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63-1084: As set in the Judiciary Organic Act of 1985, the Court consists of the President of the Supreme Court and of the General Council of the Judiciary , the Vice President of the Supreme Court , the Chairpersons of the Chambers and an undetermined number of Magistrates. Each Magistrate of the Supreme Court is nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary and appointed by the Monarch for a lifetime tenure up to

126-529: A monograph or in the proceedings of an academic conference . If the identities of authors are not revealed to each other, the procedure is called dual-anonymous peer review. Medical peer review may be distinguished in four classifications: Additionally, "medical peer review" has been used by the American Medical Association to refer not only to the process of improving quality and safety in health care organizations, but also to

189-481: A certain threshold, and effective peer review requires a certain level of expertise. For non-professional writers, peer review feedback may be overlooked, thereby affecting its effectiveness. Elizabeth Ellis Miller, Cameron Mozafari, Justin Lohr and Jessica Enoch state, "While peer review is an integral part of writing classrooms, students often struggle to effectively engage in it." The authors illustrate some reasons for

252-557: A fundamental process in academic and professional writing, serving as a systematic means to ensure the quality, effectiveness, and credibility of scholarly work. However, despite its widespread use, it is one of the most scattered, inconsistent, and ambiguous practices associated with writing instruction. Many scholars questioning its effectiveness and specific methodologies. Critics of peer review in classrooms express concerns about its ineffectiveness due to students' lack of practice in giving constructive criticism or their limited expertise in

315-464: A life tenure. However, the law also established that the magistrates must retire at the age of 70. However, the law allows the magistrates to ask the General Council of the Judiciary an extension of their tenure until the age of 72. The Magistrates can freely retire since the age of 65. Outside of these cases, magistrates shall be forcedly retired when there is a permanent disability for the exercise of their functions. The forced retire can be requested by

378-415: A longitudinal study comparing two groups of students (one majoring in writing and one not) to explore students' perceptions of authority. This research, involving extensive analysis of student texts, concludes that students majoring in non-writing fields tend to undervalue mandatory peer review in class, while those majoring in writing value classmates' comments more. This reflects that peer review feedback has

441-501: A means of critiquing each other's work, peer review is often framed as a way to build connection between students and help develop writers' identity. While widely used in English and composition classrooms, peer review has gained popularity in other disciplines that require writing as part of the curriculum including the social and natural sciences . Peer review in classrooms helps students become more invested in their work, and

504-448: A time and given an amount of time to present the topic that they have researched. Each speaker may or may not talk about the same topic but each speaker has something to gain or lose which can foster a competitive atmosphere. This approach allows speakers to present in a more personal tone while trying to appeal to the audience while explaining their topic. Peer seminars may be somewhat similar to what conference speakers do, however, there

567-525: Is a type of engineering review. Technical peer reviews are a well defined review process for finding and fixing defects, conducted by a team of peers with assigned roles. Technical peer reviews are carried out by peers representing areas of life cycle affected by material being reviewed (usually limited to 6 or fewer people). Technical peer reviews are held within development phases, between milestone reviews, on completed products or completed portions of products. The European Union has been using peer review in

630-479: Is common in the field of health care, where it is usually called clinical peer review . Further, since peer review activity is commonly segmented by clinical discipline, there is also physician peer review, nursing peer review, dentistry peer review, etc. Many other professional fields have some level of peer review process: accounting, law, engineering (e.g., software peer review , technical peer review ), aviation, and even forest fire management. Peer review

693-594: Is incorporated into the California Health and Safety Code Section 57004. Peer review, or student peer assessment, is the method by which editors and writers work together in hopes of helping the author establish and further flesh out and develop their own writing. Peer review is widely used in secondary and post-secondary education as part of the writing process. This collaborative learning tool involves groups of students reviewing each other's work and providing feedback and suggestions for revision. Rather than

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756-551: Is more time to present their points, and speakers can be interrupted by audience members to provide questions and feedback upon the topic or how well the speaker did in presenting their topic. Professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. Peer review in writing is a pivotal component among various peer review mechanisms, often spearheaded by educators and involving student participation, particularly in academic settings. It constitutes

819-413: Is still a method used in classrooms to help students young and old learn how to revise. With evolving and changing technology, peer review will develop as well. New tools could help alter the process of peer review. Peer seminar is a method that involves a speaker that presents ideas to an audience that also acts as a "contest". To further elaborate, there are multiple speakers that are called out one at

882-432: Is that peer review is not just about improving writing but about helping authors achieve their writing vision." Feedback from the majority of non-professional writers during peer review sessions often tends to be superficial, such as simple grammar corrections and questions. This precisely reflects the implication in the conclusion that the focus is only on improving writing skills. Meaningful peer review involves understanding

945-479: Is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work ( peers ). It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field . Peer review methods are used to maintain quality standards, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia , scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper 's suitability for publication. Peer review can be categorized by

1008-507: Is the only U.S. state to mandate scientific peer review. In 1997, the Governor of California signed into law Senate Bill 1320 (Sher), Chapter 295, statutes of 1997, which mandates that, before any CalEPA Board, Department, or Office adopts a final version of a rule-making, the scientific findings, conclusions, and assumptions on which the proposed rule are based must be submitted for independent external scientific peer review. This requirement

1071-450: Is the process of having a draft version of a researcher's methods and findings reviewed (usually anonymously) by experts (or "peers") in the same field. Peer review is widely used for helping the academic publisher (that is, the editor-in-chief , the editorial board or the program committee ) decide whether the work should be accepted, considered acceptable with revisions, or rejected for official publication in an academic journal ,

1134-399: Is used in education to achieve certain learning objectives, particularly as a tool to reach higher order processes in the affective and cognitive domains as defined by Bloom's taxonomy . This may take a variety of forms, including closely mimicking the scholarly peer review processes used in science and medicine. Scholarly peer review or academic peer review (also known as refereeing)

1197-576: The Constitution of 1812 to replace the System of Councils in all matters that affected justice. The Court derives its current power from Chapter VI of the Constitution of 1978 . The Supreme Court is the court of last resort and can provide finality in all legal issues. It can exercise original jurisdiction over matters of great importance but usually functions as an appellate court able to investigate procedural irregularities arising from actions in

1260-597: The European Court of Human Rights since Spain is a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights . The Supreme Court is the head one of the three branches of the Spanish government, alongside the legislature and the executive To ensure its independence, the Supreme Court has the prerogative to enforce its actions under the principle of obedience to final judicial decisions enshrined in

1323-514: The General Council of the Judiciary , the Supreme Court's governing bodies are responsible for hearing and resolving administrative issues that may arise: President of the Supreme Court of Spain The President of the Supreme Court and also President of the General Council of the Judiciary is the highest judicial authority of the Kingdom of Spain and holds the representation of

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1386-572: The Monarch . The Judiciary Organic Act of 1985 copy this procedure of appointment but specifies that the Royal Decree must be countersigned by the Minister of Justice . To be a candidate for Magistrate of the Supreme Court the law establishes two options: The Organic Law on the military jurisdiction provides that half of the members of the Fifth chamber will be selected from general officers of

1449-781: The Prosecution Ministry or the magistrate itself to the Governing Council of the Supreme Court or to the Governing Council of a specific chamber. After this, the Governing Council shall send the request to the GCJ and the Council shall approve the retire. The Supreme Court is divided into five ordinary chambers, each dealing with a specific areas of Spanish law that may affect ordinary citizens, and four special chambers dealing with state issues. The five ordinary chambers are: The four special chambers are: Subordinate to

1512-583: The judicial branch and its governing body, the CGPJ . The office of President of the Supreme Court is foreseen in the Constitution as well as giving to the president the presidency of the General Council of the Judiciary. As a parliamentary monarchy , the President of the Supreme Court is appointed by the Monarch after being nominated by the Plenary of the General Council of the Judiciary , who serves until

1575-420: The national courts or Provincial courts . It can order ordinary and extraordinary remedies against decisions of lower courts according to the provisions of Spanish law . The Supreme Court is responsible for processing substantial complaints of wrongdoing against prominent persons such as government Ministers , Senators , Deputies and members of the various regional parliaments , senior judges , including

1638-467: The "Open Method of Co-ordination" of policies in the fields of active labour market policy since 1999. In 2004, a program of peer reviews started in social inclusion . Each program sponsors about eight peer review meetings in each year, in which a "host country" lays a given policy or initiative open to examination by half a dozen other countries and the relevant European-level NGOs . These usually meet over two days and include visits to local sites where

1701-539: The Chamber for Section 61, which is in charge of major cases against the Supreme Court justices, of reviewing some sentences and of the illegalization of political parties when they promote illicit activities, do not have a democratic internal organization or there is any cause of illegality foreseen in the Criminal Code. Since the Supreme Court was established in 1812, 47 people have served as president. The first

1764-562: The Constitution or the Organic Judiciary Act specifies the number of magistrates. According to 2017 data, the Court was composed by 79 magistrates. The Constitution does not regulate the form of appointment of the magistrates although it does regulate the procedure of appointment of the President of the Court . According to Section 123, the President is nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary and appointed by

1827-426: The Constitution. Also, most of its resolutions are reliable since they are solutions to appeal against the considered decisions of lower courts. The Supreme Court is the only entity that can order the detention of members of its own judiciary or the legislature or executive authorities and then impeach them according to the additional civil and criminal obligations, which, by law, it must discharge diligently in

1890-484: The Court was divided into two chambers and the number of magistrates grows up to 25. In 1868, it was created the Third Chamber to know the issues related to the public administrations (administrative law). In 1870 the number of magistrates grow again to 33 distributed in four chambers; one for civil cases, two for criminal cases and one for administrative cases. Between 1875 and 1904 the administrative jurisdiction

1953-871: The Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. “That’s boring.” This is also particularly evident in university classrooms, where the most common source of writing feedback during student years often comes from teachers, whose comments are often highly valued. Students may become influenced to provide research in line with the professor’s viewpoints, because of the teacher’s position of high authority. The effectiveness of feedback largely stems from its high authority. Benjamin Keating, in his article "A Good Development Thing: A Longitudinal Analysis of Peer Review and Authority in Undergraduate Writing," conducted

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2016-719: The Military Legal Corps. These members are appointed by the General council of the judiciary from a list proposed by the Ministry of Defence. Upon nomination to the Supreme Court, military members are retired from the armed forces and will act only on the capacity of Supreme Court Justices. The tenure of the Magistrates of the Supreme Court is regulated in Section 386 of the Judiciary Organic Act and it establishes

2079-626: The Office or Cabinet of the Presidency, headed by a Director who is freely appointed and dismissed by the incumbent president. This office and tis director exercise the duties that the president entrusts him and directs the Services of Secretariat of Presidency, both of the Supreme Court and the General Council of the Judiciary. Only a Magistrate of the Supreme Court or those members of the judicial career or jurists of recognized competence who meet

2142-560: The President and judges of the Constitutional Court , the highest tribunal in the country – regarding constitutional matters –. It also processes formal applications by the procurator (public prosecutor) to outlaw political parties, Generally, there is no avenue of appeal against a Supreme Court decision although, in criminal matters, the Crown may exercise the prerogative of mercy to invalidate sentences imposed or ratified by

2205-462: The President of the Supreme Court and the General Council of the Judiciary shall cease for the following reasons: The Oath of the President of the Supreme Court, all the judges of the Court and all the members of the judicial career is regulated in Section 318 of the Organic Act of the Judiciary. «I faithfully swear (or promise) to obey and enforce at all times the Constitution and the rest of

2268-429: The Supreme Court and to meet the conditions required to be President of a Chamber of the Supreme Court, or to be a jurist of recognized competence with more than twenty-five years of seniority in the exercise of the profession» The president is elected in the Plenary of the Council if he has obtained the confidence of three fifths of the members of the Plenary. If this was not the case, a second ballot would be held between

2331-639: The Supreme Court, constitutionally, such appeals are resolved by the Council of Ministers and then formalized by the monarch, as head of state. Supreme Court decisions may, exceptionally, be overruled by the Constitutional Court if there has been an infringement of rights and freedoms of citizens embodied in the Spanish Constitution of 1978 – articles 14 to 29 and 30.2, regarding Fundamental Rights – or by decisions emanating from

2394-694: The age of 70, when they must retire (unless they request a 2-year extension). The Court meets in its Palace, built by Antonio Ruiz de Salces on the site of the old Convent of the Salesas Reales in Madrid . The security of the buildings and personnel of the Supreme Court is entrusted to the Supreme Court Special Commissariat, a unit of the National Police Corps . The Court was originally established by

2457-429: The author's writing intent, posing valuable questions and perspectives, and guiding the author to achieve their writing goals. Magda Tigchelaar compares peer review with self-assessment through an experiment that divided students into three groups: self-assessment, peer review, and no review. Across four writing projects, she observed changes in each group, with surprisingly results showing significant improvement only in

2520-431: The classroom environment at large. Understanding how their work is read by a diverse readership before it is graded by the teacher may also help students clarify ideas and understand how to persuasively reach different audience members via their writing. It also gives students professional experience that they might draw on later when asked to review the work of a colleague prior to publication. The process can also bolster

2583-426: The confidence of students on both sides of the process. It has been found that students are more positive than negative when reviewing their classmates' writing. Peer review can help students not get discouraged but rather feel determined to improve their writing. Critics of peer review in classrooms say that it can be ineffective due to students' lack of practice giving constructive criticism, or lack of expertise in

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2646-882: The end of its 5-years-term, its dismissal by the CGPJ or its resignation. The President of the Supreme Court also chairs the special courts, such as the Jurisdiction Conflicts Chamber which resolve conflicts between the civil and military justice , the Jurisdiction Conflicts Court which resolve conflicts between the Courts of Justice and the Administration , the Competence Conflicts Chamber which resolve conflicts between different Courts of Justice and

2709-531: The feedback with either positive or negative attitudes towards the text, resulting in selective or biased feedback and review, further impacting their ability to objectively evaluate the article. It implies that subjective emotions may also affect the effectiveness of peer review feedback. Pamela Bedore and Brian O’Sullivan also hold a skeptical view of peer review in most writing contexts. The authors conclude, based on comparing different forms of peer review after systematic training at two universities, that "the crux

2772-627: The inefficiency of peer review based on research conducted during peer review sessions in university classrooms: This research demonstrates that besides issues related to expertise, numerous objective factors contribute to students' poor performance in peer review sessions, resulting in feedback from peer reviewers that may not effectively assist authors. Additionally, this study highlights the influence of emotions in peer review sessions, suggesting that both peer reviewers and authors cannot completely eliminate emotions when providing and receiving feedback. This can lead to peer reviewers and authors approaching

2835-461: The legal requirements to access the category of Magistrate of the Supreme Court may hold the office of Director of the Office of the Presidency. According to the provisions of Section 586 of the Judiciary Organic Act, to be elected President of the Supreme Court and the General Council of the Judiciary: «It will be necessary to be a member of the judicial career with the category of Magistrate of

2898-492: The legal system, with loyalty to the Crown, administer fair and impartial justice and fulfill my judicial duties before all.» Since 1812, there have been numerous presidents of the Supreme Court, however, the General Council of the Judiciary is relatively younger. This list only includes the presidents who have been at the same time presidents of the General Council of the Judiciary: Peer review Peer review

2961-401: The number of justices. The Supreme Court of Justice Act of 1814 established a high court consisting of 16 "ministers" distributed in three chambers. This act hardly took effect due to the restoration of absolutism in 1814, although it was in force between 1820 and 1823. In 1834, it was restored with the name of Supreme Court of Spain and Indies and it was established the same composition. In 1864,

3024-424: The peer review process can be segmented into groups, where students present the papers to be reviewed, while other group members take notes and analyze them. Then, the review scope can be expanded to the entire class. This widens the review sources and further enhances the level of professionalism. With evolving and changing technology, peer review is also expected to evolve. New tools have the potential to transform

3087-441: The peer review process. Mimi Li discusses the effectiveness and feedback of an online peer review software used in their freshman writing class. Unlike traditional peer review methods commonly used in classrooms, the online peer review software offers a plethora of tools for editing articles, along with comprehensive guidance. For instance, it lists numerous questions peer reviewers can ask and allows for various comments to be added to

3150-403: The performance of their official duties. Peer review is provided by the General Council of the Judiciary , a panel of senior Supreme Court judges that monitors the Supreme Court practice and operation, but the decisions of this Council are advisory and may be annulled by due process in a Supreme Court action. Neither the Constitution of 1812 or the current Spanish Constitution specify

3213-471: The policy can be seen in operation. The meeting is preceded by the compilation of an expert report on which participating "peer countries" submit comments. The results are published on the web. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe , through UNECE Environmental Performance Reviews , uses peer review, referred to as "peer learning", to evaluate progress made by its member countries in improving their environmental policies. The State of California

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3276-462: The process of rating clinical behavior or compliance with professional society membership standards. The clinical network believes it to be the most ideal method of guaranteeing that distributed exploration is dependable and that any clinical medicines that it advocates are protected and viable for individuals. Thus, the terminology has poor standardization and specificity, particularly as a database search term. In engineering , technical peer review

3339-579: The self-assessment group. The author's analysis suggests that self-assessment allows individuals to clearly understand the revision goals at each stage, as the author is the most familiar with their own writing. Thus, self-checking naturally follows a systematic and planned approach to revision. In contrast, the effectiveness of peer review is often limited due to the lack of structured feedback, characterized by scattered, meaningless summaries and evaluations that fail to meet author's expectations for revising their work. Stephanie Conner and Jennifer Gray highlight

3402-457: The two candidates most voted in the first ballot, and the one who obtained the most support would be elected president. Once elected, the election will be communicated to the Monarch who will appoint the nominated candidate to be president. Subsequently, the appointed president will take oath before the Monarch and the Plenary of the Court. Pursuant to Section 588 of the Judiciary Organic Act,

3465-473: The type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, e.g., medical peer review . It can also be used as a teaching tool to help students improve writing assignments. Henry Oldenburg (1619–1677) was a German-born British philosopher who is seen as the 'father' of modern scientific peer review. It developed over the following centuries with, for example, the journal Nature making it standard practice in 1973. The term "peer review"

3528-442: The value of most students' feedback during peer review. They argue that many peer review sessions fail to meet students' expectations, as students, even as reviewers themselves, feel uncertain about providing constructive feedback due to their lack of confidence in their own writing. The authors further offer numerous improvement strategies across various dimensions, such as course content and specific implementation steps. For instance,

3591-505: The writer or the editor to get much out of the activity. As a response to these concerns, instructors may provide examples, model peer review with the class, or focus on specific areas of feedback during the peer review process. Instructors may also experiment with in-class peer review vs. peer review as homework, or peer review using technologies afforded by learning management systems online. Students that are older can give better feedback to their peers, getting more out of peer review, but it

3654-616: The writing craft at large. Peer review can be problematic for developmental writers, particularly if students view their writing as inferior to others in the class as they may be unwilling to offer suggestions or ask other writers for help. Peer review can impact a student's opinion of themselves as well as others as sometimes students feel a personal connection to the work they have produced, which can also make them feel reluctant to receive or offer criticism. Teachers using peer review as an assignment can lead to rushed-through feedback by peers, using incorrect praise or criticism, thus not allowing

3717-488: The writing craft overall. Academic peer review has faced considerable criticism, with many studies highlighting inherent issues in the peer review process. The editorial peer review process has been found to be strongly biased against ‘negative studies,’ i.e. studies that do not work. This then biases the information base of medicine. Journals become biased against negative studies when values come into play. “Who wants to read something that doesn’t work?” asks Richard Smith in

3780-485: Was Ramón Posada y Soto (1812–1814). The General Council of the Judiciary was established in 1978 and the first meeting was in 1980, electing Ángel Escudero del Corral as its president. The current acting president of the Supreme Court is Francisco Marín Castán since 2022. According to Article 598 of the Judiciary Organic Act, the CGPJ President is entitled to: From the President of the Supreme Court depends

3843-538: Was first used in the early 1970s. Since 2017 a monument to peer review is at the Higher School of Economics in Moscow. Professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. In academia, peer review is used to inform decisions related to faculty advancement and tenure. A prototype professional peer review process

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3906-556: Was recommended in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishāq ibn ʻAlī al-Ruhāwī (854–931). He stated that a visiting physician had to make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would decide whether the treatment had met the required standards of medical care. Professional peer review

3969-467: Was transferred to the Council of State . In 1931, the Republic divided the Court into six chambers: First Chamber for Civil Law, Second Chamber of Criminal Law, Third and Fourth Chambers for Administrative Law, Fifth Chamber for Laboral Law and Sixth Chamber for Military Law, and the number of magistrates was up to 40. In the current democratic period, the Court is divided into five chambers and neither

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