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165-397: Spears can be divided into two broad categories: those designed for thrusting as a melee weapon (including weapons such as lances and pikes ) and those designed for throwing as a ranged weapon (usually referred to as javelins ). The spear has been used throughout human history as a weapon for hunting and/or fishing and for warfare. Along with the club , knife , and axe , it is one of

330-467: A senatus consultum ultimum , and – for the first time – ordered the magistrates to take whatever actions they felt necessary to end unrest generated by other Roman magistrates. After rejecting a plan to deploy the army near Rome under proconsul Marcus Antonius , Marius rallied volunteers from the urban plebs and his veterans. He cut the water supply to the Capitoline hill and put Saturninus under

495-521: A Proto-Indo-European root *sper- "spear, pole". Spear manufacture and use is not confined to humans. It is also practiced by the western chimpanzee . Chimpanzees near Kédougou , Senegal have been observed to create spears by breaking straight limbs off trees, stripping them of their bark and side branches, and sharpening one end with their teeth. They then used the weapons to hunt galagos sleeping in hollows. The Clacton Spear found in England and

660-450: A 30 cm (1 ft) shaft and a larger, broader blade one foot (0.3m) long. This weapon is otherwise known as the iklwa or ixwa , after the sound that was heard as it was withdrawn from the victim's wound. The traditional spear was not abandoned, but was used to range attack enemy formations before closing in for close quarters battle with the iklwa. This tactical combination originated during Shaka's military reforms . This weapon

825-455: A battle near Cirta (modern Constantine, Algeria ). At the end of 107 he surprised Jugurtha by a dangerous desert march to Capsa in the far south where, after the town surrendered, he killed all the adult males, enslaved the remaining survivors, and razed the town, distributing the loot to his soldiers. Keeping up the pressure, he drove Jugurtha's forces southwards and westwards into Mauretania . Marius had been supposedly unhappy at receiving

990-795: A circular schiltron on the first day of the Battle of Bannockburn . However, the rectangular schiltron was much more common and was used by King Robert the Bruce on the second day of the Battle of Bannockburn and in the Battle of Old Byland when he defeated English armies. Throwing spears became rarer as the Middle Ages drew on, but survived in the hands of specialists such as the Catalan Almogavars . They were commonly used in Ireland until

1155-553: A clear difference remained between spears designed to be thrown and those designed to be used in hand-to-hand combat. By the Magdalenian period (c. 15,000–9500 BC), spear-throwers similar to the later atlatl were in use. The spear is the main weapon of the warriors of Homer 's Iliad . The use of both a single thrusting spear and two throwing spears are mentioned. It has been suggested that two styles of combat are being described; an early style, with thrusting spears, dating to

1320-500: A conflict with the Roman general Sulla which resulted in his exile to Africa in 88 BC. Marius returned to Italy from Carthage during the War of Octavius , seized Rome, and began a bloody reign of terror in the city which culminated in him being elected consul a seventh time and then dying at the beginning of his consulship, in 86 BC. In the 19th century, Marius was credited with

1485-528: A crimped swallowtail pennant , red above and white below. The New South Wales Mounted Police , based at Redfern Barracks, Sydney , Australia, carry a lance with a navy blue and white pennant on ceremonial occasions. "Lance" is also the name given by some anthropologists to the light flexible javelins (technically darts ) thrown by atlatls (spear-throwing sticks), but these are usually called "atlatl javelins". Some were not much larger than arrows, and were typically feather- fletched like an arrow and unlike

1650-632: A defensive block. When men on horses tried to get by these blocks, they would often be killed by the spears that could poke through the shield walls. Spears became more common than swords and axes because of how cheap, long, and fast spears were made. Broadly speaking, spears were either designed to be used in melee, or to be thrown. Within this simple classification, there was a remarkable range of types. For example, M. J. Swanton identified thirty different spearhead categories and sub-categories in early Saxon England. Most medieval spearheads were generally leaf-shaped. Notable types of early medieval spears include

1815-538: A double line, and the German method, with lancers drawn up in a deeper formation which was often wedge-shaped. It is commonly believed that this became the dominant European cavalry tactic in the 11th century after the development of the cantled saddle and stirrups (the Great Stirrup Controversy ), and of rowel spurs (which enabled better control of the mount). Cavalry thus outfitted and deployed had

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1980-546: A head made from metal. These heads may either be single-edged, double-edged or barbed. Styles vary according to function and origin. For example, a sibat designed for fishing may not be the same as those used for hunting. The spear was used as the primary weapon in expeditions and battles against neighbouring island kingdoms and it became famous during the 1521 Battle of Mactan , where the chieftain Lapu Lapu of Cebu fought against Spanish forces led by Ferdinand Magellan who

2145-471: A house and killed. In complying with the Senate's wishes, Marius tried to show the Senate, who had always been suspicious of his motives, that he was one of them instead of the outsider that Quintus Metellus said he was in 108 BC. Marius's overall concern was always how to maintain the Senate's esteem: in the words of the scholar A.N. Sherwin-White , Marius "wanted to end his days as vir censorius , like

2310-414: A hunter to dress as a buffalo and lure one into a ravine where other hunters were hiding. Once the buffalo appeared, the other hunters would kill him with spears. A variation of this technique, called the buffalo jump , was when a runner would lead the animals towards a cliff. As the buffalo got close to the cliff, other members of the tribe would jump out from behind rocks or trees and scare the buffalo over

2475-465: A joint triumph. Plutarch reports that Marius was also hailed as "the third founder of Rome", but this is unlikely, as the identification of Camillus as a second founder dates to after the Sullan-era annalists and may be in fact post-Ciceronean. In the popular imagination, it was Marius who "deserved to be the sole beneficiary of the two triumphs awarded for the decisive conclusion of the war". At

2640-682: A lance-like shaft as a flagstaff . When the Canadian North-West Mounted Police was established, it was modeled after certain British cavalry units that used lances. It made limited use of this weapon in small detachments during the 1870s, intended to impress indigenous peoples. The modern Royal Canadian Mounted Police , the North-West Mounted Police's descendant, employs ceremonial, though functional, lances made of male bamboo . They feature

2805-481: A latter-day exaggeration. It was not uncommon for prospective consuls to campaign for their candidates for the tribunate and lower the possibility of opposition tribunes exercising their vetoes. Plutarch relates that against the wishes of his patrons, he pushed through a law that restricted the interference of the wealthy in elections. In the 130s, voting by ballot had been introduced in elections for choosing magistrates, passing laws and deciding legal cases, replacing

2970-548: A one-time affair: the volunteers were discharged on their return from the war and Marius, upon assuming command against the Cimbri, took over command of a consular army in northern Italy levied in the traditional manner. There are no indications that open recruitment of volunteers changed the social composition of the legions and later texts indicate that the Romans continued to raise most of their armies by conscription. The armies of

3135-580: A primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California , has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees means that early humans may have used wooden spears before this. From circa 200,000 BC onwards, Middle Paleolithic humans began to make complex stone blades with flaked edges which were used as spear heads. These stone heads could be fixed to the spear shaft by gum or resin or by bindings made of animal sinew, leather strips or vegetable matter. During this period,

3300-523: A quick victory over Jugurtha and equestrian hostility toward the senate's conduct of the war, Marius was elected consul for 107 BC, campaigning against Metellus's apparent lack of swift action against Jugurtha, with Lucius Cassius Longinus as his colleague. The senate prorogued Metellus's command in Numidia, thereby preventing Marius from assuming command. Marius got around this by inducing an ally of his, then-tribune Titus Manlius Mancinus , to have

3465-541: A replacement, with the Spanish retaining the lance the longest. Only the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with its far greater emphasis on cavalry warfare, large population of Szlachta nobility and general lower military technology level among its foes retained the lance to a considerable degree, with the famously winged Polish hussars having their glory period during the 17th and 18th centuries against

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3630-436: A report to Rome that said 37,000 superbly trained Romans had succeeded in defeating over 100,000 Germans in two engagements. Marius's consular colleague in 102 BC, Quintus Lutatius Catulus, who Marius may have expected to "spend a fruitless year employed in garrison duty", did not fare so well. He suffered some casualties in a minor engagement up in one of the mountain valleys near Tridentum . Catulus then withdrew and

3795-536: A revival in the 1930s. Spear hunting is still practiced in the United States. Animals taken are primarily wild boar and deer , although trophy animals as large as Cape Buffalo have been hunted with spears. Alligators are hunted in Florida with a type of harpoon . One of the gymnastic exercises performed by the ancient Greeks was the throwing of a spear, referred to as ἀκυντισμός. Like many weapons,

3960-455: A seat. During the year of Marius's sixth consulship (100 BC), Lucius Appuleius Saturninus was tribune of the plebs for the second time and advocated reforms like those earlier put forth by the Gracchi . Saturninus, after assassinating one of his political opponents to the tribunate, pushed for bills that would drive Marius's former commanding officer Metellus Numidicus into exile, lower

4125-594: A second time to face this new threat. Marius was consul every year from 104 to 100 BC, and he defeated the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae and the Cimbri at Vercellae . However, Marius suffered political setbacks during his sixth consulship in 100 BC and afterwards entered a period of semi-retirement from public life. The Republic fell into crisis with the outbreak of the Social War in 91 BC, in which Marius fought with limited success. He then became embroiled in

4290-411: A short and decisive siege. After Saturninus surrendered, Marius attempted to keep Saturninus and his followers alive by locking them safely inside the senate house , where they would await prosecution. Possibly with Marius's implied consent, an angry mob broke into the building and, by dislodging the roof tiles and throwing them at the prisoners below, lynched those inside. Glaucia too was dragged from

4455-502: A simple hasta and, perhaps, javelins or darts. During the 3rd century AD, although the pilum continued to be used, legionaries usually were equipped with other forms of throwing and thrusting spear, similar to auxilia of the previous century. By the 4th century, the pilum had effectively disappeared from common use. In the late period of the Roman Empire, the spear became more often used because of its anti-cavalry capacities as

4620-529: A spear may also be a symbol of power. The Celts would symbolically destroy a dead warrior's spear either to prevent its use by another or as a sacrificial offering. Lances The English term lance is derived, via Middle English launce and Old French lance , from the Latin lancea , a generic term meaning a spear or javelin employed by both infantry and cavalry, with English initially keeping these generic meanings. It developed later into

4785-573: A spear that was called an az-zaġāyah . Berbers pronounced it zaġāya , but the English term, derived from the Old French via Berber , is " assegai ". It is a polearm used for throwing or hurling, usually a light spear or javelin made of hard wood and pointed with a forged iron tip. The az-zaġāyah played an important role during the Islamic conquest as well as during later periods, well into

4950-489: A spontaneous battle between Marius's army and the Ambrones in which the Romans defeated some 30,000 Ambrones. The next day, the Teutones and the Ambrones counterattacked up a hill against the Roman position. Marcus Claudius Marcellus flanked their advance with a column of three thousand men, turning the battle into a slaughter: estimates vary from 100,000 to 200,000 being slain or captured. Marius sent Manius Aquillius with

5115-490: A sword, it remained the main weapon of the common soldier. The Vikings , for instance, although often portrayed with an axe , sword , or lance in hand, were armed mostly with spears, as were their Anglo-Saxon , Irish , or continental contemporaries. Spears eventually evolved into lances; this is where the lance depiction comes from. With a good majority of Medieval weapons being spears they became integrated into many war tactics. Spears were very commonly used while providing

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5280-456: A target's shield. Originally the principes were armed with a short spear called a hasta , but these gradually fell out of use, eventually being replaced by the gladius. The third line, the triarii , continued to use the hasta . From the late 2nd century BC, all legionaries were equipped with the pilum . The pilum continued to be the standard legionary spear until the end of the 2nd century AD. Auxilia , however, were equipped with

5445-413: A term for spear-like weapons specially designed and modified to be part of a "weapon system" for use couched under the arm during a charge , being equipped with special features such as grappers to engage with lance rests attached to breastplates , and vamplates , small circular plates designed to prevent the hand sliding up the shaft upon impact. These specific features were in use by the beginning of

5610-614: A time Marius and his main force found themselves besieged on a hill, while Sulla and his men were on the defensive on another hill nearby. The Romans managed to hold off the enemy until evening and the Africans retired. The next morning at dawn the Romans surprised the Africans' insufficiently guarded camp and completely routed the Numidian–Mauretanian army. Marius then marched east to winter quarters in Cirta. The African kings harried

5775-498: A tremendous collective force in their charge, and could shatter most contemporary infantry lines. Because of the extreme stopping power of a thrusting spear, it quickly became a popular weapon of infantry in the Late Middle Ages . These eventually led to the rise of the longest type of spears, the pike . This adaptation of the cavalry lance to infantry use was largely tasked with stopping lance-armed cavalry charges. During

5940-542: A triumph, and promptly marched north with his army to join Catulus, whose command was prorogued since Marius's consular colleague was dispatched to defeat a slave revolt in Sicily. In late July 101 BC, during a meeting with the Cimbri, the invading tribesmen threatened the Romans with the advance of the Teutones and Ambrones. After informing the Cimbri of their allies' destruction, both sides prepared for battle. In

6105-639: A variety of materials such as the sang made completely of steel, and the ballam which had a bamboo shaft. The Arab presence in Sindh and the Mameluks of Delhi introduced the Middle Eastern javelin into India. The Rajputs wielded a type of spear for infantrymen which had a club integrated into the spearhead, and a pointed butt end. Other spears had forked blades, several spear-points, and numerous other innovations. One particular spear unique to India

6270-533: A wide variety of enemy forces. After the Western introduction of the horse to Native Americans , the Plains Indians used the bow and lance, probably independently, as American cavalry of the time were armed with the pistol and sabre , firing forward at full gallop. The mounted lancer experienced a renaissance in the 19th century. This followed on the demise of the pike and of body armor during

6435-528: A worthy successor to him, the younger Scipio gently tapped on Marius's shoulder, saying "Perhaps this is the man". It would seem that even at this early stage of his military career, Marius had ambitions for a political career in Rome. He was elected on the basis of his accomplishments, even though he was not known by sight to the electors, as one of the twenty-four special military tribunes . After election, he likely served Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus on

6600-500: Is longer than a Qiang , others say that the main difference is between the stiffness of the shaft, where the Qiang would be flexible and the Mao would be stiff. Scholars seem to lean toward the latter explanation more than the former. Because of the difference in the construction of the Mao and the Qiang , the usage is also different, though there is no definitive answer as to what exactly

6765-457: Is still being used by certain wandering Sufi ascetics ( Derwishes ) . In the Chinese martial arts , the Chinese spear ( Qiang 槍) is popularly known as the "king of weapons". The spear is listed in the group of the four major weapons (along with the gun ( staff ), dao (a single-edged blade similar to a sabre ), and the jian ( sword )). Spears were used first as hunting weapons amongst

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6930-470: Is unclear whether or not Marius was already present and serving in Numantia with the previous commander when Aemilianus arrived. While serving with the army at Numantia, his military aptitude brought him to the attention of Scipio Aemilianus. According to Plutarch, during a conversation after dinner, when the conversation turned to generals and someone asked Scipio Aemilianus where the Roman people would find

7095-456: The pilum , a standardised eagle standard for all legions, and the substitution of the cohort for the maniple . There is little evidence for the abolition of the citizen cavalry and light infantry by the first century BC, as they are still attested in evidence. If Marius redesigned the pilum , archaeological finds indicate his design was soon discarded. Literary evidence indicates that eagle standards continued to co-exist through

7260-516: The capite censi . With more troops mustering in southern Italy, Marius sailed for Africa, leaving his cavalry in the hands of his newly elected quaestor, Lucius Cornelius Sulla . Marius found that ending the war was more difficult than he had previously boasted. Jugurtha was fighting a guerrilla war, and it appeared that no strategy would work better than Metellus's strategy of denying Jugurtha local reinforcement and support. Marius arrived comparatively late in 107 BC but still fought and won

7425-509: The angon , a throwing spear with a long head similar to the Roman pilum , used by the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, and the winged (or lugged) spear , which had two prominent wings at the base of the spearhead, either to prevent the spear penetrating too far into an enemy or to aid in spear fencing. Originally a Frankish weapon, the winged spear also was popular with the Vikings. It would become

7590-483: The concilium plebis override the Senate's decision and give him the command. Metellus refused to personally hand over command to Marius and returned to Rome. Upon his return, the senate voted Metellus a triumph and the agnomen Numidicus . Seeking troops to bolster the forces in Numidia and win his promised quick victory, Marius found it difficult to recruit from Rome's traditional source of manpower, property-holding men. Except in emergencies, normal practice in

7755-704: The Ambrones were to head south and advance toward Italy from the west along the coast; the Cimbri were to attempt to cross the Alps into Italy from the north by the Brenner Pass ; and the Tigurini (the allied Celtic tribe who had defeated Longinus in 107) were to cross the Alps from the northeast. The two consuls divided their forces, with Marius heading west into Gaul and Catulus holding the Italian Alps. In

7920-567: The Ba Shu area. In the Han dynasty the Mao and the Ji (戟 Ji can be loosely defined as a halberd) rose to prominence in the military. Interesting to note is that the amount of iron Mao-heads found exceeds the number of bronze heads. By the end of the Han dynasty ( Eastern Han ) the process of replacement of the iron Mao had been completed and the bronze Mao had been rendered completely obsolete. After

8085-526: The Balearic Islands , helping him win a triumph . Next, Marius possibly ran for the quaestorship after losing an election for local office in Arpinum. He may have stood for local office as a means of gaining support back home, and lost to a local competitor. It is possible, however, that Marius never ran for the quaestorship at all, jumping directly to plebeian tribune. He likely participated in

8250-655: The Mycenaean period in which the Iliad is set, and, anachronistically, a later style, with throwing spears, from Homer's own Archaic period. In the 7th century BC, the Greeks evolved a new close-order infantry formation, the phalanx . The key to this formation was the hoplite , who was equipped with a large, circular, bronze-faced shield ( aspis ) and a 210–270 cm (7–9 ft) spear with an iron head and bronze butt-spike ( doru ). The hoplite phalanx dominated warfare among

8415-698: The OED , the word may be of Iberian origin. Also compare λόγχη ( lónkhē ), a Greek term for "spear" or "lance". A lance in the original sense is a light throwing spear or javelin. The English verb to launch "fling, hurl, throw" is derived from the term (via Old French lancier ), as well as the rarer or poetic to lance . The term from the 17th century came to refer specifically to spears not thrown, used for thrusting by heavy cavalry , and especially in jousting . The longer types of thrusting spear used by infantry are usually referred to simply as spears or later as pikes , though many other terms existed. During

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8580-652: The Polish cavalry , which retained the lance for combat use until either 1934 or 1937, but contrary to popular legend did not make use of it in World War II . The German cavalry retained the lance ( Stahlrohrlanze ) as a service weapon until 1927, as did the British cavalry until 1928. The Argentine cavalry were documented as carrying lances until the 1940s, but this appears to have been used as part of recruit riding school training, rather than serious preparation for use in active service. The United States Cavalry used

8745-468: The Qiang in four categories: "一曰漆枪， 二曰木枪， 三曰白杆枪， 四曰扑头枪。” Roughly translated the four categories are: Qi (a kind of wood) Spears, Wooden Spears, Bai Gan (A kind of wood) Spears and Pu Tou Qiang. The Qiang that were produced in the Song and Ming dynasties consisted of four major parts: Spearhead, Shaft, End Spike and Tassel. The types of Qiang that exist are many. Among the types there are cavalry Qiang that were

8910-540: The Quaternary extinction event was that most of these animals were hunted to extinction by humans with spears. Even after the invention of other hunting weapons such as the bow and sling , the spear continued to be used, either as a projectile weapon or used by hand, such as in bear hunting and boar hunting . Spear hunting fell out of favor in most of Europe in the 18th century, but continued in Germany, enjoying

9075-589: The Schöningen spears found in present-day Germany document that wooden spears have been used for hunting since at least 400,000 years ago. A 2012 study from the site of Kathu Pan in South Africa suggests that hominids, possibly Homo heidelbergensis , may have developed the technology of hafted stone-tipped spears in Africa about 500,000 years ago. Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford,

9240-567: The pollaxe were adopted by knights and this practice ceased. The development of both the long, two-handed pike and gunpowder firearms in Renaissance Europe saw an ever-increasing focus on integrated infantry tactics. Those infantry not armed with these weapons carried variations on the polearm, including the halberd and the bill . At the start of the Renaissance, cavalry remained predominantly lance-armed; gendarmes with

9405-560: The razakars of Nizams of Hyderabad State as late as the second half of the 20th century. The hoko spear was used in ancient Japan sometime between the Yayoi period and the Heian period , but it became unpopular as early samurai often acted as horseback archers . Medieval Japan employed spears again for infantrymen to use, but it was not until the 11th century in that samurai began to prefer spears over bows. Several polearms were used in

9570-422: The 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, these weapons, both mounted and unmounted, were so effective that lancers and pikemen not only became a staple of every Western army, but also became highly sought-after mercenaries. (However, the pike had already been used by Philip II of Macedon in antiquity to great effect, in the form of the sarissa .) In Europe, a jousting lance was a variation of the knight's lance which

9735-532: The 2.7-meter (8.9 ft) bamboo or ash lance with a steel head was reauthorized for general use on active service. The Russian cavalry (except for the Cossacks ) discarded the lance in the late 19th century, but in 1907, it was reissued for use by the front line of each squadron when charging in open formation. In its final form, the Russian lance was a long metal tube with a steel head and leather arm strap. It

9900-626: The 20th century. A longer pole az-zaġāyah was being used as a hunting weapon from horseback. The az-zaġāyah was widely used. It existed in various forms in areas stretching from Southern Africa to the Indian subcontinent , although these places already had their own variants of the spear. This javelin was the weapon of choice during the Fulani jihad as well as during the Mahdist War in Sudan. It

10065-548: The Aztecs preferred the sword-like macuahuitl clubs for fighting, the advantage of a far-reaching thrusting weapon was recognised, and a large portion of the army would carry the tepoztopilli into battle. The tepoztopilli was a polearm, and to judge from depictions in various Aztec codices, it was roughly the height of a man, with a broad wooden head about twice the length of the users' palm or shorter, edged with razor-sharp obsidian blades which were deeply set in grooves carved into

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10230-512: The Cimbri entered northern Italy. The Cimbri paused in northern Italy to regroup and await expected reinforcements from the other Alpine passes. Shortly after Marius had vanquished the western invaders at Aquae Sextiae, Marius received news that he had been re-elected to his fourth consecutive consulship (and fifth consulship as a whole) as consul for 101 BC. His colleague would be his friend Manius Aquillius. After election, he returned to Rome to announce his victory at Aquae Sextiae, deferred

10395-483: The Gallic legions. Building his army around a core of trained legionaries from the last year, Marius again secured exemption from the property requirements and with his newly minted reputation for victory, raised an army of some thirty thousand Romans and forty thousand Italian allies and auxiliaries. He established a base around the town of Aquae Sextiae (modern Aix-en-Provence ) and trained his men. One of his legates

10560-632: The Germans still did not emerge from Hispania, and Marius's colleague died, requiring Marius to return to Rome to call elections. Lacking a decisive conclusion to the Cimbrian conflict over the last two years, it was not a foregone conclusion that Marius would win reelection. An appeal by a young tribune, Lucius Appuleius Saturninus , in a public meeting before the vote – along with a field of candidates without great name recognition – allowed Marius to be returned as consul again in 102 BC. His colleague

10725-597: The Greek City States from the 7th into the 4th century BC. The 4th century saw major changes. One was the greater use of peltasts , light infantry armed with spear and javelins. The other was the development of the sarissa , a two-handed pike 550 cm (18 ft) in length, by the Macedonians under Phillip of Macedon and Alexander the Great . The pike phalanx, supported by peltasts and cavalry, became

10890-602: The Han dynasty toward the Sui and Tang dynasties the Mao used by cavalry were fitted with much longer shafts, as is mentioned above. During this era, the use of the Shuo (矟) was widespread among the footmen. The Shuo can be likened to a pike or simply a long spear. After the Tang dynasty, the popularity of the Mao declined and was replaced by the Qiang (枪). The Tang dynasty divided

11055-612: The Japanese theatres; the naginata was a glaive-like weapon with a long, curved blade popularly among the samurai and the Buddhist warrior-monks , often used against cavalry; the yari was a longer polearm, with a straight-bladed spearhead, which became the weapon of choice of both the samurai and the ashigaru (footmen) during the Warring States Era ; the horseback samurai used shorter yari for his single-armed combat; on

11220-433: The Republic, describes this lex Maria as quite straightforward and uncontroversial. Plutarch reports that he then alienated the plebs by vetoing a bill expanding the grain dole, but it is more likely that Plutarch misinterpreted Marius as vetoing attempts to interfere in the existing grain provisions. Soon thereafter, in 117 BC, Marius stood for the aedileship and lost. It seems clear that by this time, due to

11385-626: The Roman people might be forced to rely on Marius's military leadership once more. This anecdote, however, is discounted by Evans, who dismisses it as "nothing more than a malicious rumour" perhaps created by Rutilius Rufus or Sulla. Other scholars have argued that the mission was instead planned by the Senate with the support of the princeps senatus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus for the purpose of investigating Mithridates' campaigns in Cappadocia without arousing too much suspicion. However, scholars have pointed out that Marius's supposed "humiliation" cannot have been too long-lasting. In c. 98–97 BC, he

11550-452: The Romans in the late 4th century BC and was initially given Roman citizenship without voting rights ( civitas sine suffragio ). Only in 188 BC, thirty years before his birth, did the town receive full citizenship. Although Plutarch claims that Marius's father was a labourer, this is almost certainly false since Marius had connections with the nobility in Rome, he ran for local office in Arpinum, and he had marriage relations with

11715-421: The Romans into small detachments and soon had control of the battlefield. Each group of Romans was fighting for survival independently. At this point Marius re-organized a few detachments and led a column of 2,000 men through the Numidians to link up with Metellus. Together they led their men against the Numidian infantry who occupied a hill. After gaining control of the hill Marius and Metellus led their men against

11880-530: The Scots and the Flemish. Spears usually were used in tightly ordered formations, such as the shield wall or the schiltron . To resist cavalry, spear shafts could be planted against the ground. William Wallace drew up his schiltrons in a circle at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 to deter charging cavalry; this was a widespread tactic sometimes known as the "crown" formation. Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray used

12045-496: The advent of trench warfare, lances and the cavalry that carried them ceased to play a significant role. A Russian cavalry officer whose regiment carried lances throughout the war recorded only one instance where an opponent was killed by this weapon. The Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), saw an unexpected revival of lances amongst the cavalry of the Turkish National Army. During the successful Turkish offensives of

12210-546: The aid of Mallius on the east. The Senate was unable to induce Caepio to cooperate with Mallius, which proved both generals' undoing. At the Battle of Arausio (modern Orange ), the Cimbri overran Caepio's legions with massively overwhelming numbers. Caepio's routed men crashed into Mallius's troops, which led to both armies being pinned against the Rhône and annihilated by the numerically dominant Cimbrian warriors. News of this defeat reached Rome just shortly after Marius completed

12375-403: The ancestor of later medieval polearms, such as the partisan and spetum . The thrusting spear also has the advantage of reach, being considerably longer than other weapon types. Exact spear lengths are hard to deduce as few spear shafts survive archaeologically, but 180–240 cm (6–8 ft) would seem to have been the average length. Some nations were noted for their long spears, including

12540-760: The ancient Chinese. They became popular as infantry weapons during the Warring States and Qin era, when spearmen were used as especially highly disciplined soldiers in organized group attacks. When used in formation fighting, spearmen would line up their large rectangular or circular shields in a shieldwall manner. The Qin also employed long spears (more akin to a pike) in formations similar to Swiss pikemen in order to ward off cavalry. The Han Empire would use similar tactics as its Qin predecessors. Halberds, polearms, and dagger axes were also common weapons during this time. Spears were also common weaponry for Warring States, Qin, and Han era cavalry units. During these eras,

12705-451: The annual race of former praetors for the consulship, but it is likely that he failed to be elected at least once. The Jugurthine War started in 112 BC due to "Roman exasperation with the ambitions of Jugurtha ", a Numidian king who had killed his half-brothers, massacred Italians in his civil war against them, and bribed many prominent Romans to support him in the Senate . After

12870-490: The arm (held horizontally). The length of the standard kontarion is estimated at 2.5 meters (8.2 ft), which is shorter than that of the medieval knight of Western Europe . Formations of knights were known to use underarm-couched military lances in full-gallop closed-ranks charges against lines of opposing infantry or cavalry. Two variants on the couched lance charge developed, the French method, en haie , with lancers in

13035-511: The aunt of Julius Caesar . The Julii Caesares were a patrician family, but at this period seem to have found it hard to advance beyond the praetorship into the consulship. The Julii had done so only once in the 2nd century, in 157 BC. The match was advantageous to both sides: Marius gained respectability by marrying into a patrician family and the Julii received a great injection of energy and money. Sources are unclear on whether Marius joined

13200-524: The barbarian invasions were often conducted by people with a developed culture of cavalry in warfare. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the spear and shield continued to be used by nearly all Western European cultures. Since a medieval spear required only a small amount of steel along the sharpened edges (most of the spear-tip was wrought iron), it was an economical weapon. Quick to manufacture, and needing less smithing skill than

13365-407: The battlefield. Its last flowering was the half-pike or spontoon , a shortened version of the pike carried by officers of various ranks. While originally a weapon, this came to be seen more as a badge of office, or leading staff by which troops were directed. The half-pike, sometimes known as a boarding pike, was also used as a weapon on board ships until the late 19th century. Muslim warriors used

13530-479: The beginning of the war. The combined effect was devastating, so much of the British cavalry was deployed as mounted infantry, dismounting to fight on foot. For some years after the Boer War, the six British lancer regiments officially carried the lance only for parades and other ceremonial duties. At the regimental level, training in the use of the lance continued, ostensibly to improve recruit riding skills. In 1909,

13695-414: The blade of the spearhead near the socket, these holes were presumably used to attach tassels, much like modern day wushu spears. In the early Shang , the Mao appeared to have a relatively short shaft as well as a relatively narrow shaft as opposed to Mao in the later Shang and Western Zhou period. Some Mao from this era are heavily decorated as is evidenced by a Warring States period Mao from

13860-428: The campaign against Jugurtha successfully. The Republic, altogether lacking generals who had recently concluded military campaigns successfully, took the illegal step of electing Marius in absentia for a second consulship in three years. While his election was not unprecedented, as Quintus Fabius Maximus had been elected for consecutive consulships and it was not unheard of for consuls to be elected in absentia ,

14025-427: The cliff. Other hunters would be waiting at the bottom of the cliff to spear the animal to death. One of the earliest forms of killing prey for humans, hunting game with a spear and spear fishing continues to this day as both a means of catching food and as a cultural activity. Some of the most common prey for early humans were megafauna such as mammoths which were hunted with various kinds of spear. One theory for

14190-463: The consul Lucius Cassius Longinus was completely defeated by the Tigurini , and the senior surviving officer (one Gaius Popillius, son of the consul of 132) had saved what was left only by surrendering half the baggage and suffering the humiliation of having his army "pass under the yoke". The next year, 106 BC, another consul, Quintus Servilius Caepio , marched to Gaul with a new army to salvage

14355-454: The consulship. Sallust claims that this was catalysed, in part, by a fortune-teller in Utica who "declared that a great and marvellous career awaited him; the seer accordingly advised him, trusting in the gods, to carry out what he had in mind and put his fortune to the test as often as possible, predicting that all his undertakings would have a happy issue". Marius soon earned the respect of

14520-403: The countryside. During the winter of 109 and 108 BC, a detachment of Roman soldiers serving as the garrison of Vaga was ambushed and cut down almost to a man. The garrison commander, one Titus Turpilius Silanus, a client of Metellus, escaped unharmed. Marius allegedly urged Metellus to sentence Silanus to death on charges of cowardice, but then turned on Metellus, arguing that the sentence

14685-489: The differences are between the Mao and the Qiang . Spears are known as Bhala in Indian languages. Spears in the Indian society were used both in missile and non-missile form, both by cavalry and foot-soldiers. Mounted spear-fighting was practiced using with a 300 cm (10 ft), ball-tipped wooden lance called a bothati , the end of which was covered in dye so that hits may be confirmed. Spears were constructed from

14850-418: The dissolute and libertine Lucius Cornelius Sulla as his quaestor, but Sulla proved a highly competent officer and was well liked by the men. Meanwhile, Jugurtha was trying to get his father-in-law king Bocchus of Mauretania to join him in the war against the Romans. In 106, Marius marched his army far to the west, capturing a fortress near the river Molochath . Unfortunately, this advance brought him near

15015-399: The dominant mode of warfare among the Greeks from the late 4th century onward until Greek military systems were supplanted by the Roman legions. In the pre-Marian Roman armies, the first two lines of battle, the hastati and principes , often fought with a sword called a gladius and pila , heavy javelins that were specifically designed to be thrown at an enemy to pierce and foul

15180-464: The dominions of Bocchus, finally provoking the Mauretanian into action; in the deserts just west of Serif, Marius was taken by surprise by a combined army of Numidians and Mauretanians under the command of the two enemy kings. For once, Marius was unprepared for action and in the melee all he could do was form defensive circles. The attack was pressed by Mauretanian and Gaetulian horsemen and for

15345-442: The earlier system of oral voting. The wealthy continued to try to influence the voting by inspecting ballots, and Marius passed a law narrowing the passages down which voters passed to cast their votes in order to prevent outsiders from harassing the electors or seeing who was voted for. It is not clear, however, whether Plutarch's narrative history properly reflects how controversial this proposal in fact was; Cicero , writing during

15510-522: The earliest and most widespread tools ever developed by early humans. As a weapon, it may be wielded with either one or two hands. It was used in virtually every conflict up until the modern era , where even to this day, it lives on in the form of a bayonet fixed onto the muzzle of a long gun . The word spear comes from the Old English spere , from the Proto-Germanic speri , from

15675-676: The early 18th century, with the reintroduction of lances coming from Hungary and Poland , having retained large formations of lance-armed cavalry when they had become more or less obsolescent elsewhere in Europe. Lancers became especially prevalent during and after the Napoleonic Wars : a period when almost all the major European powers reintroduced the lance into their respective cavalry arsenals. Formations of uhlans and other types of cavalry used lances between 2 and 3 meters (6.6 and 9.8 ft) in length as their primary weapons. The lance

15840-597: The east to Galatia in 98 BC, ostensibly to fulfil a vow he had made to the goddess Magna Mater . Plutarch portrays this voluntary exile as a great humiliation for the six-time consul: "considered obnoxious to the nobles and to the people alike", he was even forced to abandon his candidature for the censorship of 97. Plutarch also reports that while in the East, Marius attempted to goad Mithridates VI of Pontus into declaring war on Rome – telling Mithridates to either become stronger than Rome or obey her commands – so that

16005-560: The eleven Uhlan regiments continued in existence until 1918, armed with the standard cavalry sabre. During the Second Boer War , British troops successfully used the lance on one occasion - against retreating Boers at the Battle of Elandslaagte (21 October 1899). However, the Boers made effective use of trench warfare , rapid-fire field artillery , continuous-fire machine guns , and accurate long-range repeating rifles from

16170-436: The end of the 16th century. Spears began to lose fashion among the infantry during the 14th century, being replaced by polearms that combined the thrusting properties of the spear with the cutting properties of the axe, such as the halberd . Where spears were retained they grew in length, eventually evolving into pikes , which would be a dominant infantry weapon in the 16th and 17th centuries. Cavalry spears were originally

16335-484: The enormous financial difficulties that any prospective aedile would have to shoulder, Marius had either amassed or was availed of significant financial resources. This loss was at least in part due to the enmity of the Metelli. In 116 BC he barely won election as praetor for the following year, coming in last, and was promptly accused of ambitus (electoral corruption). Being accused of electoral corruption

16500-512: The ensuing battle – the Battle of Vercellae (or the Raudine Plain) – Rome decisively defeated the Cimbri. Caught off guard by Sulla's cavalry, pinned down by Catulus's infantry and flanked by Marius, the Cimbri were slaughtered and the survivors enslaved. Upwards of 120,000 Cimbri perished. The Tigurini gave up their efforts to enter Italy from the northeast and went home. After fifteen days of thanksgiving, Catulus and Marius celebrated

16665-460: The final stages of the war across the open plains of Asia Minor , Turkish mounted troops were armed with bamboo shafted-lances taken from military storage and inflicted heavy losses on the retreating Greek Army. The cavalry branches of most armies which still retained lances as a service weapon at the end of World War I generally discarded them for all but ceremonial occasions during the 1920s and 1930s. There were exceptions during this era, such as

16830-595: The governor of Further Spain where he campaigned against bandits. On his return from Spain he married Julia , the aunt of Julius Caesar . Marius attained his first consulship in 107 BC and became the commander of Roman forces in Numidia , where he brought an end to the Jugurthine War. By 105 BC Rome faced an invasion by the Cimbri and Teutones , and the comitia centuriata elected Marius consul for

16995-568: The head, and cemented in place with bitumen or plant resin as an adhesive. The tepoztopilli was able both to thrust and slash effectively. Throwing spears also were used extensively in Meso-American warfare, usually with the help of an atlatl . Throwing spears were typically shorter and more stream-lined than the tepoztopilli, and some had obsidian edges for greater penetration. Typically, most spears made by Native Americans were created from materials surrounding their communities. Usually,

17160-468: The heavy knightly lance and lighter cavalry with a variety of lighter lances. By the 1540s, however, pistol-armed cavalry called reiters were beginning to make their mark. Cavalry armed with pistols and other lighter firearms, along with a sword, had virtually replaced lance armed cavalry in Western Europe by the beginning of the 17th century. Ultimately, the spear proper was rendered obsolete on

17325-599: The increasing common usage of ash , bamboo , beech , or pine wood for lance shafts of varying lengths, each with steel points and butts, adopted by the uhlan regiments of the Saxon, Württemberg, Bavarian, and Prussian armies. In the American Civil War , the 6th Pennsylvania Cavalry Regiment was equipped with lances modeled after Napoleon Bonaparte 's forces in France. American troops had never previously used

17490-748: The influx of a new population brought innovations around bronze technology. Unlike other cultures who wielded spears at this time, the Egyptians did not treat their javelins (around 1 meter to 3.3 feet long) as disposable, using them both for thrusting and throwing. As advanced metallurgy was largely unknown in pre-Columbian America outside of Western Mexico and South America , most weapons in Meso-America were made of wood or obsidian . This did not mean that they were less lethal, as obsidian may be sharpened to become many times sharper than steel. Meso-American spears varied greatly in shape and size. While

17655-427: The knight himself, one to three men-at-arms , and possibly an archer . Lances were often combined under the banner of a higher-ranking nobleman to form companies of knights that would act as an ad hoc unit. The advent of wheellock technology spelled the end of the lance in Western Europe, with newer types of heavy cavalry such as reiters and cuirassiers spurning the old one-use weapon and increasingly supplanting

17820-505: The lance argued that the weapon was clumsy, conspicuous, easily deflected, and inefficient in a melee. Arguments favoring the retention of the lance focused on the impact on morale of having charging cavalry preceded by " a hedge of steel " and on the effectiveness of the weapon against fleeing opponents. Lances were still in use by the British , Turkish , Italian , Spanish , French , Belgian , Indian , German , and Russian armies at

17985-417: The lance in combat. The lances proved ineffective in battle and were replaced with carbine rifles in 1863. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 saw the extensive deployment of cavalry armed with lances on both sides. While the opportunities for decisive use of this weapon proved infrequent during the actual conflict, the entire cavalry corps (93 regiments of hussars , dragoons , cuirassiers , and uhlans ) of

18150-465: The lance was often a one-use-per-engagement weapon, becoming embedded in their targets or being broken on impact. Assuming the lance survived the initial impact without breaking, it could also prove inappropriate for more static, closer engagements where its length became a hindrance. The name is derived from the word lancea , the Roman auxiliaries' javelin or throwing spear; although according to

18315-434: The lance, often tapering for a considerable portion of the weapon's length. These are the versions that can most often be seen at medieval reenactment festivals. In war, lances were much more like stout spears, long and balanced for one-handed use, and with sharpened tips. As a small unit that surrounded a knight when he went into battle during the 14th and 15th centuries, a lance might have consisted of one or two squires ,

18480-561: The late 14th century . Though best known as a military and sporting weapon carried by European knights and men-at-arms , the use of lances was widespread throughout East Asia , the Middle East , and North Africa wherever suitable mounts were available. Lances were the main weapon of Lancers of the medieval period and beyond, and so these troops also carried secondary weapons such as swords , battle axes , war hammers , maces , and daggers for use in hand-to-hand combat , since

18645-486: The late 3rd century the weapons of the cavalry attached to each Roman legion evolved from javelins and swords to sometimes include long reaching lances ( contus ). These required the use of both hands to thrust. The Byzantine cavalry used lances ( kontos or kontarion ) almost exclusively, often in mixed formations of mounted archers and lancers ( cursores et defensores ). The Byzantines used lances in both overarm and underarm grips, as well as being couched under

18810-407: The late Republic still were predominantly drawn from rural populations. The narrative that the army's domination by poor volunteers, who in search of riches and retirement bonuses became the clients of their generals, who then used those armies to overthrow the republic, is now rejected. Other reforms attributed to Marius include the abolition of the citizen cavalry and light infantry, a redesign of

18975-472: The late republic with other traditional animal standards including the ox and wolf. Lastly, there is no ancient evidence that Marius introduced the cohort; Sallust's narrative gives the last attestation of the maniple in 109 BC under Metellus Numidicus' command. Changes to logistical arrangements and training, the muli Mariani ("Marius's mules") of common historiography, were regular practice among Roman generals: seeking victory, they generally sought

19140-398: The length of one zhang (approximately 320 cm or 10 ft), Litte-Flower Spears (Xiao Hua Qiang 小花枪) that are the length of one person and their arm extended above his head, double hooked spears, single hooked spears, ringed spears and many more. There is some confusion as to how to distinguish the Qiang from the Mao , as they are obviously very similar. Some people say that a Mao

19305-416: The local nobility in Arpinum, all of which when taken together indicate that he was born into a locally important family of equestrian status. While many of the problems he faced during his early career in Rome show the difficulties that faced a "new man" ( novus homo ) in being accepted into the stratified upper echelons of Roman society, Marius – even as a young man – was not poor or even middle-class; he

19470-468: The major Roman victory at the Battle of the Isère River in 121 BC, which permanently cemented Roman control over southern Gaul . In 120 BC, Marius was returned as a plebeian tribune for the following year. He won with the support of the Metelli, specifically Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus . While Plutarch says the Metelli were one of his family's hereditary patrons, this may be

19635-498: The middle republic was only to allow property-owning citizens to enlist in the legions; this may have been related to Tiberius Gracchus 's reforms which would have, by giving more people more land, made more men eligible to serve in the legions. While the senate allowed Marius to conscript men normally, he preferred instead to request volunteers, especially among discharged veterans ( evocati ), with promises of victory and plunder. He also recruited volunteers from men without property,

19800-529: The momentum of the horse and knight to be focused on the weapon's tip, whilst still retaining accuracy and control. This use of the spear spurred the development of the lance as a distinct weapon that was perfected in the medieval sport of jousting . In the 14th century, tactical developments meant that knights and men-at-arms often fought on foot. This led to the practice of shortening the lance to about 150 cm (5 ft) to make it more manageable. As dismounting became commonplace, specialist polearms such as

19965-495: The office of consul an unprecedented seven times. Rising from a family of smallholders in a village called Ceraetae in the district of Arpinum, Marius acquired his initial military experience serving with Scipio Aemilianus at the Siege of Numantia in 134 BC. He won election as tribune of the plebs in 119 BC and passed a law limiting aristocratic interference in elections. Barely elected praetor in 115 BC, he next became

20130-420: The older gendarme type Medieval cavalry. While many Renaissance captains such as Sir Roger Williams continued to espouse the virtues of the lance, many such as François de la Noue openly encouraged its abandonment in the face of the pistol's greater armor piercing power, handiness and greater general utility. At the same time the adoption of pike and shot tactic by most infantry forces would neuter much of

20295-424: The opening phases of the Jugurthine War. In 109 BC, likely to improve his chances for the consulship, Marius joined then-consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus in his campaign against Jugurtha. In Sallust's long account of Metellus's campaign, no other legates are mentioned, so Marius was probably Metellus's senior subordinate and right-hand man. Metellus was using Marius's strong military experience, while Marius

20460-406: The other great worthies among the novi homines of the second century". This episode in the city, however, won Marius little advantage. After he left office, Metellus Numidicus' relatives dogged him in mourning dress for his maltreatment of the general, pleading for his recall from exile. Plutarch states that Marius had alienated both senators and the people. It is, however, unlikely that Marius

20625-530: The other hand, ashigaru infantries used long yari (similar with European pike ) for their massed combat formation. Filipino spears ( sibat ) were used as both a weapon and a tool throughout the Philippines . It is also called a bangkaw (after the Bankaw Revolt .), sumbling or palupad in the islands of Visayas and Mindanao . Sibat are typically made from rattan, either with a sharpened tip or

20790-492: The outbreak of World War I . In initial cavalry skirmishes in France this antique weapon proved ineffective, German uhlans being "hampered by their long lances and a good many threw them away". A major action involving repeated charges by four regiments of German cavalry, all armed with lances, at Halen on 12 August 1914 was unsuccessful. Amongst the Belgian defenders was one regiment of lancers who fought dismounted. With

20955-523: The plebs with land reform and grain distribution laws, grant citizenship to the Italians to compensate for land reform's infringement on Italian property rights, and enlarge the senate with equestrians. Marius seemed not to have an opinion on Drusus's Italian question. However, after Drusus was assassinated, many of the Italian states revolted against Rome in the Social War of 91–87 BC, named after

21120-461: The post-war Imperial German Army subsequently adopted the lance as a primary weapon. After 1893 the standard German cavalry lance was made of drawn tubular steel, covered with clear lacquer and with a hemp hand-grip. At 3.58 meters (11.7 ft) it was the longest version then in use. The Austrian cavalry had included regiments armed with lances since 1784. In 1884, the lance ceased to be carried either as an active service or parade weapon. However

21285-562: The power of the lancer's breakneck charge, making them a non-cost effective type of military unit due to their expensive horses in comparison to cuirassiers and reiters, who usually charging only at a trot could make do with lower quality mounts. After the success of pistol-armed Huguenot heavy horse against their Royalist counterparts during the French Wars of Religion , most Western European powers started rearming their lancers with pistols, initially as an adjunct weapon and eventually as

21450-488: The precedent was certainly not recent. Yet, since the Assembly had the ability to overturn any law, it simply set aside the requirements and made Marius consul. Marius was still in Africa when the Assembly elected him consul for 104 BC. At the start of his consulship, Marius returned from Africa in spectacular triumph, bringing Jugurtha and the riches of North Africa to awe the citizenry. Jugurtha, who had prophesied

21615-511: The price of wheat distributed by the state, and give colonial lands to the veterans of Marius's recent war. Saturninus's bill gave lands to all veterans of the Cimbric wars, including those of Italian allies, which was resented by some of the plebs urbana . Marius worked with Saturninus and Saturninus's ally Glaucia to pass the land bill and banish Metellus Numidicus, but then distanced himself from them and their more radical policies. Around

21780-413: The purchase and destruction of Rome, met his end in a Roman prison after having been led through the streets of the city in chains. Marius was assigned (it is unclear whether by the Assembly or by sortition ) the province of Gaul to deal with the Cimbric threat. The Cimbri, after their decisive victory at Arausio, marched west into Hispania . Marius was tasked with rebuilding, effectively from scratch,

21945-551: The rear of the Numidian cavalry. The Romans gained the initiative and the Numidians had no choice but to withdraw. By 108 BC, Marius expressed his desire to stand for consul . Metellus did not give Marius his blessing to return to Rome, allegedly advising Marius to wait until Metellus's son was elected (who was at the time only twenty, signifying a campaign decades in the future). Undeterred, Marius began to campaign for

22110-404: The retreat with light cavalry, but were beaten back by Sulla, whom Marius had put in command of the cavalry. It was by now evident that Rome would not defeat Jugurtha's guerrilla tactics through military means. Therefore, Marius resumed negotiations with Bocchus, who, though he had joined in the fighting, had not yet declared war. Ultimately, Marius reached a deal with Bocchus whereby Sulla, who

22275-413: The same as infantry spears and were often used with two hands or held with one hand overhead. In the 12th century, after the adoption of stirrups and a high-cantled saddle, the spear became a decidedly more powerful weapon. A mounted knight would secure the lance by holding it with one hand and tucking it under the armpit (the couched lance technique) In combination with a lance rest , this allowed all

22440-758: The same time, Marius's consular colleague, Manius Aquillius, defeated the Sicilian slave revolt in the Second Servile War. Having saved the Republic from destruction and at the height of his political powers, Marius desired another consulship to secure land grants for his veteran volunteers and to ensure he received appropriate credit for his military successes. Marius was duly returned as consul for 100 BC with Lucius Valerius Flaccus ; according to Plutarch, he also campaigned on behalf of his colleague so to prevent his rival Metellus Numidicus from securing

22605-425: The shaft of the spear was made with a wooden stick while the head of the spear was fashioned from arrowheads, pieces of metal such as copper, or a bone that had been sharpened. Spears were a preferred weapon by many since it was inexpensive to create, could more easily be taught to others, and could be made quickly and in large quantities. Native Americans used the buffalo pound method to kill buffalo, which required

22770-540: The situation. Caepio was prorogued into the next year and the new consul for 105 BC, Gnaeus Mallius Maximus , was also assigned to southern Gaul with another army. Caepio's disdain for Mallius – a new man like Marius with a hunger for glory – made it impossible for them to cooperate. The Cimbri and another tribe called the Teutones appeared on the Rhône , and while Caepio was on the west bank he refused to come to

22935-523: The so-called Marian reforms , including the shift from militia levies to a professional soldiery; improvements to the pilum (a kind of javelin); and changes to the logistical structure of the Roman army. Twenty-first-century historians generally view the notion as "a construct of modern scholarship." Marius was born in Cereatae c.  157 BC , a small village near the town of Arpinum in south-east Latium . The town had been conquered by

23100-523: The spear would develop into a longer lance-like weapon used for cavalry charges. There are many words in Chinese that would be classified as a spear in English. The Mao is the predecessor of the Qiang . The first bronze Mao appeared in the Shang dynasty . This weapon was less prominent on the battlefield than the ge ( dagger-axe ). In some archaeological examples two tiny holes or ears can be found in

23265-513: The speed advantages of operating without large baggage trains and to ensure that their men were well-trained for combat. In 109 BC a migrating Germanic tribe called the Cimbri appeared in Gaul and routed the Roman army there under Marcus Junius Silanus . This defeat reduced Roman prestige and resulted in unrest among the Celtic tribes recently conquered by the Romans in southern Gaul. In 107

23430-559: The start of hostilities, the first army sent to Numidia was apparently bribed to withdraw and the second army was defeated and forced to pass under the yoke in humiliation. These debacles eroded trust in the ability of the aristocracy to adequately manage foreign affairs. While Marius had seemingly broken with the Caecilii Metelli during his time as tribune and praetor, the Metelli did not seem to hold this rupture against him so much as to pass over him for selection as legate in

23595-482: The start of the annual campaign season for the consulship, Marius attempted to disqualify Glaucia from standing for consul. Because other candidates would lower the chances of Glaucia's victory, Saturninus and Glaucia had an opponent – Gaius Memmius – killed during the consular elections for 99 BC. The elections then were delayed. The Senate responded to Saturninus's attempt, to by violence force through Glaucia's candidacy over Marius's disqualification, by issuing

23760-413: The troops by his conduct towards them, eating his meals with them and proving he was not afraid to share in any of their labours. He also won over the Italian traders by claiming that he could capture Jugurtha in a few days with half of Metellus's troops. Both groups wrote home in praise of him, suggesting that he could end the war quickly, unlike Metellus, who was pursuing a policy of methodically subduing

23925-486: The vast majority of spears and javelins (one exception would be several instances of the many types of ballista bolt, a mechanically thrown spear). A "tilting-spear" is a heraldric term for a lance. Gaius Marius Gaius Marius ( Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊs ˈmariʊs] ; c.  157 BC – 13 January 86 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. Victor of the Cimbric and Jugurthine wars, he held

24090-489: The war against Jugurtha in 107 BC. There is, however, very little evidence that Italy's population fell during the second century, that any major reforms to the Roman army occurred in the second century, or that Marius was responsible; specialists now increasingly dismiss these "Marian reforms" as a "construct of modern scholarship". The recruitment of proletarii in 107, documented in Sallust, seems to have been

24255-414: The west, Marius denied the Teutones and Ambrones battle, staying inside a fortified camp and fighting off their attempts to storm it. Failing to take his camp, the Teutones and their allies moved on. Marius shadowed them, waiting for an opportune moment to attack. Near Aquae Sextiae (modern Aix-en-Provence ), an accidental skirmish between Roman camp servants, getting water, and bathing Ambrones turned into

24420-415: Was Quintus Lutatius Catulus . Over his successive consulships, Marius was not idle. He trained his troops, built his intelligence network, and conducted diplomacy with the Gallic tribes on the provincial frontiers. The decision to re-elect Marius as consul for 102 BC was vindicated when the Cimbri returned from Hispania and, with a number of other tribes, moved on Italy. The Teutones and their allies

24585-416: Was "the first seed" of their "incurable hatred". Marius has, in modern scholarship starting from the 1840s in Germany, repeatedly been attributed with broad reforms to the military during his consulships between 107 and 100 BC. The standard narrative is that after a series of manpower shortages, Marius received a dispensation to recruit volunteers from the poorest census class, the proletarii , for

24750-430: Was abandoned by his clients and peers, as Plutarch also claims. Evans tells us that Marius entered a semi-retirement as an elder statesman, a role which "precluded a more active participation in public life". After the events of 100 BC, Marius at first tried to oppose the recall of Metellus Numidicus, who had been exiled by Saturninus in 103. However, seeing that opposition was impossible, Marius decided to travel to

24915-776: Was common during the middle and late Republic and details of the trial are sketchy or apocryphal. Marius, however, was able to win acquittal on this charge, and spent an uneventful year as praetor in Rome, likely as either praetor peregrinus or as president of the corruption court. In 114 BC, Marius's imperium was prorogued and he was sent to govern the highly sought-after province of Further Spain ( Latin : Hispania Ulterior ) pro consule , where he engaged in some sort of minor military operation to clear brigands from untapped mining areas. He likely governed his province for two years before returning to Rome late in 113 BC with his personal wealth greatly enlarged. He received no triumph on his return, but he did marry Julia ,

25080-514: Was disproportionate and overly harsh. Marius also sent letters back to Rome claiming that Metellus had become enamoured with the unlimited powers associated with his imperium . Metellus, wary of an increasingly disgruntled and resentful subordinate, permitted Marius to return to Rome. According to Plutarch, he returned with barely enough time to make it back for the consular elections; but according to Sallust, with enough time to effectively canvass for votes. With growing political pressure towards

25245-480: Was friendly with members of Bocchus's court, would enter Bocchus's camp to receive Jugurtha as a hostage. In spite of the possibility of treachery on the Mauritanian's part, Sulla agreed; Jugurtha's remaining followers were massacred, and he himself was handed over in chains to Sulla by Bocchus. In the aftermath, Bocchus annexed the western part of Jugurtha's kingdom and was recognised as an ally of Rome. Jugurtha

25410-583: Was given the unprecedented honour of being elected in absentia to the college of priestly augurs whilst away in Asia Minor . Furthermore, Marius's mere presence at the trial of Manius Aquillius in 98 BC, his friend and former colleague as consul in 101 BC, was enough to secure acquittal for the accused, even though he was apparently guilty. Marius also successfully acted as sole defence for T. Matrinius in 95 BC, an Italian from Spoletium who had been granted Roman citizenship by Marius and who

25575-523: Was his old quaestor, Sulla, which shows that at this time there was no ill will between them. In 104 BC, Marius was returned as consul again for 103 BC. Though he could have continued to operate as proconsul , it is likely that the people re-elected him as consul so as to avoid another incident of disputed command à la Caepio and Mallius. While Plutarch – possibly referencing the memoirs of Rutilius Rufus – jibed that Marius's consular colleagues were his servants, Evans dismisses this. In 103 BC,

25740-417: Was intended as a shock weapon in the charge, to be dropped after impact and replaced by the sword for close combat in a melee . While demoralizing to an opponent, the lance was recognized as being an awkward encumbrance in forested regions. The relative value of the lance and the sword as a principal weapon for mounted troops was an issue of dispute in the years immediately preceding World War I. Opponents of

25905-474: Was modified from its original war design. In jousting, the lance tips would usually be blunt, often spread out like a cup or furniture foot, to provide a wider impact surface designed to unseat the opposing rider without spearing him through. The centre of the shaft of such lances could be designed to be hollow, in order for it to break on impact, as a further safeguard against impalement. They were on average 3 meters (9.8 ft) long, and had hand guards built into

26070-430: Was most assuredly born into inherited wealth, gained most likely from large land holdings. In fact, his family's resources were definitely large enough to support not just one member of the family in Roman politics, but two: Marius's younger brother, Marcus Marius , also entered Roman public life. In 134 BC, Marius joined the personal legion of Scipio Aemilianus as an officer for the expedition to Numantia . It

26235-404: Was now being prosecuted under a new citizenship law . While Marius was away in the east and after he returned, Rome had several years of relative peace. But in 95 BC, Rome passed a decree, the lex Licinia Mucia , expelling from the city all residents who were not Roman citizens. In 91 BC, Marcus Livius Drusus was elected tribune; he proposed a wide-ranging reform programme to support

26400-516: Was strengthening his position to stand for the consulship. During the Battle of the Muthul , Marius's actions probably saved the army of Metellus from annihilation. Jugurtha had cut the Romans off from the River Muthul where they wanted to refill their water reserves. The Romans had to fight Jugurtha in the desert where the Numidian light cavalry had an advantage. The Numidian cavalry scattered

26565-472: Was subsequently killed. The various types of the assegai (a light spear or javelin made of wood and pointed with iron or fire-hardened tip) were used throughout Africa and it was the most common weapon used before the introduction of firearms . The Zulu , Xhosa and other Nguni tribes of South Africa were renowned for their use of the assegai. Shaka of the Zulu invented a shorter stabbing spear with

26730-525: Was the vita or corded lance. Used by the Maratha Army , it had a rope connecting the spear with the user's wrist, allowing the weapon to be thrown and pulled back. The Vel is a type of spear or lance, originated in Southern India , primarily used by Tamils . Sikh Nihangs sometimes carry a spear even today. Spears were used in conflicts and training by armed paramilitary units such as

26895-511: Was thrown into an underground prison (the Tullianum ) in Rome, and ultimately died after gracing Marius's triumph in 104 BC. Sulla and Marius, after the triumph, disputed who received credit for capturing Jugurtha. As Sulla was acting as Marius's subordinate, under Roman tradition, the credit was Marius's; Sulla and his noble allies, however, focused on Sulla's direct responsibility to discredit Marius's victory. According to Plutarch, this

27060-519: Was typically used with one hand while the off hand held a cowhide shield for protection. Similar to most armies of their period, Ancient Egyptian forces were centered around the use of the spear. In battle, spearmen would be armed with a bronze -tipped spear (dja) and shield (ikem), which were used in elaborate formations much like Greek and Roman forces. Before the Hyksos invasion into Egypt, wooden spears were used, which were prone to splinter, but

27225-886: Was usually employed in initial charges in close formation, with sabers being used in the melee that followed. The Crimean War saw the use of the lance in the Charge of the Light Brigade . One of the four British regiments involved in the charge, plus the Russian Cossacks who counter-attacked, were armed with this weapon. During the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870), the Paraguayan cavalry made effective use of locally manufactured lances, both of conventional design and of an antique pattern used by gauchos for cattle herding. The 1860s and 1870s saw

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