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159-713: Nelson recruited Henry Kissinger , who was then on the faculty of Harvard University , as director of the project; he had first met Kissinger in 1955. He also brought on board figures including Edward Teller , Charles Percy , Dean Rusk , John Gardner (president of the Carnegie Corporation ) and Henry Luce , along with his brothers Laurance and John D. 3rd . Six panels were constituted that looked at sweeping issues ranging from military/security strategy to foreign policy, to international economic strategy and defense department and governmental reorganization. The seven sub-panels were: The military subpanel's report

318-667: A "decaying" alliance as he believed that there was nothing at present to stop the Red Army from overrunning Western Europe in a conventional forces conflict. The "linkage" concept more applied to the question of security as Kissinger noted that the United States was going to sacrifice NATO for the sake of " citrus fruits ". According to notes taken by H. R. Haldeman , Nixon "ordered his aides to exclude all Jewish-Americans from policy-making on Israel", including Kissinger. One note quotes Nixon as saying "get K. [Kissinger] out of

477-479: A "policy of silence" vis-à-vis Indonesia, a policy that had been recommended by the Ambassador to Indonesia , David Newsom . The administration worried about the potential impact on US–Indonesian relations in the event that a forced incorporation of East Timor was met with a major Congressional reaction. On 8 October 1975, Assistant Secretary of State Philip Habib told meeting participants that "It looks like

636-630: A Nixon campaign aide, Richard Allen , to state he was willing to do anything to help Nixon win. After Nixon became president in January 1969, Kissinger was appointed as National Security Advisor . By this time, he was arguably "one of the most important theorists about foreign policy ever to be produced by the United States", according to his official biographer Niall Ferguson . Kissinger served as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State under President Richard Nixon and continued as Secretary of State under Nixon's successor Gerald Ford . With

795-519: A United Nations member and asked him to consider the "two Chinas" compromise to avoid offending American public opinion. Zhou responded with his claim that the People's Republic was the legitimate government of all China, and no compromise was possible. Kissinger said that the United States could not totally sever ties with Chiang, who had been an ally in World War II. Kissinger told Nixon that Bush

954-679: A ceasefire to gain more time for Israel to push across the Suez Canal to the African side, and wanted to be perceived as a mere presidential emissary who needed to consult the White House all the time as a stalling tactic. Kissinger promised the Israeli prime minister Golda Meir that the United States would replace its losses in equipment after the war, but sought initially to delay arms shipments to Israel, as he believed it would improve

1113-803: A condition for a final settlement. We had long passed that threshold". In the fall of 1972, both Kissinger and Nixon were frustrated with Thiệu's refusal to accept any sort of peace deal calling for withdrawal of American forces. On October 21 Kissinger and the American ambassador Ellsworth Bunker arrived in Saigon to show Thiệu the peace agreement. Thiệu refused to sign the peace agreement and demanded very extensive amendments that Kissinger reported to Nixon "verge on insanity". Though Nixon had initially supported Kissinger against Thiệu, H.R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman urged him to reconsider, arguing that Thiệu's objections had merit. Nixon wanted 69 amendments to

1272-816: A foreign enemy." Military assistance was accelerated during the Carter administration , peaking in 1978. In total, the United States furnished over $ 250,000,000 of military assistance to Indonesia between 1975 and 1979. Testifying before the US Congress , the Deputy Legal Advisor of the US State Department, George Aldrich said the Indonesians "were armed roughly 90 percent with our equipment. ... we really did not know very much. Maybe we did not want to know very much but I gather that for

1431-560: A founding member of Fretilin, and a brother of its vice-president, Nicolau Lobato. Fretilin responded by appealing successfully to the Portuguese-trained East Timorese military units. UDT's violent takeover thus provoked the three-week long civil war, in pitting its 1,500 troops against the 2,000 regular forces now led by Fretilin commanders. When the Portuguese-trained East Timorese military switched allegiance to Fretilin, it came to be known as Falintil . By

1590-584: A half years of transition under the auspices of three different United Nations missions, East Timor achieved independence on 20 May 2002. East Timor owes its territorial distinctiveness from the rest of Timor , and the Indonesian archipelago as a whole, to being colonised by the Portuguese , rather than the Dutch ; an agreement dividing the island between the two powers was signed in 1915. Colonial rule

1749-605: A party hosted by Clare Boothe Luce in 1967, saying that he found him more "thoughtful" than he expected. During the Republican primaries in 1968, Kissinger again served as the foreign policy adviser to Rockefeller and in July 1968 called Nixon "the most dangerous of all the men running to have as president". Initially upset when Nixon won the Republican nomination, the ambitious Kissinger soon changed his mind about Nixon and contacted

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1908-499: A penchant for secrecy and conducted numerous "backchannel" negotiations, such as that through the Soviet Ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin , that excluded State Department experts. Historian David Rothkopf looked at the personalities of Nixon and Kissinger, saying: They were a fascinating pair. In a way, they complemented each other perfectly. Kissinger was the charming and worldly Mr. Outside who provided

2067-410: A political and public relations disaster for Kissinger as he agreed that Vietnam was a "useless war", implied that he preferred to have dinner with Lê Đức Thọ over Nguyễn Văn Thiệu (in her 1976 book Interview with History , Fallaci recalled that Kissinger agreed with many of her negative sentiments towards Thiệu in a private discussion before the interview), and engaged in a now infamous exchange with

2226-718: A pragmatic approach to geopolitics known as Realpolitik , Kissinger pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union , orchestrated an opening of relations with China , engaged in " shuttle diplomacy " in the Middle East to end the Yom Kippur War , and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords , which ended American involvement in the Vietnam War . For his role in negotiating the accords, he

2385-540: A referendum in East Timor in 1999. In March 1976, UDT leader Lopes da Cruz reported that 60,000 Timorese had been killed during the invasion. A delegation of Indonesian relief workers agreed with this statistic. In an interview on 5 April 1977 with the Sydney Morning Herald , Indonesian Foreign Minister Adam Malik said the number of dead was "50,000 people or perhaps 80,000". A figure of 100,000

2544-722: A secret meeting of Kissinger and Thọ in Paris came the decisive breakthrough in the talks. Thọ began with "a very realistic and very simple proposal" for a ceasefire that would see the Americans pull all their forces out of Vietnam in exchange for the release of all the POWs in North Vietnam. Kissinger accepted Thọ's offer as the best deal possible, saying that the "mutual withdrawal formula" had to be abandoned as it been "unobtainable through ten years of war ... We could not make it

2703-463: A serious economic rival by 1970. Applying his favorite " linkage " concept, Nixon intended henceforward economic relations with Europe would not be severed from security relations, and if the EEC states wanted changes in American tariff and monetary policies, the price would be defense spending on their part. Kissinger in particular as part of the "Year of Europe" wanted to "revitalize" NATO, which he called

2862-557: A shift in Australian policy by the Howard government in 1998 helped precipitate a proposal for a referendum on the question of independence for East Timor. In late 1998, the Australian government drafted a letter to Indonesia setting out a change in Australian policy, suggesting that East Timor be given a chance to vote on independence within a decade. The letter upset Indonesian President B. J. Habibie , who saw it as implying Indonesia

3021-467: A significant relaxation in U.S.–Soviet tensions and played a crucial role in 1971 talks with the People's Republic of China premier Zhou Enlai . The talks concluded with a rapprochement between the United States and China, and the formation of a new strategic anti-Soviet Sino-American alignment. He was jointly awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize with Lê Đức Thọ for helping to establish a ceasefire and U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam. The ceasefire, however,

3180-593: A soldier statue and reliefs depicting the operation, was built in June 1990 and inaugurated by the regent of Belu Col. (Inf). Ignasius Sumantri on 17 August 1990. The Seroja Monument ( Monumen Seroja ) was built by the Indonesian government under the Megawati Sukarnoputri administration in June 2002 as a memorial to the Indonesian soldiers and civilians who were killed in Operation Seroja. It

3339-742: A special representative to East Timor for the purpose of making on-the-spot assessment of the existing situation and of establishing contact with all parties in the Territory and all States concerned to ensure the implementation of the current resolution. Daniel Patrick Moynihan , the US ambassador to the UN at the time, wrote in his autobiography that "China altogether backed Fretilin in Timor, and lost. In Spanish Sahara, Russia just as completely backed Algeria, and its front, known as Polisario, and lost. In both instances

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3498-594: A spy for the FBI . Kissinger's doctoral dissertation was titled Peace, Legitimacy, and the Equilibrium (A Study of the Statesmanship of Castlereagh and Metternich ) . Stephen Graubard, Kissinger's friend, asserted that Kissinger primarily pursued such endeavor to instruct himself on the history of power play between European states in the 19th century. In his doctoral dissertation, Kissinger first introduced

3657-471: A time we did not know." Indonesia was never informed of the supposed US "aid suspension". David T. Kenney, Country Officer for Indonesia in the US State Department , also testified before Congress that one purpose for the arms was "to keep that area [Timor] peaceful." The CAVR stated in the "Responsibility" chapter of its final report that US "political and military support were fundamental to

3816-487: A vocal anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist but saw imperialism and colonialism almost entirely as European phenomena and had supported China, despite its imperialism and was supportive of Indonesian imperialism to undo Dutch, Portuguese and British colonialism. Despite the unpopularity of the events in East Timor within segments of the Australian public, the Fraser , Hawke and Keating governments allegedly co-operated with

3975-776: A war of national liberation. Indigenous political parties rapidly sprang up in Timor; the Timorese Democratic Union ( União Democrática Timorense , UDT) was the first political association to be announced after the Carnation Revolution. UDT was originally composed of senior administrative leaders and plantation owners, as well as native tribal leaders. These leaders had conservative origins and showed allegiance to Portugal, but never advocated integration with Indonesia. Meanwhile, Fretilin (the Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor)

4134-512: Is cited by McDonald (1980) and by Taylor. Amnesty International estimated that one third of East Timor's population, or 200,000 in total, died from military action, starvation and disease from 1975 to 1999. In 1979 the US Agency for International Development estimated that 300,000 East Timorese had been moved into camps controlled by Indonesian armed forces. The UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) estimated

4293-589: The Army Specialized Training Program , but the program was canceled and Kissinger was reassigned to the 84th Infantry Division . There, he made the acquaintance of Fritz Kraemer , a fellow immigrant from Germany who noted Kissinger's fluency in German and his intellect and arranged for him to be assigned to the division's military intelligence . Kissinger saw combat with the division and volunteered for hazardous intelligence duties during

4452-720: The Battle of the Bulge . On April 10, 1945, he participated in the liberation of the Hannover-Ahlem concentration camp, a subcamp of the Neuengamme concentration camp . At the time, Kissinger wrote in his journal, "I had never seen people degraded to the level that people were in Ahlem. They barely looked human. They were skeletons." After the initial shock, however, Kissinger was relatively silent about his wartime service. During

4611-705: The City College of New York , excelling academically as a part-time student while continuing to work. His studies were interrupted in early 1943, when he was drafted into the U.S. Army . Kissinger underwent basic training at Camp Croft in Spartanburg, South Carolina . On June 19, 1943, while stationed in South Carolina, he became a naturalized U.S. citizen . The army sent him to study engineering at Lafayette College in Pennsylvania under

4770-607: The Council on Foreign Relations . He released his book Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy the following year. The book, which criticized the Eisenhower administration 's massive retaliation nuclear doctrine, caused much controversy at the time by proposing the use of tactical nuclear weapons on a regular basis to win wars. That same year, he published A World Restored , a study of balance-of-power politics in post-Napoleonic Europe. From 1956 to 1958, Kissinger worked for

4929-673: The Dachau Military Tribunal for killing two American prisoners of war. The four men were all found guilty and sentenced to death. They were executed by hanging at Landsberg Prison in October 1948. In June 1945, Kissinger was made commandant of the Bensheim metro CIC detachment, Bergstraße district of Hesse , with responsibility for denazification of the district. Although he possessed absolute authority and powers of arrest, Kissinger took care to avoid abuses against

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5088-502: The Fretilin regime that had emerged in 1974 . The overthrow of the popular and short-lived Fretilin-led government sparked a violent quarter-century occupation in which approximately 100,000–180,000 soldiers and civilians are estimated to have been killed or starved to death. The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor documented a minimum estimate of 102,000 conflict-related deaths in East Timor throughout

5247-664: The Operations Research Office , the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency , Department of State , and the RAND Corporation . Keen to have a greater influence on U.S. foreign policy , Kissinger became foreign policy advisor to the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller , supporting his bids for the Republican nomination in 1960, 1964, and 1968. Kissinger first met Richard Nixon at

5406-621: The Rockefeller Brothers Fund as director of its Special Studies Project . He served as the director of the Harvard Defense Studies Program between 1958 and 1971. In 1958, he also co-founded the Center for International Affairs with Robert R. Bowie where he served as its associate director. Outside of academia, he served as a consultant to several government agencies and think tanks, including

5565-552: The Senator Charles Sumner Prize, an award given to the best dissertation "from the legal, political, historical, economic, social, or ethnic approach, dealing with any means or measures tending toward the prevention of war and the establishment of universal peace" by a student under the Harvard Department of Government. It was published in 1957 as A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and

5724-576: The US government claimed to have suspended new arms sales to Indonesia from December 1975 to June 1976, military equipment already in the pipeline continued to flow, and the US made four new offers of arms during that six-month period, including supplies and parts for 16 OV-10 Broncos, which, according to Cornell University Professor Benedict Anderson , are "specially designed for counter-insurgency actions against adversaries without effective anti-aircraft weapons and wholly useless for defending Indonesia against

5883-554: The United Nations Secretary General 's Special Representative, Vittorio Winspeare Guicciardi to visit Fretilin-held areas from Darwin, Australia were obstructed by the Indonesian military, which blockaded East Timor. On 31 May 1976, a 'People's Assembly' in Dili, selected by Indonesian intelligence, unanimously endorsed an 'Act of Integration', and on 17 July, East Timor officially became the 27th province of

6042-764: The formalization of relations between the two countries, ending 23 years of diplomatic isolation and mutual hostility. The result was the formation of a tacit strategic anti- Soviet alliance between China and the United States. Kissinger's diplomacy led to economic and cultural exchanges between the two sides and the establishment of " liaison offices " in the Chinese and American capitals, though full normalization of relations with China would not occur until 1979. Kissinger discussed being involved in Indochina prior to his appointment as National Security Adviser to Nixon. According to Kissinger, his friend Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. ,

6201-656: The invasion by Warsaw Pact troops of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. Nixon felt his administration had neglected relations with the Western European states in his first term and in September 1972 decided that if he was reelected that 1973 would be the "Year of Europe" as the United States would focus on relations with the states of the European Economic Community (EEC) which had emerged as

6360-768: The segregation imposed by Nazi racial laws by sneaking into soccer stadiums to watch matches, often receiving beatings from security guards. As a result of the Nazis' anti-Semitic laws , Kissinger was unable to gain admittance to the Gymnasium and his father was dismissed from his teaching job. On August 20, 1938, when Kissinger was 15 years old, he and his family fled Germany to avoid further Nazi persecution. The family briefly stopped in London before arriving in New York City on September 5. Kissinger later downplayed

6519-412: The "hemorrhage of state secrets" to the media was making diplomacy impossible. On August 1, 1972, Kissinger met Thọ again in Paris, and for first time, he seemed willing to compromise, saying that political and military terms of an armistice could be treated separately and hinted that his government was no longer willing to make the overthrow of Thiệu a precondition. On the evening of October 8, 1972, at

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6678-605: The "sacred right of self-determination" and recognised APODETI as the true representatives of the East Timorese majority. It claimed that FRETILIN's popularity was the result of a "policy of threats, blackmail and terror". Later, Indonesian Foreign Minister Ali Alatas reiterated this position in his 2006 memoir The Pebble in the Shoe: The Diplomatic Struggle for East Timor . The island's original division into east and west, Indonesia argued after

6837-482: The 'final solution'. The 'final solution' campaigns involved two primary tactics: The 'encirclement and annihilation' campaign involved bombing villages and mountain areas from aeroplanes, causing famine and defoliation of ground cover. When surviving villagers came down to lower-lying regions to surrender, the military would simply shoot them. Other survivors were placed in resettlement camps where they were prevented from travelling or cultivating farmland. In early 1978,

6996-617: The 1970 Cambodian campaign and subsequent widespread bombing of Khmer Rouge targets in Cambodia . For his role in planning the U.S. bombing of Cambodia, scholars have stated that Kissinger bears substantial responsibility for the killing of between 50,000 and 150,000 Cambodian civilians and also the destabilization of Cambodia that the U.S. bombing campaign caused, which contributed to the Khmer Rouge's ascendance to power. The Paris peace talks had become stalemated by late 1969 owing to

7155-509: The Ambassador to Saigon, employed Kissinger as a consultant, leading to Kissinger visiting Vietnam once in 1965 and twice in 1966, where Kissinger realized that the United States "knew neither how to win or how to conclude" the Vietnam War. Kissinger also stated that in 1967, he served as an intermediary for negotiations between the United States and North Vietnam , with Kissinger providing the American position, while two Frenchmen provided

7314-430: The American advance into Germany, Kissinger, though only a private , was put in charge of the administration of the city of Krefeld because of a lack of German speakers on the division's intelligence staff. Within eight days he had established a civilian administration. Kissinger was then reassigned to the Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC), where he became a CIC Special Agent holding the enlisted rank of sergeant . He

7473-399: The Bangladesh–Pakistan War in which he described Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi as a " bitch " and a " witch ". He also said "the Indians are bastards", shortly before the war. Kissinger later expressed his regret over the comments. As National Security Adviser under Nixon, Kissinger pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union , seeking a relaxation in tensions between

7632-544: The Bavarian spa town of Bad Kissingen . In his childhood, Kissinger enjoyed playing soccer. He played for the youth team of SpVgg Fürth , one of the nation's best clubs at the time. In a 2022 BBC interview, Kissinger vividly recalled being nine years old in 1933 and learning of Adolf Hitler's election as Chancellor of Germany , which proved to be a profound turning point for the Kissinger family. During Nazi rule , Kissinger and his friends were regularly harassed and beaten by Hitler Youth gangs. Kissinger sometimes defied

7791-567: The Chinese did not want a Vietnamese-dominated Indochina . We didn't want the Vietnamese to dominate. I don't believe we did anything for Pol Pot. But I suspect we closed our eyes when some others did something for Pol Pot." On November 4, 1972, Kissinger agreed to an interview with Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci . Kissinger, who rarely engaged in one-on-one interviews with the press and knew very little about Fallaci, accepted her request after reportedly being impressed with her 1969 interview with Võ Nguyên Giáp . The interview turned out to be

7950-456: The East Timorese either. In early September, as many as two hundred special forces troops launched incursions, which were noted by US intelligence, and in October, conventional military assaults followed. Five journalists, known as the Balibo Five , working for Australian news networks were executed by Indonesian troops in the border town of Balibo on 16 October. John Taylor writes that Indonesia invaded for three main reasons: (1) to avoid

8109-411: The German-Jewish community in Washington Heights, Manhattan . Although Kissinger assimilated quickly into American culture, he never lost his pronounced German accent , due to childhood shyness that made him hesitant to speak. After his first year at George Washington High School , he completed school at night while working in a shaving brush factory during the day. Kissinger studied accounting at

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8268-432: The Indonesian invasion and occupation" of East Timor between 1975 and 1999. The report (p. 92) also stated that "U.S. supplied weaponry was crucial to Indonesia's capacity to intensify military operations from 1977 in its massive campaigns to destroy the Resistance in which aircraft supplied by the United States played a crucial role." Clinton Administration officials told the New York Times that US support for Suharto

8427-470: The Indonesian military and President Suharto to obscure details about conditions in East Timor and to preserve Indonesian control of the region. There was some disquiet towards policy with the Australian public, because of the deaths of the Australian journalists and arguably also because the actions of the Timorese people in supporting Australian forces during the Battle of Timor in World War II were well-remembered. Protests took place in Australia against

8586-416: The Indonesian military. The new administration built new infrastructure and raised productivity levels in commercial farming ventures. Productivity in coffee and cloves doubled, although East Timorese farmers were forced to sell their coffee at low prices to village cooperatives. The Provisional Government of East Timor was installed in mid-December 1975, consisting of APODETI and UDT leaders. Attempts by

8745-570: The Indonesians have begun the attack on Timor." Kissinger's response to Habib was, "I'm assuming you're really going to keep your mouth shut on this subject." On the day before the invasion, Ford and Kissinger met with the Indonesian president Suharto . Documents released by the National Security Archive in 2001 revealed that they gave a green light for the invasion. In response to Suharto saying, "We want your understanding if we deem it necessary to take rapid or drastic action [in East Timor]," Ford replied, "We will understand and will not press you on

8904-408: The Middle East as he settled into the State Department. Kissinger later admitted that he was so engrossed with the Paris peace talks to end the Vietnam war that he and others in Washington missed the significance of the Egyptian-Saudi alliance . Egyptian president Anwar Sadat expelled Soviet advisors from Egypt in May 1972, attempting to signal to the U.S. that he was open to disentangling Egypt from

9063-426: The North Vietnamese position. When he came into office in 1969, Kissinger favored a negotiating strategy under which the United States and North Vietnam would sign an armistice and agreed to pull their troops out of South Vietnam while the South Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were to agree to a coalition government. Kissinger had doubts about Nixon's theory of " linkage ", believing that this would give

9222-450: The Paris talks and told Nixon: "They're just a bunch of shits. Tawdry, filthy shits". On January 8, 1973, Kissinger and Thọ met again in Paris and the next day reached an agreement, which in main points was essentially the same as the one Nixon had rejected in October with only cosmetic concessions to the Americans. Thiệu once again rejected the peace agreement, only to receive an ultimatum from Nixon which caused Thiệu to reluctantly accept

9381-433: The Portuguese military mounted a coup d'état against the right-wing authoritarian Estado Novo government in Lisbon (the so-called " Carnation Revolution "), and announced its intention rapidly to withdraw from Portugal 's colonial possessions (including Angola, Mozambique and Guinea, where pro-independence guerrilla movements had been fighting since the 1960s ). Unlike the African colonies, East Timor did not experience

9540-408: The Problems of Peace 1812–1822 . Kissinger remained at Harvard as a member of the faculty in the Department of Government where he served as the director of the Harvard International Seminar between 1951 and 1971. In 1955, he was a consultant to the National Security Council 's Operations Coordinating Board . During 1955 and 1956, he was also study director in nuclear weapons and foreign policy at

9699-453: The Republic of Indonesia. The occupation of East Timor remained a public issue in many nations, Portugal in particular, and the UN never recognised either the regime installed by the Indonesians or the subsequent annexation. The Indonesian government presented its annexation of East Timor as a matter of anticolonial unity. A 1977 booklet from the Indonesian Department of Foreign Affairs, entitled Decolonization in East Timor , paid tribute to

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9858-450: The Soviet Union leverage over the United States and unlike Nixon was less concerned about the ultimate fate of South Vietnam. Though Kissinger did not regard South Vietnam as important in its own right, he believed it was necessary to support South Vietnam to maintain the United States as a global power, believing that none of America's allies would trust the United States if South Vietnam were abandoned too quickly. In early 1969, Kissinger

10017-566: The Soviet Union, it is not an American concern. Maybe a humanitarian concern." He had a negative view of American Jews who lobbied for aid to Soviet Jews, calling them "bastards" and "self-serving". He went on to state that, "If it were not for the accident of my birth, I would be antisemitic " and "any people who has been persecuted for two thousand years must be doing something wrong." In September 1973, Nixon fired William P. Rogers as Secretary of State and replaced him with Kissinger. He would later state he had not been given enough time to know

10176-698: The Soviet sphere of influence; Kissinger offered secret talks on a settlement for the Middle East, though nothing came of the offer. By March 1973, Sadat had moved back towards the Soviets, closing the largest arms package between Egypt and the Soviet Union and allowing for the return of Soviet military personnel and advisors to Egypt. On October 6, 1973, at 6:15 am, assistant secretary for Near Eastern affairs Joseph Sisco , informed Kissinger that Egypt and Syria were about to go to war with Israel. Sisco had been warned by U.S ambassador to Israel, Kenneth Keating , who two hours previously had been urgently summoned by Israel's Prime Minister Golda Meir who believed conflict

10335-519: The Thai foreign minister: "You should tell the Cambodians that we will be friends with them. They are murderous thugs but we won't let that stand in our way." In a 1998 interview, Kissinger said: "some countries, the Chinese in particular supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to the Vietnamese supported people and We at least tolerated it." Kissinger said he did not approve of this due to the genocide and said he "would not have dealt with Pol Pot for any purpose whatsoever." He further said: "The Thais and

10494-420: The U.S. Congress passed a bill limiting American aid to South Vietnam to $ 700 million annually. By November 1974, Kissinger lobbied Leonid Brezhnev to end Soviet military aid to North Vietnam. The same month, he also lobbied Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to end Chinese military aid to North Vietnam. On April 15, 1975, Kissinger testified before the Senate Appropriations Committee , urging Congress to increase

10653-456: The US national interest had to be on the side of Indonesia. As Ford later stated: "in the scope of things, Indonesia wasn't too much on my radar", and "We needed allies after Vietnam". As early as December 1974—a year before the invasion—the Indonesian defense attaché in Washington sounded out US views about an Indonesian takeover of East Timor. The Americans were tight-lipped, and in March 1975 Secretary of State Henry Kissinger approved

10812-451: The Union address in January, 1958. The project was finally published in its entirety in 1961 as Prospect for America: The Rockefeller Panel Reports . The archival study papers are stored in the Rockefeller Archive Center at the family estate; portions of the papers are still restricted, over four decades after the report was published. Henry Kissinger Henry Alfred Kissinger (May 27, 1923 – November 29, 2023)

10971-420: The United Nations George H. W. Bush was lobbying for the " two Chinas " formula, Kissinger was removing favorable references to Taiwan from a speech that then Secretary of State William P. Rogers was preparing, as he expected the country to be expelled from the United Nations. During his second visit to Beijing, Kissinger told Zhou that according to a public opinion poll 62% of Americans wanted Taiwan to remain

11130-436: The United Nations. Indonesia invaded East Timor during the political crisis and social unrest in Australia following the dismissal of the Whitlam Labor party government . Previously secret files of the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade , released in September 2000, showed that comments by the Whitlam Labor party government may have encouraged the Suharto regime to invade East Timor. Gough Whitlam had been

11289-449: The United States wished things to turn out as they did, and worked to bring this about. The Department of State desired that the United Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever measures it undertook. This task was given to me, and I carried it forward with not inconsiderable success." Later, Moynihan admitted that, as US ambassador to the UN, he had defended a "shameless" Cold War policy toward East Timor. The memorial ″7 December 1975″

11448-401: The United States, and other countries, to destroy Fretilin's framework. The last two decades of the century saw continuous clashes between Indonesian and East Timorese groups over the status of East Timor, until 1999, when a majority of East Timorese voted overwhelmingly for independence (the alternative option being "special autonomy" while remaining part of Indonesia). After a further two and

11607-536: The United States, to be joined by all of the other oil-producing Arab states except Iraq and Libya . Invasion of East Timor The Indonesian invasion of East Timor , known in Indonesia as Operation Lotus ( Indonesian : Operasi Seroja ), began on 7 December 1975 when the Indonesian military (ABRI/TNI) invaded East Timor under the pretext of anti-colonialism and anti-communism to overthrow

11766-404: The United States, which at the time was completing its withdrawal from Indochina . The military intelligence organisations initially sought a non-military annexation strategy, intending to use APODETI as its integration vehicle. Indonesia's ruling "New Order" planned for the invasion of East Timor. There was no free expression in "New Order" Indonesia and thus no need was seen for consulting

11925-665: The Vietnam war ended and the rest to be pulled out as Sino-American relations improved. In October 1971, as Kissinger was making his second trip to the People's Republic, the issue of which Chinese government deserved to be represented in the United Nations came up again. Out of concern to not be seen abandoning an ally, the United States tried to promote a compromise under which both Chinese regimes would be United Nations members , although Kissinger called it "an essentially doomed rearguard action". While American ambassador to

12084-765: The War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam", signed the previous January. According to Irwin Abrams in 2001, this prize was the most controversial to date. For the first time in the history of the Peace Prize, two members left the Nobel Committee in protest. Thọ rejected the award, telling Kissinger that peace had not been restored in South Vietnam. Kissinger wrote to the Nobel Committee that he accepted

12243-463: The airport and police stations. During the resulting civil war, leaders on each side "lost control over the behavior of their supporters", and while leaders of both UDT and Fretilin behaved with restraint, the uncontrollable supporters orchestrated various bloody purges and murders. UDT leaders arrested more than 80 Fretilin members, including future leader Xanana Gusmão . UDT members killed a dozen Fretilin members in four locations. The victims included

12402-579: The award "with humility", and "donated the entire proceeds to the children of American service members killed or missing in action in Indochina". After the Fall of Saigon in 1975, Kissinger attempted to return the award. By the summer of 1974, the U.S. embassy reported that morale in the ARVN had fallen to dangerously low levels and it was uncertain how much longer South Vietnam would last. In August 1974,

12561-419: The comedic "cowboy" comparison which infuriated Nixon. For several weeks afterwards, he refused to see Kissinger and even contemplated firing him. At one point, Kissinger, in desperation, drove up unannounced to Nixon's San Clemente residence but was rejected by Secret Service personnel at the gates. Kissinger later claimed that it was "the single most disastrous conversation I have ever had with any member of

12720-404: The concept of "legitimacy", which he defined as: "Legitimacy as used here should not be confused with justice. It means no more than an international agreement about the nature of workable arrangements and about the permissible aims and methods of foreign policy". An international order accepted by all of the major powers is "legitimate" whereas an international order not accepted by one or more of

12879-410: The contrary, if you really want to know, I care nothing about popularity. I'm not at all afraid of losing my public; I can allow myself to say what I think. I'm referring to what's genuine in me. If I were to let myself be disturbed by the reactions of the public, if I were to act solely on the basis of a calculated technique, I would accomplish nothing. Nixon was enraged by the interview, in particular

13038-464: The creation of a communist state on Indonesia's border that could be used as a base for incursions by unfriendly powers into Indonesia, and a potential threat to Western submarines. It was also feared that an independent East Timor within the archipelago could inspire secessionist sentiments within Indonesian provinces. These concerns were successfully used to garner support from Western countries keen to maintain good relations with Indonesia, particularly

13197-632: The death of George Shultz in February 2021, Kissinger was the last surviving member of the Nixon administration Cabinet. The relationship between Nixon and Kissinger was unusually close, and has been compared to the relationships of Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House , or Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Hopkins . In all three cases, the State Department was relegated to a backseat role in developing foreign policy. Kissinger and Nixon shared

13356-415: The draft peace agreement included in the final treaty and ordered Kissinger back to Paris to force Thọ to accept them. Kissinger regarded Nixon's 69 amendments as "preposterous" as he knew Thọ would never accept them. As expected, Thọ refused to consider any of the 69 amendments, and on December 13, 1972, left Paris for Hanoi. Kissinger by this stage was worked up into a state of fury after Thọ walked out of

13515-452: The driving force behind the rapprochement with China was Nixon. In April 1970, both Nixon and Kissinger promised Chiang Ching-kuo , the son of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , that they would never abandon Taiwan or make any compromises with Mao Zedong , although Nixon did speak vaguely of his wish to improve relations with the People's Republic. Kissinger made two trips to the People's Republic in July and October 1971 (the first of which

13674-564: The early months of 1977, the Indonesian navy ordered missile-firing patrol-boats from the United States, Australia, the Netherlands , South Korea, and Taiwan , as well as submarines from West Germany. In February 1977, Indonesia also received thirteen OV-10 Bronco aircraft from the Rockwell International Corporation with the aid of an official US government foreign military aid sales credit . The Bronco

13833-472: The early months of the invasion, Indonesian control was mainly confined to major towns and villages such as Dili, Baucau, Aileu and Same . Throughout 1976, the Indonesian military used a strategy in which troops attempted to move inland from the coastal areas to join up with troops parachuted further inland. This strategy was unsuccessful and the troops received stiff resistance from Falintil. For instance, it took 3,000 Indonesian troops four months to capture

13992-564: The end of August, the UDT remnants were retreating toward the Indonesian border. A UDT group of nine hundred crossed into West Timor on 24 September 1975, followed by more than a thousand others, leaving Fretilin in control of East Timor for the next three months. The death toll in the civil war reportedly included four hundred people in Dili and possibly sixteen hundred in the hills. Indonesian nationalist and military hardliners, particularly leaders of

14151-448: The end of the year, 10,000 troops occupied Dili and another 20,000 had been deployed throughout East Timor. Massively outnumbered, FALINTIL troops fled to the mountains and continued guerrilla combat operations. In the cities, Indonesian troops began killing East Timorese. At the start of the occupation, FRETILIN radio sent the following broadcast: "The Indonesian forces are killing indiscriminately. Women and children are being shot in

14310-586: The entire civilian population of Arsaibai village, near the Indonesian border, was killed for supporting Fretilin after being bombarded and starved. During this period, allegations of Indonesian use of chemical weapons arose, as villagers reported maggots appearing on crops after bombing attacks. The success of the 'encirclement and annihilation' campaign led to the 'final cleansing campaign', in which children and men from resettlement camps would be forced to hold hands and march in front of Indonesian units searching for Fretilin members. When Fretilin members were found,

14469-428: The entire period from 1974 to 1999, including 18,600 violent killings and 84,200 deaths from disease and starvation; Indonesian forces and their auxiliaries combined were responsible for 70% of the killings. During the first months of the occupation, the Indonesian military faced heavy insurgency resistance in the mountainous interior of the island, but from 1977 to 1978, the military procured new advanced weaponry from

14628-465: The fact that they believe in me when you sway or convince somebody, you shouldn't confuse them. Nor can you even simply calculate. Some people think that I carefully plan what are to be the consequences, for the public, of any of my initiatives or efforts. They think this preoccupation is always on my mind. Instead the consequences of what I do, I mean the public's judgment, have never bothered me. I don't ask for popularity, I'm not looking for popularity. On

14787-632: The first telegram from the U.S. consul general in East Pakistan , Archer K. Blood , and 20 members of his staff, which informed the U.S. that their allies West Pakistan were undertaking, in Blood's words, "a selective genocide" targeting the Bengali intelligentsia, supporters of independence for East Pakistan, and the Hindu minority. In the second, more famous, Blood Telegram the word ' genocide '

14946-406: The first day alone. Though the Indonesian military advanced into East Timor, most of the populations left the invaded towns and villages in coastal areas for the mountainous interior. FALINTIL forces, comprising 2,500 full-time regular troops from the former Portuguese colonial army, were well equipped by Portugal and "severely restricted the Indonesian army's ability to make headway." Thus, during

15105-431: The grace and intellectual-establishment respectability that Nixon lacked, disdained and aspired to. Kissinger was an international citizen. Nixon very much a classic American. Kissinger had a worldview and a facility for adjusting it to meet the times, Nixon had pragmatism and a strategic vision that provided the foundations for their policies. Kissinger would, of course, say that he was not political like Nixon—but in fact he

15264-587: The great powers is "revolutionary" and hence dangerous. Thus, when after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the leaders of Britain , France , Austria , Prussia , and Russia agreed to co-operate in the Concert of Europe to preserve the peace after Austria, Prussia, and Russia participated in a series of three Partitions of Poland , in Kissinger's viewpoint this international system was "legitimate" because it

15423-632: The green light by the United States to do what he did. The covert military assistance provided, which most of it went straight into East Timor and was used against non-combatants, by the Ford administration to Suharto's regime in Indonesia was kept hidden from Congress and the public. On 12 December 1975, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that "strongly deplored" Indonesia's invasion of East Timor, demanded that Jakarta withdraw troops "without delay" and allow

15582-438: The hard-pressing Fallaci, with Kissinger comparing himself to a cowboy leading the Nixon administration: Fallaci : I suppose that at the root of everything there's your success. I mean, like a chess player, you've made two or three good moves. China, first of all. People like chess players who checkmate the king. Kissinger : Yes, China has been a very important element in the mechanics of my success. And yet that's not

15741-895: The importance of self determination of Portuguese Timor to Australian public pressure. The records available also show that department officials were aware of planned clandestine operations for Indonesia to perform in Portuguese Timor, with the intent being "to ensure that the territory would opt for incorporation into Indonesia."; for which the Indonesians sought support from the Australian government. Australian governments saw good relations and stability in Indonesia (Australia's largest neighbour) as providing an important security buffer to Australia's north. Nevertheless, Australia provided important sanctuary to East Timorese independence advocates like José Ramos-Horta (who based himself in Australia during his exile). The fall of Suharto and

15900-472: The influence his experiences of Nazi persecution had had on his policies, writing that the "Germany of my youth had a great deal of order and very little justice; it was not the sort of place likely to inspire devotion to order in the abstract." Nevertheless, many scholars, including Kissinger's biographer Walter Isaacson , have argued that his experiences influenced the formation of his realist approach to foreign policy. Kissinger spent his high-school years in

16059-699: The inhabitants of the island to exercise their right to self-determination . The resolution also requested that the United Nations Security Council take urgent action to protect East Timor's territorial integrity. On 22 December 1975, the UN Security Council met and unanimously passed a resolution similar to the Assembly's . The Council's resolution called upon the UN Secretary General "to send urgently

16218-500: The intelligence agency Kopkamtib and special operations unit, Opsus, saw the Portuguese coup as an opportunity for East Timor's annexation by Indonesia. The head of Opsus and close adviser to Indonesian President Suharto , Major General Ali Murtopo , and his protege Brigadier General Benny Murdani headed military intelligence operations and spearheaded the Indonesia pro-annexation push. Indonesian domestic political factors in

16377-525: The invasion would be relatively swift and not involve protracted resistance. "It is important that whatever you do succeeds quickly," Kissinger said to Suharto. The US played a crucial role in supplying weapons to Indonesia. A week after the invasion of East Timor the National Security Council prepared a detailed analysis of the Indonesian military units involved and the US equipment they used. The analysis revealed that virtually all of

16536-469: The invasion, was "the result of colonial oppression" enforced by the Portuguese and Dutch imperial powers. Thus, according to the Indonesian government, its annexation of the 27th province was merely another step in the unification of the archipelago which had begun in the 1940s. There was little resistance from the international community to Indonesia's invasion. Although Portugal was undergoing an energetic decolonization process , Portugal failed to involve

16695-540: The issue. We understand the problem you have and the intentions you have." Kissinger agreed, although he had fears that the use of US-made arms in the invasion would be exposed to public scrutiny, and Kissinger urged Suharto to wait until Ford had returned from his far eastern trip, because "we would be able to influence the reaction in America if whatever happens happens after we return. This way there would be less chance of people talking in an unauthorised way." The US hoped

16854-433: The largely successful conclusion of the encirclement and annihilation campaign, proved to be the toughest period of the entire conflict, costing the Indonesians more than 1,000 fatalities out of the total of 2,000 who died during the entire occupation. The Fretilin militia who survived the Indonesian offensive of the late 1970s chose Xanana Gusmão as their leader. He was caught by Indonesian intelligence near Dili in 1992 and

17013-671: The likelihood of Pakistani victory against Bengali rebels. Kissinger was particularly concerned about the expansion of Soviet influence in the Indian subcontinent as a result of a treaty of friendship recently signed by India and the Soviet Union, and sought to demonstrate to China (Pakistan's ally and an enemy of both India and the Soviet Union) the value of a tacit alliance with the United States. Kissinger had also come under fire for private comments he made to Nixon during

17172-808: The local population by his command. In 1946, Kissinger was reassigned to teach at the European Command Intelligence School at Camp King and, as a civilian employee following his separation from the army, continued to serve in this role. Kissinger recalled that his experience in the army "made me feel like an American". Kissinger earned his Bachelor of Arts summa cum laude , Phi Beta Kappa in political science from Harvard College in 1950, where he lived in Adams House and studied under William Yandell Elliott . His senior undergraduate thesis, titled The Meaning of History: Reflections on Spengler , Toynbee and Kant ,

17331-447: The main point. The main point. ... Well, yes, I'll tell you. What do I care? The main point arises from the fact that I've always acted alone. Americans like that immensely. Americans like the cowboy who leads the wagon train by riding ahead alone on his horse, the cowboy who rides all alone into the town, the village, with his horse and nothing else. Maybe even without a pistol, since he doesn't shoot. He acts, that's all, by being in

17490-461: The members would be forced to surrender or to fire on their own people. The Indonesian 'encirclement and annihilation' campaign of 1977–1978 broke the back of the main Fretilin militia and the capable Timorese President and military commander, Nicolau Lobato , was shot and killed by helicopter-borne Indonesian troops on 31 December 1978. The 1975–1978 period, from the beginning of the invasion to

17649-428: The mid-1970s were not conducive to such expansionist intentions; the 1974–75 financial scandal surrounding petroleum producer Pertamina meant that Indonesia had to be cautious not to alarm critical foreign donors and bankers. Thus, Suharto was originally not in support of an East Timor invasion. Such considerations became overshadowed by Indonesian and Western fears that victory for the left-wing Fretilin would lead to

17808-581: The military aid budget to South Vietnam by another $ 700 million to save the ARVN as the PAVN was rapidly advancing on Saigon , which was refused. Kissinger maintained at the time, and until his death, that if only Congress had approved of his request for another $ 700 million South Vietnam would have been able to resist. In November 1975, seven months after the Khmer Rouge took power, Kissinger told

17967-537: The military equipment used in the invasion was US supplied: US-supplied destroyer escorts shelled East Timor as the attack unfolded; Indonesian marines disembarked from US-supplied landing craft; US-supplied C-47 and C-130 aircraft dropped Indonesian paratroops and strafed Dili with .50 calibre machine guns; while the 17th and 18th Airborne brigades which led the assault on the Timorese capital were "totally U.S. MAP supported," and their jump masters US trained. While

18126-411: The number of deaths during the occupation from famine and violence to be between 90,800 and 202,600 including between 17,600 and 19,600 violent deaths or disappearances, out of a 1999 population of approximately 823,386. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings. In parallel to the military action, Indonesia also ran a civil administration. East Timor

18285-548: The obstructionism of the South Vietnamese delegation. The South Vietnamese president Nguyễn Văn Thiệu did not want the United States to withdraw from Vietnam, and out of frustration with him, Kissinger began secret peace talks with Le Duc Thọ in Paris parallel to the official talks that the South Vietnamese were unaware of. In June 1971, Kissinger supported Nixon's effort to ban the Pentagon Papers saying

18444-529: The occupation, and some Australian nationals participated in the resistance movement . These files from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade also outlined Australian National Security motivations for a Portuguese independent Timor. Repeatedly mentioned in these files are Australian oil interests in Timorese waters; as well as the potential for a renegotiation of the Portuguese Timor sea border North of Australia. In line with these resource interests at

18603-399: The odds of making peace along the lines of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 . In 1973, Meir requested $ 850 million worth of American arms and equipment to replace its materiel losses. Nixon instead sent some $ 2 billion worth. The arms lift enraged King Faisal of Saudi Arabia , and he retaliated on October 20, 1973, by placing a total embargo on oil shipments to

18762-470: The peace agreement. On January 27, 1973, Kissinger and Thọ signed a peace agreement that called for the complete withdrawal of all U.S. forces from Vietnam by March in exchange for North Vietnam freeing all the U.S. POWs. Along with Thọ, Kissinger was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on December 10, 1973, for their work in negotiating the ceasefires contained in the Paris Peace Accords on "Ending

18921-460: The play— Haig handle it". In 1973, Kissinger did not feel that pressing the Soviet Union concerning the plight of Jews being persecuted there was in the interest of U.S. foreign policy. In a conversation with Nixon shortly after a meeting with Israeli prime minister Golda Meir on March 1, 1973, Kissinger stated, "The emigration of Jews from the Soviet Union is not an objective of American foreign policy, and if they put Jews into gas chambers in

19080-449: The population was actually discreetly involved in the clandestine movement, as ratified in the protest vote for independence), and the separatist idea had largely shifted to the clandestine front in the cities. The clandestine movement was largely paralysed by continuous arrests and infiltration by Indonesian agents. The prospect of independence was very dark until the fall of Suharto in 1998 and President Habibie's sudden decision to allow

19239-400: The population. The Timorese Popular Democratic Association ( Portuguese : Associação Popular Democratica Timorense ; APODETI), a third, minor party, also sprang up, and its goal was integration with Indonesia. The party had little popular appeal. By April 1975, internal conflicts split the UDT leadership, with Lopes da Cruz leading a faction that wanted to abandon Fretilin. Lopes da Cruz

19398-495: The press". Fallaci described the interview with the evasive, monotonous, non-expressive Kissinger as the most uncomfortable and most difficult she ever did, criticizing Kissinger as a "intellectual adventurer" and a self-styled Metternich . Nixon supported Pakistani dictator Yahya Khan in the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. Kissinger sneered at people who "bleed" for "the dying Bengalis " and ignored

19557-655: The retreating FALINTIL forces and suffered accordingly. By noon, Indonesian forces had taken the city at the cost of 35 Indonesian soldiers killed, while 122 FALINTIL soldiers died in the combat. On 10 December, a second invasion resulted in the capture of the second biggest town, Baucau , and on Christmas Day, around 10,000 to 15,000 troops landed at Liquisa and Maubara . By April 1976 Indonesia had some 35,000 soldiers in East Timor, with another 10,000 standing by in Indonesian West Timor. A large proportion of these troops were from Indonesia's elite commands. By

19716-764: The right place at the right time. In short, a Western. Fallaci : I see. You see yourself as a kind of Henry Fonda , unarmed and ready to fight with his fists for honest ideals. Alone, courageous ... Kissinger : Not necessarily courageous. In fact, this cowboy doesn't have to be courageous. All he needs is to be alone, to show others that he rides into the town and does everything by himself. This amazing, romantic character suits me precisely because to be alone has always been part of my style or, if you like, my technique. Together with independence. Oh, that's very important in me and for me. And finally, conviction. I've always been convinced that I had to do whatever I've done. And people feel it, and believe in it. And I care about

19875-526: The streets – all we could see were the soldiers killing, killing, killing." In one incident, a group of fifty men, women, and children – including Australian freelance reporter Roger East – were lined up on a cliff outside of Dili and shot, their bodies falling into the sea. Many such massacres took place in Dili, where onlookers were ordered to observe and count aloud as each person was executed. In addition to FRETILIN supporters, Chinese migrants were also singled out for execution; five hundred were killed in

20034-423: The streets. We are all going to be killed.... This is an appeal for international help. Please do something to stop this invasion." One Timorese refugee told later of "rape [and] cold-blooded assassinations of women and children and Chinese shop owners". Dili's bishop at the time, Martinho da Costa Lopes , said later: "The soldiers who landed started killing everyone they could find. There were many dead bodies in

20193-408: The time, department officials saw it as beneficial for Australia to back an Indonesian take over, as opposed to an independent East Timor, stating: "In support of (i), Indonesian absorption of Timor makes geopolitical sense. Any other long-term solution would be potentially disruptive of both Indonesia and the region. It would help confirm our seabed agreement with Indonesia."; they however also stressed

20352-470: The town of Suai , a southern city only three kilometres from the coast. The military continued to restrict all foreigners and West Timorese from entering East Timor, and Suharto admitted in August 1976 that Fretilin "still possessed some strength here and there." By April 1977, the Indonesian military faced a stalemate: Troops had not made ground advances for more than six months, and the invasion had attracted increasing adverse international publicity. In

20511-761: The two superpowers. As a part of this strategy, he negotiated the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (culminating in the SALT I treaty ) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with Leonid Brezhnev , General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party . Negotiations about strategic disarmament were originally supposed to start under the Lyndon Johnson administration but were postponed in protest upon

20670-476: The war, he attended Harvard University , where he excelled academically. He later became a professor of government at the university and earned an international reputation as an expert on nuclear weapons and foreign policy . He acted as a consultant to government agencies, think tanks , and the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller and Nixon before being appointed as national security advisor and later secretary of state by President Nixon. An advocate of

20829-488: The weekend at Key Biscayne discussing Spiro Agnew 's imminent resignation. According to Kissinger his urgent calls to the Soviets and Egyptians were ineffective. On October 12, under Nixon's direction, and against Kissinger's initial advice, while Kissinger was on his way to Moscow to discuss conditions for a cease-fire, Nixon sent a message to Brezhnev giving Kissinger full negotiating authority. Kissinger wanted to stall

20988-474: The “negative example” of an independent province, (2) to have access to the high initial estimates of oil and natural gas under the Timor Sea (initial estimates which turned out to be largely mistaken), and (3) following the fall of South Vietnam, to become Southeast Asia's major military partner of the United States. On 7 December 1975, Indonesian forces invaded East Timor. Operasi Seroja (Operation Lotus)

21147-408: Was "driven by a potent mix of power politics and emerging markets." Suharto was Washington's favoured ruler of the "ultimate emerging market" who deregulated the economy and opened Indonesia to foreign investors. "He's our kind of guy," said a senior Administration official who dealt often on Asian policy. Philip Liechty, a senior CIA officer in Indonesia during that time stated that Suharto was given

21306-439: Was "too soft and not sophisticated" enough to properly represent the United States at the United Nations and expressed no anger when the United Nations General Assembly voted to expel Taiwan and give China's seat on the United Nations Security Council to the People's Republic. Kissinger's trips paved the way for the groundbreaking 1972 summit between Nixon, Zhou, and Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong , as well as

21465-405: Was a "colonial power" and he decided to announce a snap referendum. A UN-sponsored referendum held in 1999 showed overwhelming approval for independence, but was followed by violent clashes and a security crisis, instigated by anti-independence militia. Australia then led a United Nations backed International Force for East Timor to end the violence and order was restored. While the intervention

21624-478: Was accepted by the leaders of all five of the Great Powers of Europe. Notably, Kissinger's Primat der Außenpolitik (Primacy of foreign policy) approach to diplomacy took it for granted that as long as the decision-makers in the major states were willing to accept the international order, then it is "legitimate" with questions of public opinion and morality dismissed as irrelevant. His dissertation also won him

21783-556: Was again used to describe the events, and further that with its continuing support for West Pakistan the U.S. government had "evidenced ... moral bankruptcy ". As a direct response to the dissent against U.S. policy, Kissinger and Nixon ended Archer Blood's tenure as United States consul general in East Pakistan and put him to work in the State Department's Personnel Office. Christopher Clary argues that Nixon and Kissinger were unconsciously biased, leading them to overestimate

21942-430: Was also accused by critics of war crimes for the civilian death toll of the policies he pursued and for his role in facilitating U.S. support for authoritarian regimes . After leaving government, Kissinger founded Kissinger Associates , an international geopolitical consulting firm which he ran from 1982 until his death. He authored over a dozen books on diplomatic history and international relations . His advice

22101-558: Was an "overseas province", just like any of the provinces outside continental Portugal . "Overseas provinces" also included Angola , Cape Verde , Portuguese Guinea , Mozambique , São Tomé and Príncipe in Africa; Macau in China; and had included the territories of Portuguese India until 1961, when India invaded and annexed the territory . In April 1974, the left-wing Movimento das Forças Armadas (Armed Forces Movement, MFA) within

22260-468: Was an American diplomat and political scientist who served as United States Secretary of State from 1973 to 1977 and National Security Advisor from 1969 to 1975, in the presidential administrations of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford . Born in Germany, Kissinger emigrated to the United States in 1938 as a Jewish refugee fleeing Nazi persecution . He served in the U.S. Army during World War II. After

22419-514: Was awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize , which sparked controversy . Kissinger is also associated with controversial U.S. policies including its bombing of Cambodia , involvement in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état , support for Argentina's military junta in its Dirty War , support for Indonesia in its invasion of East Timor , and support for Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War and Bangladesh genocide . Widely considered by scholars to have been an effective secretary of state, Kissinger

22578-408: Was composed of administrators, teachers, and other "newly recruited members of the urban elites." Fretilin quickly became more popular than UDT due to a variety of social programs it introduced to the populace. UDT and Fretilin entered into a coalition by January 1975 with the unified goal of self-determination. This coalition came to represent almost all of the educated sector and the vast majority of

22737-480: Was concerned that the radical wing of Fretilin would turn East Timor into a communist front. Fretilin called this accusation an Indonesian conspiracy, as the radical wing did not have a power base. On 11 August, Fretilin received a letter from UDT leaders terminating the coalition. The UDT coup was a "neat operation", in which a show of force on the streets was followed by the takeover of vital infrastructure, such as radio stations, international communications systems,

22896-607: Was given charge of a team in Hanover assigned to tracking down Gestapo officers and other saboteurs, for which he was awarded the Bronze Star . Kissinger drew up a comprehensive list of all known Gestapo employees in the Bergstraße region, and had them rounded up. By the end of July, 12 men had been arrested. In March 1947, Fritz Girke, Hans Hellenbroich, Michael Raaf, and Karl Stattmann were subsequently caught and tried by

23055-425: Was given equal status to the other provinces, with an identical government structure. The province was divided into districts, sub districts, and villages along the structure of Javanese villages. By giving traditional tribal leaders positions in this new structure, Indonesia attempted to assimilate the Timorese through patronage. Though given equal provincial status, in practice East Timor was effectively governed by

23214-410: Was ideal for the East Timor invasion, as it was specifically designed for counter-insurgency operations in difficult terrain. By the beginning of February 1977, at least six of the 13 Broncos were operating in East Timor, and helped the Indonesian military pinpoint Fretilin positions. Along with the new weaponry, an additional 10,000 troops were sent in to begin new campaigns that would become known as

23373-456: Was imminent. Prioritising detante , Kissinger's first phone call (at 6:40 am) was to Soviet ambassador and good friend Anatoly Dobrynin . He would later make calls to British ambassador Rowland Baring and the U.N. secretary-general Kurt Waldheim . Kissinger did not inform President Richard Nixon or White House chief of staff Alexander Haig about the start of the Yom Kippur War until either 8:35 or 9:25 am. as both were spending

23532-461: Was just as political as Nixon, just as calculating, just as relentlessly ambitious ... these self-made men were driven as much by their need for approval and their neuroses as by their strengths. A proponent of Realpolitik , Kissinger played a dominant role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. In that period, he extended the policy of détente . This policy led to

23691-532: Was made in secret) to confer with Premier Zhou Enlai , then in charge of Chinese foreign policy . During his visit to Beijing, the main issue turned out to be Taiwan, as Zhou demanded the United States recognize that Taiwan was a legitimate part of the People's Republic, pull U.S. forces out of Taiwan, and end military support for the Kuomintang regime. Kissinger gave way by promising to pull U.S. forces out of Taiwan, saying two-thirds would be pulled out when

23850-455: Was not durable. Thọ declined to accept the award and Kissinger appeared deeply ambivalent about it—he donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony, and later offered to return his prize medal. As National Security Advisor in 1974, Kissinger directed the much-debated National Security Study Memorandum 200 . Kissinger initially had little interest in China when he began his work as National Security Adviser in 1969, and

24009-406: Was opposed to the plans for Operation Menu , the bombing of Cambodia, fearing that Nixon was acting rashly with no plans for the diplomatic fall-out, but on March 16, 1969, Nixon announced the bombing would start the next day. As he saw the president was committed, he became more supportive. Kissinger played a key role in bombing Cambodia to disrupt raids into South Vietnam from Cambodia, as well as

24168-516: Was over 400 pages long, and provoked Harvard's current cap on the length of undergraduate theses (35,000 words). He earned his Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy at Harvard University in 1951 and 1954, respectively. In 1952, while still a graduate student at Harvard, he served as a consultant to the director of the Psychological Strategy Board , and founded a magazine, Confluence . At that time, he sought to work as

24327-641: Was replaced by the Japanese during World War II, whose occupation spawned a resistance movement that resulted in the deaths of 60,000 people, 13 percent of the population at the time. Following the war, the Dutch East Indies secured its independence as the Republic of Indonesia and the Portuguese, meanwhile, re-established control over East Timor. According to the pre-1974 Constitution of Portugal , East Timor, known until then as Portuguese Timor ,

24486-515: Was rush-released much earlier than the others, about two months after the USSR launched Sputnik , in October, 1957. It was given prominent treatment on the front page of The New York Times , selling thousands of copies and garnering unprecedented influence. Many of its major recommendations - principal among them a massive arms buildup to counter perceived Soviet military superiority - were adopted by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his State of

24645-524: Was sought by American presidents of both major political parties. Kissinger was born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923, in Fürth , Bavaria, Germany. He was the son of homemaker Paula ( née  Stern ), from Leutershausen , and Louis Kissinger, a schoolteacher. He had a younger brother, Walter, who was a businessman. Kissinger's family was German-Jewish . His great-great-grandfather Meyer Löb adopted "Kissinger" as his surname in 1817, taking it from

24804-411: Was succeeded by Mau Honi, who was captured in 1993 and in turn, succeeded by Nino Konis Santana . Upon Santana's death in an Indonesian ambush in 1998, his successor was Taur Matan Ruak . By the 1990s, there were fewer than approximately 200 guerilla fighters remaining in the mountains (this lacks citation, it aligns with the common Indonesian view at the time, though Timorese would state a vast amount of

24963-474: Was the largest military operation ever carried out by Indonesia. Following a naval bombardment of Dili, Indonesian seaborne troops landed in the city while simultaneously paratroopers descended. 641 Indonesian paratroopers jumped into Dili, where they engaged in six-hours combat with FALINTIL forces. According to author Joseph Nevins, Indonesian warships shelled their own advancing troops and Indonesian transport aircraft dropped some of their paratroopers on top of

25122-427: Was ultimately successful, Australian-Indonesian relations would take several years to recover. For US President Gerald Ford and his administration , East Timor was a place of little significance, overshadowed by US–Indonesian relations . The fall of Saigon in mid-1975 had been a devastating setback for the United States, leaving Indonesia as the most important ally in the region. Ford consequently reasoned that

25281-479: Was unveiled 2020 on the 45th anniversary of the invasion by Indonesia near the port of Dili and commemorates the numerous victims of massacres by the invaders. Numerous East Timorese were executed by Indonesian soldiers in the harbour after the invasion. There is a monument commemorating Operation Seroja in Halilulik , Tasifeto Barat (West Tasifeto), Belu Regency , East Nusa Tenggara . The monument, which contains

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