe when those tools were made of stone. Others find this unlikely: see the aizkora controversy . Latin inscriptions in Gallia Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in the reconstructed proto-Basque language , for instance, the personal names Nescato and Cison ( neskato and gizon mean 'young girl' and 'man', respectively in modern Basque). This language
21754-415: Was annexed by Morocco in 1975 (see Green March ). Morocco claims that the Western Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its Southern Provinces . Morocco's capital city is Rabat ; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca . Other cities recording a population over 500,000 in the 2014 Moroccan census are Fes , Marrakesh , Meknes , Salé and Tangier . Morocco is represented in
21903-401: Was developed by the Euskaltzaindia in the late 1960s. Besides its standardised version, the five historic Basque dialects are Biscayan , Gipuzkoan , and Upper Navarrese in Spain and Navarrese–Lapurdian and Souletin in France. They take their names from the historic Basque provinces, but the dialect boundaries are not congruent with province boundaries. Euskara Batua was created so that
22052-402: Was discouraged by the government's repressive policies . In the Basque Country, "Francoist repression was not only political, but also linguistic and cultural." Franco's regime suppressed Basque from official discourse, education, and publishing, making it illegal to register newborn babies under Basque names, and even requiring tombstone engravings in Basque to be removed. In some provinces
22201-424: Was not effective, and ultimately a general evacuation was decreed in 1952. There were several factors in the decline and disappearance of the Spanish maquis. On one side, the commencement of the Cold War made it evident that the Allies would not intervene in the maquis' fight against the Spanish State. This led the PCE to change strategy, ending its support for the guerrilla groups in the 1950s. The government had
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