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94-690: It is a civilian airport, servicing medium-sized airliners, such as the Airbus A320 , Boeing 737 -300, Tupolev Tu-134 , Tupolev Tu-154 , Yakovlev Yak-40 , Yakovlev Yak-42 , Antonov An-24 , Antonov An-26 , Ilyushin Il-76 , and helicopters Mil Mi-2 , Mil Mi-8 There are a 2,680 m × 45 m (8,793 ft × 148 ft) and a 2,000 m × 49 m (6,562 ft × 161 ft) active runways . Ground handling services are provided by Russian Aviation Enterprise "OOO Aerokuzbass" ( Russian : Аэрокузбасс ). The Novokuznetsk Airport

188-677: A type certificate for a new design of aircraft. These requirements are published by major national airworthiness authorities including the US Federal Aviation Administration and the European Aviation Safety Agency . Airports may also impose limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum wingspan allowed for a conventional aircraft is 80 metres (260 ft) to prevent collisions between aircraft while taxiing. Budget limitations, market requirements and competition set constraints on

282-678: A 3.5% fuel burn reduction on flights over 2,800 km (1,500 nmi; 1,700 mi), saving approximately US$ 220,000 and 700 t of CO 2 per aircraft per year. The 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) tall wingtip devices are manufactured by Korean Air Aerospace Division. In December 2011, Airbus filed suit in the western district of Texas over Aviation Partners ' claims of infringement of its patents on winglet design and construction which were granted in 1993. Airbus' lawsuit seeks to reject responsibility to pay royalties to Aviation Partners for using its designs, despite work performed together with both parties to develop advanced winglets for

376-817: A 60 monthly global production rate by mid-2019, the Tianjin line delivered 51 in 2016 and it could assemble six per month from four as it starts producing A320neos in 2017; 147 Airbus were delivered in 2016 in China, 20% of its production, mostly A320-family, a 47% market share as the country should become the world's largest market ahead of the US before 2027. In June 2018, along a larger and modernised delivery centre, Airbus inaugurated its fourth Hamburg production line, with two seven-axis robots to drill 80% of fuselage upper side holes, autonomous mobile tooling platforms and following Design Thinking principles. By January 2019, Mobile

470-577: A 95- to 125-seat aircraft project. The programme was called the AE31X , and covered the 95-seat AE316 and 115- to 125-seat AE317. The former would have had an overall length of 31.3 m (102 ft 8 in), while the AE317 was longer by 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in), at 34.5 m (113 ft 2 in). The engines were to be two Rolls-Royce BR715s, CFM56-9s, or the Pratt & Whitney PW6000 ; with

564-494: A company based in Wichita , Kansas , USA. Two aircraft were used in the flight test evaluation campaign – the prototype A320, which had been retained by Airbus for testing, and a new build aircraft which was fitted with both types of winglets before it was delivered to JetBlue . Despite the anticipated efficiency gains and development work, Airbus announced that those winglets would not be offered to customers, claiming that

658-551: A design called the HS.134 "Airbus" in 1965, an evolution of the HS.121 (formerly DH.121) Trident , which shared much of the general arrangement of the later JET3 study design. The name "Airbus" at the time referred to a BEA requirement, rather than to the later international programme. In June 1977 a new Joint European Transport (JET) programme was set up, established by British Aerospace (BAe), Aerospatiale , Dornier and Fokker . It

752-512: A dispute between the French, who claimed the move would incur $ 150 million (€135 million) in unnecessary expenditures associated with the new plant, and the Germans, who argued that it would be more productive for Airbus in the long run. The second production line was located at Hamburg , which would also subsequently produce the smaller Airbus A319 and A318. For the first time, Airbus entered

846-437: A full glass cockpit, rather than the hybrid versions found in previous airliners. It is also equipped with an Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) with side-stick controllers. The A320 has an Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) to give the flight crew information about all of the systems on the aircraft. The only analogue instruments were the radio-magnetic indicator and brake pressure indicator. Since 2003,

940-715: A fuselage diameter of "the Boeing 707 and 727, or do something better" and settled on a wider cross-section with a 3.7 m (12 ft 2 in) internal width, compared to Boeing's 3.45 m (11 ft 4 in). Although heavier, this allowed the A320 to compete more effectively with the 737. The A320 wing went through several design stages, eventually measuring 33.91 m (111 ft 3 in). The UK, France and West Germany wanted responsibility over final assembly and its associated work, known as "work-share arguments". The Germans requested an increased work-share of 40%, while

1034-435: A large number of light aircraft are designed and built by amateur hobbyists and enthusiasts . In the early years of aircraft design, designers generally used analytical theory to do the various engineering calculations that go into the design process along with a lot of experimentation. These calculations were labour-intensive and time-consuming. In the 1940s, several engineers started looking for ways to automate and simplify

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1128-413: A mixture of analysis and testing and the detailed examination of the adequacy of every part of the structure. For some types of aircraft, the design process is regulated by civil airworthiness authorities . This article deals with powered aircraft such as airplanes and helicopter designs. The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners are designed for carrying

1222-453: A new air purifier with filters and a catalytic converter , removing unpleasant smells from the air before it is pumped into the cabin, as well as LEDs for mood lighting and a new passenger service unit (PSU). Offering 10% more overhead bin volume, more shoulder room, a weight reduction, a new intercom and in-flight entertainment system, noise reduction and slimmer PSU, the enhanced cabin can be retrofitted. The flight crew controls

1316-496: A passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel efficiency whereas fighter jets are designed to perform high speed maneuvers and provide close support to ground troops. Some aircraft have specific missions, for instance, amphibious airplanes have a unique design that allows them to operate from both land and water, some fighters, like the Harrier jump jet , have VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) ability, helicopters have

1410-455: A production rate of 63 aircraft per month by 2021, which would result in the 10,000th delivery occurring early that year. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation , demand for new jets was reduced in 2020 and Airbus cut its monthly production from 60 to 40 A320s. In October 2020, the 500th A320 built in Tianjin, an A320neo, was delivered to China Southern , twelve years after

1504-414: A retractable tricycle landing gear and powered by two wing pylon-mounted turbofan engines . After the oil price rises of the 1970s , Airbus needed to minimise the trip fuel costs of the A320. To that end, it adopted composite primary structures for the empennage with a conventional tail configuration, centre-of-gravity control using fuel, a glass cockpit ( EFIS ) with side-stick controllers and

1598-536: A shorter-range twinjet rather than a longer-range quadjet wanted by the West Germans, particularly Lufthansa . However, works proceeded, and the German carrier would eventually order the twinjet. In February 1981 the project was re-designated A320, with efforts focused on the blueprint formerly designated SA2. During the year, Airbus worked with Delta Air Lines on a 150-seat aircraft envisioned and required by

1692-460: A two-crew flight deck. Airbus claimed the 737-300 burns 35% more fuel and has a 16% higher operating cost per seat than the V2500 -powered A320. A 150-seat A320 burns 11,608 kg (25,591 lb) of jet fuel over 2,151 nmi (3,984 km; 2,475 mi) (between Los Angeles and New York City), or 2.43 L/100 km (97 mpg ‑US ) per seat with a 0.8 kg/L fuel. Its wing

1786-500: A wingspan of 31.0 m (101 ft 8 in) and a flight deck similar to that of the A320 family. Costing $ 2 billion (€1.85 billion) to develop, aircraft production was to take place in China. Simultaneously, Airbus was developing the Airbus A318. In early 1998, Airbus revealed that it was designing a 100-seat aircraft based on the A320. The AE31X project was terminated by September 1998, and Airbus officially announced

1880-622: Is 33.8 m (111 ft) long. The A320 is 37.6 m (123 ft) long and can accommodate 150 to 186 passengers. The 44.5 m (146 ft) A321 offers 185 to 230 seats. The Airbus Corporate Jets are modified business jet versions of the standard commercial variants. In December 2010, Airbus announced the re-engined A320neo ( new engine option ), which entered service with Lufthansa in January 2016. With more efficient turbofans and improvements including sharklets , it offers up to 15% better fuel economy . The previous A320 generation

1974-496: Is a base of the local airline of Kemerovo Oblast "OAO Aerokuznetsk" ( Russian : Аэрокузнецк ) operating charter flights from/to Novokuznetsk. The Aerokuznetsk fleet includes the following aircraft: 2 Tupolev Tu-154 , Antonov An-24 , Antonov An-26 and helicopters Mil Mi-2 , Mil Mi-8 . Novokuznetsk Spichenkovo Airport is served by a local bus line operated by Novokuznetsk Transport Enterprise. The trip takes 30 minutes to Novokuznetsk Central Russian Railways Station. The airport

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2068-424: Is a loosely defined method used to balance many competing and demanding requirements to produce an aircraft that is strong, lightweight, economical and can carry an adequate payload while being sufficiently reliable to safely fly for the design life of the aircraft. Similar to, but more exacting than, the usual engineering design process , the technique is highly iterative, involving high-level configuration tradeoffs,

2162-764: Is a series of narrow-body airliners developed and produced by Airbus . The A320 was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was introduced in April 1988 by Air France . The first member of the family was followed by the stretched A321 (first delivered in January 1994), the shorter A319 (April 1996), and the even shorter A318 (July 2003). Final assembly takes place in Toulouse in France; Hamburg in Germany; Tianjin in China since 2009; and Mobile, Alabama in

2256-451: Is called design optimization. Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape, wing configuration and location, engine size and type are all determined at this stage. Constraints to design like those mentioned above are all taken into account at this stage as well. The final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft configuration on paper or computer screen, to be reviewed by engineers and other designers. The design configuration arrived at in

2350-509: Is derived from various factors such as empty weight, payload, useful load, etc. The various weights are used to then calculate the center of mass of the entire aircraft. The center of mass must fit within the established limits set by the manufacturer. The aircraft structure focuses not only on strength, aeroelasticity , durability , damage tolerance , stability , but also on fail-safety , corrosion resistance, maintainability and ease of manufacturing. The structure must be able to withstand

2444-459: Is long and thin, offering better aerodynamic efficiency because of the higher aspect ratio than the competing 737 and MD-80. The Airbus A320 family are low-wing cantilever monoplanes with a conventional empennage with a single vertical stabiliser and rudder . Its wing sweep is 25 degrees. Compared to other airliners of the same class, the A320 features a wider single-aisle cabin of 3.95 metres (156 in) outside diameter, compared to

2538-692: Is now called A320ceo ( current engine option ). American Airlines is the largest A320 operator with 479 aircraft in its fleet, while IndiGo is the largest customer with 930 aircraft on order. In October 2019, the A320 family surpassed the Boeing 737 to become the highest-selling airliner. As of October 2024 , a total of 18,994 A320 family aircraft had been ordered and 11,707 delivered , of which 10,803 aircraft were in service with more than 350 operators. The global A320 fleet had completed more than 176 million flights over 328 million block hours since its entry into service. The A320ceo initially competed with

2632-575: Is served by numerous Novokuznetsk taxis. Taxis to the city center cost approximately 500 RUR (15 Euro ). The nearby cities of Kemerovo Oblast : Prokopyevsk (15 km), Mezhdurechensk (79 km), Kiselyovsk (24 km), Osinniki (38 km), Belovo (77 km), Tashtagol (133 km), Kemerovo (177 km), Anzhero-Sudzhensk (258 km), Leninsk-Kuznetsky (105 km), Yurga (248 km), Guryevsk (81 km), Mariinsk (273 km) can be reached by taxi and local bus lines. Airbus A320 The Airbus A320 family

2726-632: The 737 Classic and the MD-80 , then their successors, the 737 Next Generation (737NG) and the MD-90 respectively, while the 737 MAX is Boeing's response to the A320neo. When Airbus designed the A300 during the late 1960s and early 1970s, it envisaged a broad family of airliners with which to compete against Boeing and Douglas (later McDonnell Douglas ), two established US aerospace manufacturers. From

2820-784: The Boeing 787 and the Lockheed Martin F-35 have proven far more costly and complex to develop than expected. More advanced and integrated design tools have been developed. Model-based systems engineering predicts potentially problematic interactions, while computational analysis and optimization allows designers to explore more options early in the process. Increasing automation in engineering and manufacturing allows faster and cheaper development. Technology advances from materials to manufacturing enable more complex design variations like multifunction parts. Once impossible to design or construct, these can now be 3D printed , but they have yet to prove their utility in applications like

2914-650: The EUROPLANE , a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications. VFW-Fokker , Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. The design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2 (163 passengers), which then became the Airbus S.A1/2/3 series (Single Aisle), before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984. Previously, Hawker Siddeley had produced

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3008-572: The Northrop Grumman B-21 or the re-engined A320neo and 737 MAX . Airbus and Boeing also recognize the economic limits, that the next airliner generation cannot cost more than the previous ones did. An increase in the number of aircraft also means greater carbon emissions. Environmental scientists have voiced concern over the main kinds of pollution associated with aircraft, mainly noise and emissions. Aircraft engines have been historically notorious for creating noise pollution and

3102-530: The V2500Select (One) . In 2006, Airbus tested three styles of winglets intended to counteract the wing's lift-induced drag and wingtip vortices more effectively than the previous wingtip fence . The first design type to be tested was developed by Airbus and based on work done by the AWIATOR programme. The second type of winglet incorporated a more blended design and was designed by Winglet Technology,

3196-646: The bond market , through which it raised $ 480 million (€475 million) to finance development costs. An additional $ 180 million (€175 million) was borrowed from the European Investment Bank and private investors. The maiden flight of the Airbus A321 came on 11 March 1993, when the prototype , registration F-WWIA, flew with IAE V2500 engines; the second prototype, equipped with CFM56-5B turbofans, flew in May. Lufthansa and Alitalia were

3290-479: The dark cockpit (where an indicator is off when its system is running; useful for drawing attention to dysfunctions when an indicator is lit) from the A310, the first widebody designed to be operated without a flight engineer and influenced by Bernard Ziegler , first Airbus CEO Henri Ziegler 's son. The A320 is the world's first airliner with digital fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system : input commands through

3384-517: The side-stick are interpreted by flight control computers and transmitted to flight control surfaces within the flight envelope protection ; in the 1980s the computer-controlled dynamic system of the Dassault Mirage 2000 fighter cross-fertilised the Airbus team which tested FBW on an A300 . At its introduction, fly-by-wire and flight envelope protection was a new experience for many pilots. Re-engine The aircraft design process

3478-400: The 3,588 nautical miles (6,645 km; 4,129 mi) great circle route to Winnipeg , Manitoba from Hamburg in 9 hours and 5 minutes. The A319 has proven popular with low-cost airlines such as EasyJet , which purchased 172 of them. The A318 was born out of mid-1990 studies between Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC), Singapore Technologies Aerospace , Alenia and Airbus on

3572-496: The 3.8 m (148 in) of the Boeing 737 or 757 , and larger overhead bins. Its cargo hold can accommodate unit load device containers. The A320 airframe includes composite materials and aluminium alloys to save weight and reduce the total number of parts to decrease the maintenance costs. Its tail assembly is made almost entirely of such composites by CASA, which also builds the elevators , main landing gear doors, and rear fuselage parts. The A320 flight deck features

3666-543: The A318 at that year's Farnborough Airshow. The aircraft was the smallest in Airbus's product range, and was developed coincidentally at the same time as the largest commercial aircraft in history, the Airbus A380 . First called A319M5 in as early as March 1995, it was shorter by 0.79-metre (2 ft 7 in) ahead of the wing and 1.6 metres (5 ft 3 in) behind. These cuts reduced passenger capacity from 124 on

3760-456: The A319 to 107 passengers in a two-class layout. Range was 5,700 kilometres (3,100 nmi; 3,500 mi), or 5,950 kilometres (3,210 nmi; 3,700 mi) with upcoming Sharklets . The 107-seater was launched on 26 April 1999 with the options and orders count at 109 aircraft. After three years of design, the maiden flight took place at Hamburg on 15 January 2002. Tests on the lead engine,

3854-527: The A320 has featured liquid crystal display (LCD) units on the flight deck instead of the original cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays. These include both main displays and the backup artificial horizon , which also previously had an analogue display. Airbus offers an avionics upgrade for older A320 aircraft, the In-Service Enhancement Package, to keep them updated. Digital head-up displays are also available. The A320 retained

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3948-508: The A320 overall. The length increase required enlarged overwing exits, which were repositioned in front of and behind the wings. The centre fuselage and undercarriage were reinforced to accommodate an increase in maximum takeoff weight of 9,600 kg (21,200 lb), for a total of 83,000 kg (183,000 lb). Final assembly for the A321 would be, as a first for any Airbus, carried out in Germany (then West Germany). This came after

4042-408: The A320 was to be named A30X . In 2007, Airbus North America President Barry Eccleston stated that the earliest the aircraft could have been available was 2017. In January 2010, John Leahy , Airbus's chief operating officer-customers, stated that an all-new single-aisle aircraft was unlikely to be constructed before 2024 or 2025. The Airbus A320 family are narrow-body (single-aisle) aircraft with

4136-539: The A320 was to be supplied by two CFM56-5-A1s rated at 111 kN (25,000 pounds-force). It was the only engine available until the arrival of the IAE V2500 , offered by International Aero Engines , a group composed of Rolls-Royce plc , Pratt & Whitney , Japanese Aero Engine Corporation , Fiat and MTU . The first V2500 variant, the V2500-A1, has a thrust output of 110  kN (25,000 pounds-force ), hence

4230-596: The Airbus A320neo. The first sharklet-equipped Airbus A320 was delivered to Indonesia AirAsia on 21 December 2012, offering a 450 kg (990 lb) payload and 100 nmi (190 km; 120 mi) range increases over the original aircraft specifications. In 2007, Airbus introduced a new enhanced, quieter cabin with better luggage storage and a more modern look and feel, and a new galley that reduced weight, increased revenue space and improved ergonomics and design for food hygiene and recycling. It offered

4324-701: The Airbus Americas factory in Mobile, Alabama . Airbus produced a total of 42 A320s per month in 2015, and expected to increase to 50 per month in 2017. Production of parts takes place in a large number of countries around the world. For example, the centre fuselage is made in Hamburg, Germany; the horizontal stabiliser is produced in Getafe, Spain; and the rudder is produced in Harbin, China. As Airbus targets

4418-503: The British wanted the major responsibilities to be swapped around to give partners production and research and development experience. In the end, British work-share was increased from that of the two previous Airbuses. France was willing to commit to launch aid, or subsidies, while the Germans were more cautious. The UK government was unwilling to provide funding for the tooling, requested by BAe and estimated at £ 250 million; it

4512-471: The MTOW of 53.3 t (118,000 lb) for the smaller version and 58 t (128,000 lb) for the AE317, the thrust requirement were 77.9–84.6 kN (17,500–19,000 lbf) and 84.6–91.2 kN (19,000–20,500 lbf), respectively. Range was settled at 5,200 km (2,800 nmi; 3,200 mi) and 5,800 km (3,100 nmi; 3,600 mi) for the high gross weights of both variants. Both share

4606-519: The PW6000, revealed worse-than-expected fuel consumption. Consequently, Pratt & Whitney abandoned the five-stage high-pressure compressor (HPC) for the MTU-designed six-stage HPC. The 129 order book for the A318 shrunk to 80 largely because of switches to other A320 family members. After 17 months of flight certification, during which 850 hours and 350 flights were accumulated, JAA certification

4700-715: The United States since April 2016. The twinjet has a six-abreast economy cross-section and came with either CFM56 or IAE V2500 turbofan engines, except the CFM56/ PW6000 powered A318. The family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire and side-stick flight controls in airliners. Variants offer maximum take-off weights from 68 to 93.5 tonnes (150,000 to 206,000 lb), to cover a 5,740–6,940 kilometres ; 3,570–4,320 miles (3,100–3,750 nmi) range . The 31.4 m (103 ft) long A318 typically accommodates 107 to 132 passengers. The 124-156 seat A319

4794-426: The ability to hover over an area for a period of time. The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g. as in the historical case of a British Air Ministry specification , or fill a perceived "gap in the market"; that is, a class or design of aircraft which does not yet exist, but for which there would be significant demand. Another important factor that influences the design are the requirements for obtaining

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4888-448: The aircraft. The aviation operators include the passenger and cargo airliners , air forces and owners of private aircraft. They agree to comply with the regulations set by the regulatory bodies, understand the limitations of the aircraft as specified by the manufacturer, report defects and assist the manufacturers in keeping up the airworthiness standards. Most of the design criticisms these days are built on crashworthiness . Even with

4982-422: The airline. The A320 would carry 150 passengers over 2,850 or 1,860 nmi (5,280 or 3,440 km; 3,280 or 2,140 mi) using fuel from wing fuel tanks only. The -200 had the centre tank activated, increasing fuel capacity from 15,590 to 23,430 L (3,429 to 5,154 imp gal). They would measure 36.04 and 39.24 m (118 ft 3 in and 128 ft 9 in), respectively. Airbus considered

5076-421: The cabin through touchscreen displays. The A320neo ( neo for new engine option ) is a development launched on 1 December 2010, making its first flight on 25 September 2014 and introduced by Lufthansa on 25 January 2016. Re-engined with CFM International LEAP -1A or Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines and with large sharklets, it was designed to be 15% more fuel efficient. Its three variants are based on

5170-402: The calculation process and many relations and semi-empirical formulas were developed. Even after simplification, the calculations continued to be extensive. With the invention of the computer, engineers realized that a majority of the calculations could be automated, but the lack of design visualization and the huge amount of experimentation involved kept the field of aircraft design stagnant. With

5264-421: The conceptual design phase is then tweaked and remodeled to fit into the design parameters. In this phase, wind tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamic calculations of the flow field around the aircraft are done. Major structural and control analysis is also carried out in this phase. Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any are corrected and the final design is drawn and finalized. Then after

5358-553: The consortium focused on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus focused once more on what was then known as the A320M-7 , meaning A320 minus seven fuselage frames . It would provide direct competition for the 737-300 / -700 . The shrink was achieved through the removal of four fuselage frames fore and three aft of the wing, cutting the overall length by 3.73 metres (12 ft 3 in). Consequently,

5452-453: The constraints on their design. Historically design teams used to be small, usually headed by a Chief Designer who knows all the design requirements and objectives and coordinated the team accordingly. As time progressed, the complexity of military and airline aircraft also grew. Modern military and airline design projects are of such a large scale that every design aspect is tackled by different teams and then brought together. In general aviation

5546-613: The design mission. The wing of a fixed-wing aircraft provides the lift necessary for flight. Wing geometry affects every aspect of an aircraft's flight. The wing area will usually be dictated by the desired stalling speed but the overall shape of the planform and other detail aspects may be influenced by wing layout factors. The wing can be mounted to the fuselage in high, low and middle positions. The wing design depends on many parameters such as selection of aspect ratio , taper ratio, sweepback angle, thickness ratio, section profile, washout and dihedral . The cross-sectional shape of

5640-401: The design process and comprise the non-technical influences on aircraft design along with environmental factors. Competition leads to companies striving for better efficiency in the design without compromising performance and incorporating new techniques and technology. In the 1950s and '60s, unattainable project goals were regularly set, but then abandoned, whereas today troubled programs like

5734-677: The development phase. Examples of this include the Boeing 787 Dreamliner with a delay of 4 years with massive cost overruns, the Boeing 747-8 with a two-year delay, the Airbus A380 with a two-year delay and US$ 6.1 billion in cost overruns, the Airbus A350 with delays and cost overruns, the Bombardier C Series , Global 7000 and 8000, the Comac C919 with a four-year delay and the Mitsubishi Regional Jet , which

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5828-542: The engine must balance the drag at cruise speed and be greater than the drag to allow acceleration. The engine requirement varies with the type of aircraft. For instance, commercial airliners spend more time in cruise speed and need more engine efficiency. High-performance fighter jets need very high acceleration and therefore have very high thrust requirements. The weight of the aircraft is the common factor that links all aspects of aircraft design such as aerodynamics, structure, and propulsion, all together. An aircraft's weight

5922-492: The event of loss of cabin pressure, lockable luggage compartments, safety belts, lifejackets, emergency doors and luminous floor strips. Aircraft are sometimes designed with emergency water landing in mind, for instance the Airbus A330 has a 'ditching' switch that closes valves and openings beneath the aircraft slowing the ingress of water. Aircraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with consideration of all

6016-536: The expansion of airways over already congested and polluted cities have drawn heavy criticism, making it necessary to have environmental policies for aircraft noise. Noise also arises from the airframe, where the airflow directions are changed. Improved noise regulations have forced designers to create quieter engines and airframes. Emissions from aircraft include particulates, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), various oxides of nitrates and unburnt hydrocarbons . To combat

6110-535: The final assembly line start in 2008. In 2006, Airbus started the A320 Enhanced (A320E) programme as a series of improvements targeting a 4–5% efficiency gain, with large winglets (2%), aerodynamic refinements (1%), weight savings and a new aircraft cabin . Engine improvements that reduced fuel consumption by 1% were made to the A320 in 2007 with the CFM56 Tech Insertion and in 2008 with

6204-439: The finalization of the design lies the key decision with the manufacturer or individual designing it whether to actually go ahead with the production of the aircraft. At this point several designs, though perfectly capable of flight and performance, might have been opted out of production due to their being economically nonviable. This phase simply deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft to be manufactured. It determines

6298-486: The first to order the stretched Airbuses, with 20 and 40 aircraft, respectively. The first of Lufthansa's V2500-A5-powered A321s arrived on 27 January 1994, while Alitalia received its first CFM56-5B-powered aircraft on 22 March. The A319 was the following derivative of the baseline A320. The design was a "shrink", with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, part of the Single-Aisle studies, which had been shelved as

6392-549: The following day. The certification programme took 350 airborne hours involving two aircraft. Certification for the CFM56-5B6/2-equipped variant was granted in April 1996, and qualification for the V2524-A5 started the following month. Delivery of the first A319, to Swissair , occurred on 25 April 1996; it entered service by month's end. In January 1997, an A319 broke a record during a delivery flight by flying

6486-420: The greatest attention to airworthiness, accidents still occur. Crashworthiness is the qualitative evaluation of how aircraft survive an accident. The main objective is to protect the passengers or valuable cargo from the damage caused by an accident. In the case of airliners the stressed skin of the pressurized fuselage provides this feature, but in the event of a nose or tail impact, large bending moments build all

6580-444: The long-range Airbus A310 . Airbus then focused its efforts on the single-aisle market, which was dominated by the 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9 . Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven , and to replace the 737-200 and DC-9. Germany's MBB ( Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm ), British Aircraft Corporation , Sweden's Saab and Spain's CASA worked on

6674-570: The many hazards that pose a threat to air travel. Airworthiness is the standard by which aircraft are determined fit to fly. The responsibility for airworthiness lies with the national civil aviation regulatory bodies, manufacturers , as well as owners and operators. The International Civil Aviation Organization sets international standards and recommended practices on which national authorities should base their regulations. The national regulatory authorities set standards for airworthiness, issue certificates to manufacturers and operators and

6768-611: The moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal. Prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10. It was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into

6862-557: The most significant orders occurred when Northwest Airlines placed an order for 100 A320s in October 1986, powered by CFM56 engines, later confirmed at the 1990 Farnborough Airshow . During A320 development, Airbus considered propfan technology, which was backed by Lufthansa . At the time unproven, the technology essentially consisted of a fan placed outside the engine nacelle , offering turbofan speeds and turboprop economics; ultimately, Airbus stuck with turbofans . Power on

6956-737: The name. It is 4% more efficient than the CFM56, with cruise thrust-specific fuel consumption for the -A5 at 16.3 and 16.9 g/kN/s (0.58 and 0.60 lb/lbf/h) for the CFM56-5A1. In the presence of then- French Prime Minister Jacques Chirac and the Prince and Princess of Wales , the first A320 was rolled out of the final assembly line at Toulouse on 14 February 1987 and made its maiden flight on 22 February in 3 hours and 23 minutes. The flight test programme took 1,200 hours over 530 flights. European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) certification

7050-403: The new model from 22 May 1992, with the actual launch of the $ 275 million (€250 million) programme occurring on 10 June 1993; the A319's first customer was ILFC , which signed for six aircraft. On 23 March 1995, the first A319 underwent final assembly at Airbus' German plant in Hamburg, where A321s were also assembled. It was rolled out on 24 August 1995, with the maiden flight taking place

7144-544: The number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two. The bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers . Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics; otherwise the aircraft was largely unchanged. Power is provided by the CFM56-5A, CFM56-5B, or V2500-A5, derated to 98  kN (22,000 lbf), with option for 105 kN (24,000 lbf) thrust. Airbus began offering

7238-420: The number, design and location of ribs , spars , sections and other structural elements. All aerodynamic, structural, propulsion, control and performance aspects have already been covered in the preliminary design phase and only the manufacturing remains. Flight simulators for aircraft are also developed at this stage. Some commercial aircraft have experienced significant schedule delays and cost overruns in

7332-469: The pollution, ICAO set recommendations in 1981 to control aircraft emissions. Newer, environmentally friendly fuels have been developed and the use of recyclable materials in manufacturing have helped reduce the ecological impact due to aircraft. Environmental limitations also affect airfield compatibility. Airports around the world have been built to suit the topography of the particular region. Space limitations, pavement design, runway end safety areas and

7426-466: The previous A319, A320 and A321. Airbus received 6,031 orders by March 2018 and delivered 318 by May 2018. The original family was renamed A320ceo, for current engine option . As of July 2024, IndiGo has 173 Airbus A320neos under service, making it the largest operator of this type of aircraft. In 2006, Airbus was studying a future replacement for the A320 series, tentatively dubbed as NSR or "New Short-Range aircraft". The follow-on aircraft to replace

7520-521: The rise of programming languages, engineers could now write programs that were tailored to design an aircraft. Originally this was done with mainframe computers and used low-level programming languages that required the user to be fluent in the language and know the architecture of the computer. With the introduction of personal computers, design programs began employing a more user-friendly approach. The main aspects of aircraft design are: All aircraft designs involve compromises of these factors to achieve

7614-604: The standards of personnel training. Every country has its own regulatory body such as the Federal Aviation Administration in USA, DGCA (Directorate General of Civil Aviation) in India, etc. The aircraft manufacturer makes sure that the aircraft meets existing design standards, defines the operating limitations and maintenance schedules and provides support and maintenance throughout the operational life of

7708-550: The stresses caused by cabin pressurization , if fitted, turbulence and engine or rotor vibrations. The design of any aircraft starts out in three phases Aircraft conceptual design involves sketching a variety of possible configurations that meet the required design specifications. By drawing a set of configurations, designers seek to reach the design configuration that satisfactorily meets all requirements as well as go hand in hand with factors such as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight performance, structural and control systems. This

7802-550: The unique location of airport are some of the airport factors that influence aircraft design. However changes in aircraft design also influence airfield design as well, for instance, the recent introduction of new large aircraft (NLAs) such as the superjumbo Airbus A380 , have led to airports worldwide redesigning their facilities to accommodate its large size and service requirements. The high speeds, fuel tanks, atmospheric conditions at cruise altitudes, natural hazards (thunderstorms, hail and bird strikes) and human error are some of

7896-417: The way through the fuselage, causing fractures in the shell, causing the fuselage to break up into smaller sections. So the passenger aircraft are designed in such a way that seating arrangements are away from areas likely to be intruded in an accident, such as near a propeller, engine nacelle undercarriage etc. The interior of the cabin is also fitted with safety features such as oxygen masks that drop down in

7990-492: The weight of the modifications required negated any aerodynamic benefits. On 17 December 2008, Airbus announced it was to begin flight testing an existing blended winglet design developed by Aviation Partners Inc. as part of an A320 modernisation programme using the A320 prototype. Airbus launched the sharklet blended winglets during the November 2009 Dubai Airshow . Installation adds 200 kg (440 lb) but offers

8084-650: The wing is its airfoil . The construction of the wing starts with the rib which defines the airfoil shape. Ribs can be made of wood, metal, plastic or even composites. The wing must be designed and tested to ensure it can withstand the maximum loads imposed by maneuvering, and by atmospheric gusts. The fuselage is the part of the aircraft that contains the cockpit , passenger cabin or cargo hold. Aircraft propulsion may be achieved by specially designed aircraft engines, adapted auto, motorcycle or snowmobile engines, electric engines or even human muscle power. The main parameters of engine design are: The thrust provided by

8178-635: Was awarded on 26 February 1988. The first A320 was delivered to Air France on 28 March, and began commercial service on 8 April with a flight between Paris and Berlin via Düsseldorf . In 1988, the clean-sheet aircraft program cost was 5.486 billion French francs . The first derivative of the A320 was the Airbus A321 , also known as the Stretched A320 , A320-500 and A325 . Its launch came on 24 November 1988 after commitments for 183 aircraft from 10 customers were secured. The aircraft

8272-470: Was based at the then BAe (formerly Vickers ) site in Weybridge , Surrey , UK. Although the members were all of Airbus' partners, they regarded the project as a separate collaboration from Airbus. This project was considered the forerunner of Airbus A320, encompassing the 130- to 188-seat market, powered by two CFM56s . It would have a cruise speed of Mach 0.84 (faster than the Boeing 737). The programme

8366-431: Was its first customer to sign a "letter of intent" for 25 A320s and options for 25 more at the 1981 Paris Air Show . In October 1983, British Caledonian placed seven firm orders, bringing total orders to more than 80. Cyprus Airways became the first customer to place an order for V2500-powered A320s in November 1984, followed by Pan Am with 16 firm orders and 34 options in January 1985, and then Inex Adria . One of

8460-537: Was later transferred to Airbus, leading up to the creation of the Single-Aisle (SA) studies in 1980, led by former leader of the JET programme, Derek Brown. The group looked at three different variants, covering the 125- to 180-seat market, called SA1 , SA2 and SA3 . Although unaware at the time, the consortium was producing the blueprints for the A319, A320 and A321, respectively. The single-aisle programme created divisions within Airbus about whether to design

8554-634: Was obtained for the CFM56-powered variant on 23 May 2003. On 22 July 2003, first delivery for launch customer Frontier Airlines occurred, entering service before the end of the month. The Toulouse Blagnac final assembly line builds A320s, whereas the Hamburg Finkenwerder final assembly line builds A318s, A319s, and A321s. The Airbus factory in Tianjin , China assembles A319s, A320s, and A321s; A320s and A321s are also assembled at

8648-441: Was outputting 4.5 A320s per month, raising to five by the end of the year. In September 2019, Airbus reached a milestone with the delivery of the 9000th A320-family aircraft, to Easyjet. In October 2019, Airbus inaugurated a highly automated fuselage structure assembly line for A320 Family aircraft in Hamburg, showcasing an evolution in Airbus' industrial production system. Production rates continue to rise, and Airbus aims to reach

8742-444: Was postponed for three years. On 1 March 1984, the British government and BAe agreed that £50 million would be paid, whether the A320 flew or not, while the rest would be paid as a levy on each aircraft sold. In 1984, the program cost was then estimated at £2 billion ($ 2.8 billion) by Flight International, equivalent to £8 billion today. The programme was launched on 2 March 1984. At the time, Airbus had 96 orders. Air France

8836-448: Was to be a minimally changed derivative, apart from minor wing modifications and the fuselage stretch itself. The wing would incorporate double-slotted flaps and minor trailing edge modifications, increasing wing area from 124 m (1,330 sq ft) to 128 m (1,380 sq ft). The fuselage was lengthened by four plugs (two ahead and two behind the wings), making the A321 6.94 metres (22 ft 9 in) longer than

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