Squadrismo ( Italian: [skwaˈdrizmo] ) was the movement of squadre d'azione (English: action squads ), the fascist militias that were organised outside the authority of the Italian state and led by local leaders called ras (a title given to Abyssinian headmen ). The militia originally consisted of farmers and middle-class people, who created their own defence from revolutionary socialists. Squadrismo became an important asset for the rise of the National Fascist Party , led by Benito Mussolini , and systematically used violence to eliminate any political parties that were opposed to Italian Fascism .
58-672: The violence was not only an instrument in politics but also a vital component of squadrismo identity, which made it difficult for the movement to be tamed. That was shown in the various attempts by Mussolini to control squadrismo violence with the Pact of Pacification and later the Consolidated Public Safety Act. Squadrismo, which ultimately became the Blackshirts , served as a source of inspiration for Adolf Hitler 's Sturmabteilung . After World War I , there
116-451: A constitution written for the seized city of Fiume that combined “modern syndicalism” with a “society of producers.” However, D’Annunzio evaded Grandi’s and Balbo’s advances by arguing that he had first to consult the stars of a night sky that was noted as overcast. As the representative of “urban fascism”, Mussolini feared the rise of “agrarian fascism” that had originated from the rural squadristi , regarding them as “rival contenders for
174-451: A constitution written for the seized city of Fiume that combined “modern syndicalism” with a “society of producers.” However, D’Annunzio evaded Grandi’s and Balbo’s advances by arguing that he had first to consult the stars of a night sky that was noted as overcast. As the representative of “urban fascism”, Mussolini feared the rise of “agrarian fascism” that had originated from the rural squadristi , regarding them as “rival contenders for
232-602: A fast-expanding “influx of middle-class people” who were relatively conservative. Generally, the ras leaders supported nationalism, not socialism, and were upset over the socialists and communist involvement in political violence against landowners and the middle class. This put Mussolini, the former leader of the Italian Socialist Party (1912-1914) and a former Marxist who had supported Lenin’s October Revolution in 1917, into an almost impossible position to achieve consensus among his diverse followers. After
290-526: A fast-expanding “influx of middle-class people” who were relatively conservative. Generally, the ras leaders supported nationalism, not socialism, and were upset over the socialists and communist involvement in political violence against landowners and the middle class. This put Mussolini, the former leader of the Italian Socialist Party (1912-1914) and a former Marxist who had supported Lenin’s October Revolution in 1917, into an almost impossible position to achieve consensus among his diverse followers. After
348-707: A member of the executive group of the Central Committee on August 18, 1921, his dramatic gesture failed to accomplish his plan. Instead of falling into line, the agrarian ras remained united in their repudiation of the Pact. Mussolini claimed that he would support the peace pact with all his strength, declaring that “If Fascism does not follow me in collaboration with the Socialists, at least no one can force me to follow Fascism.” Within days, another Fascist leader resigned, Cesare Rossi , their deputy-secretary. He
406-529: A member of the executive group of the Central Committee on August 18, 1921, his dramatic gesture failed to accomplish his plan. Instead of falling into line, the agrarian ras remained united in their repudiation of the Pact. Mussolini claimed that he would support the peace pact with all his strength, declaring that “If Fascism does not follow me in collaboration with the Socialists, at least no one can force me to follow Fascism.” Within days, another Fascist leader resigned, Cesare Rossi , their deputy-secretary. He
464-515: A motif that ultimately coined the name Blackshirts and became the inspiration for Adolf Hitler 's SA during the Third Reich . Mussolini and his followers selected the iconic black shirts of labourers in the Italian cities of Romagna and Emilia who had originally "adopted their uniforms from the anarchists". Pact of Pacification The Pact of Pacification or Pacification Pact
522-465: A powerful seat of authority, even though he “briefly reconsidered emigrating” in the belief that his movement was finished. The poor state of affairs of the fasci movement was reported by Fascists themselves at their Third Fascist Congress, who calculated that they had “only 100 fasci and 30,000 supporters” in 1920, as compared to “2,200 fasci and 320,000 members by late 1921. In an attempt to expand his minuscule party, Mussolini seemed to have employed
580-465: A powerful seat of authority, even though he “briefly reconsidered emigrating” in the belief that his movement was finished. The poor state of affairs of the fasci movement was reported by Fascists themselves at their Third Fascist Congress, who calculated that they had “only 100 fasci and 30,000 supporters” in 1920, as compared to “2,200 fasci and 320,000 members by late 1921. In an attempt to expand his minuscule party, Mussolini seemed to have employed
638-506: A result of attempts to discipline them, Mussolini decided to use their violence to his advantage by converting the movement into an organised party by a national congress, which met in Rome from 7 to 10 November 1921. The new party was named Partito Nazionale Fascista and stood for order, discipline and hierarchy. The March on Rome on 28 October 1922 further enhanced Mussolini's seizure of power, with thousands of squadristi marching through
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#1732764690848696-499: A wider political constituency. During the 1919 elections, the Fascists had attempted to court the socialist-left while publicly dubbing himself the “Lenin of Italy”, attempting to “out-socialist the socialists”, which resulted in an election where the socialists garnished “forty times as many votes.” This devastating and humiliating election defeat pushed Mussolini towards finding other populist movements that could catapult him into
754-443: A wider political constituency. During the 1919 elections, the Fascists had attempted to court the socialist-left while publicly dubbing himself the “Lenin of Italy”, attempting to “out-socialist the socialists”, which resulted in an election where the socialists garnished “forty times as many votes.” This devastating and humiliating election defeat pushed Mussolini towards finding other populist movements that could catapult him into
812-828: The San Sepolcro Square , in Milan . Squadrismo was a movement that expanded instantly afterward, and by spring 1920, the fascists installed a political militia of squadre in various parts of Northern Italy , mostly in Trieste . Many of the squadristi (name given to individuals in the squadrismo movement) joined the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento , but some remained independent from Mussolini's control. From then onward, various assaults by Trieste squads against Socialists and Slavs took place. Thousands of squads formed "action squads" and spread terror throughout
870-515: The socialists because the government could not contain them. As a result, a series of middle-class defence leagues were formed. The first squadrismo was thus nationalist and founded on the traditions of the Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria , a phenomenon of citizens. In that context emerged the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento , founded 23 March 1919 by Benito Mussolini during a meeting in
928-622: The squadre leaders, who were determined to maintain their power. To control the violence at last, Mussolini issued the Consolidated Public Safety Act in 1926, which delegitimised squadristi violence. In an effort to end the escalating violence between the socialist and the Squadristi militias, Mussolini signed an interim Pact of Pacification on August 2 or 3, 1921 with the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and General Confederation of Labour (CGL), which caused most ras in
986-412: The squadristi in an "insurrectionary march on Rome". D’Annunzio was vague about in his reply. In September 1919, D’Annunzio and his force of 2,000 armed followers, primarily ex-soldiers, marched into Fiume and occupied it for fifteen months. Mussolini went on the offensive and disparaged the squadrismo by declaring that provincial Fascism was "no longer liberation, but tyranny; no longer protector of
1044-602: The Duce "had not created the movement" and that they could "get along without him". The violence between the action squads ( squadristi ) and socialists and communist activists continued to escalate from 1919 to 1921. Revolutionary socialists were engaged in political assassinations, strikes, physical possession of factories, seizures of private land, and riots who often “coerced smallholders”(farmer owners) “as well as laborers into Socialist unions,” causing rural landowners to launch retaliatory assaults against socialist targets. Across
1102-696: The Italian Fasces of Combat to the National Fascist Party (PNF). Weeks before the conclave, Mussolini continued to express his preference for the labeling his political organization the “Fascist Labor Party,” especially if he could get the support of the General Confederation of Labor. Nonetheless, during meetings at the Third Fascist Congress, he was forced to back down, and drop the word “labor” from
1160-410: The Italian Fasces of Combat to the National Fascist Party (PNF). Weeks before the conclave, Mussolini continued to express his preference for the labeling his political organization the “Fascist Labor Party,” especially if he could get the support of the General Confederation of Labor. Nonetheless, during meetings at the Third Fascist Congress, he was forced to back down, and drop the word “labor” from
1218-461: The Italian capital. King Victor Emmanuel III proceeded to appoint Mussolini to lead the new administration, but that did not stop squadrismo violence, and thousands of people in black shirts participated in squadrista militancy from 1920 to 1922. After the March on Rome, fascism was torn between the state, which wanted to end all illegal violence, including squadrismo , and the fasci , including
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#17327646908481276-496: The Italian landscape “trains and barracks, banks and public buildings were attacked by mobs,” while many areas were draped in red banners and were declared to have “passed wholly into the hands of the Communists.” The rural paramilitary leaders took the position that “violence could only be met by greater violence” in a situation that was almost comparable to a civil war. Mussolini found himself under increasing pressure to reduce
1334-437: The Italian landscape “trains and barracks, banks and public buildings were attacked by mobs,” while many areas were draped in red banners and were declared to have “passed wholly into the hands of the Communists.” The rural paramilitary leaders took the position that “violence could only be met by greater violence” in a situation that was almost comparable to a civil war. Mussolini found himself under increasing pressure to reduce
1392-693: The Pact and Mussolini’s leadership.” There were at least two secret anti-Mussolini meetings where a cloud of resentment focused on “Mussolini’s lingering leftist loyalties.” Many leading ras agitated for a leadership change, suggesting that someone else such as Gabriele D’Annunzio should “replace Mussolini.” Grandi and Balbo sought out D’Annunzio in August 1921, and encouraged him to lead the movement in an “insurrectionary march on Rome.” This proposed leadership change appealed to younger fascists who supported “neosyndicalist principles” found in syndicalist Alceste De Ambris’s Carta del Carnaro (Charter of Carnaro),
1450-640: The Pact and Mussolini’s leadership.” There were at least two secret anti-Mussolini meetings where a cloud of resentment focused on “Mussolini’s lingering leftist loyalties.” Many leading ras agitated for a leadership change, suggesting that someone else such as Gabriele D’Annunzio should “replace Mussolini.” Grandi and Balbo sought out D’Annunzio in August 1921, and encouraged him to lead the movement in an “insurrectionary march on Rome.” This proposed leadership change appealed to younger fascists who supported “neosyndicalist principles” found in syndicalist Alceste De Ambris’s Carta del Carnaro (Charter of Carnaro),
1508-546: The Third Fascist Congress in Rome from November 7 to 10, 1921, Mussolini was pressured into conceding to the majority delegation of squadristi leaders and members, abandoning his plans for a “Fascist Labor Party” and accepting the party as an "association of the fasci and their storm squads". In return for his concessions, Mussolini was recognised as the undisputed leader of the newly renamed National Fascist Party . The action squads were to become identified by their black shirts,
1566-451: The accord, Mussolini clearly voiced his opposition and contempt for the provincial paramilitary squads and their landowning allies, declaring that they were "the dullest, deafest, most miserable cast that exists in Italy". The agreement was short-lived since many of the action squads leaders denounced the pacification pact with the socialists, along with Mussolini’s leadership, arguing that
1624-442: The action squads ( squadristi ) and socialists and communist activists continued to escalate from 1919 to 1921. Revolutionary socialists were engaged in political assassinations, strikes, physical possession of factories, seizures of private land, and riots who often “coerced smallholders”(farmer owners) “as well as laborers into Socialist unions,” causing rural landowners to launch retaliatory assaults against socialist targets. Across
1682-735: The anti-socialist violence, finding it difficult to be put in a position to take a “categorically antileftist position,” since he had raised the possibility of forming a sort of “nationalist-leftist coalition government.” By 1921, the fasci movement had expanded to the point where almost every political position in Italy was represented, which was encouraged by Mussolini’s denials that he had “any programme” whatsoever, pointing out that fascism would “appeal simultaneously to ‘aristocrats and democrats, revolutionaries and reactionaries, proletarians and anti-proletarians, pacifists and anti-pacifists.’” Willing to court almost any populist movement, Mussolini found it politically advantageous at first to identify with
1740-735: The anti-socialist violence, finding it difficult to be put in a position to take a “categorically antileftist position,” since he had raised the possibility of forming a sort of “nationalist-leftist coalition government.” By 1921, the fasci movement had expanded to the point where almost every political position in Italy was represented, which was encouraged by Mussolini’s denials that he had “any programme” whatsoever, pointing out that fascism would “appeal simultaneously to ‘aristocrats and democrats, revolutionaries and reactionaries, proletarians and anti-proletarians, pacifists and anti-pacifists.’” Willing to court almost any populist movement, Mussolini found it politically advantageous at first to identify with
1798-425: The city of Bologna that denounced "Mussolini as a traitor to Fascism". Some squadristi paramilitary units completely abandoned Mussolini's fascist movement. There were secret anti-Mussolini meetings that fixated on "Mussolini's lingering leftist loyalties", which included his leadership of the Italian Socialist Party (1912–1914) and his admiration for Vladimir Lenin . The historian Richard Pipes stated that during
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1856-434: The countryside to dismiss socialist headquarters and to fracture trade unions. During the elections of 1921, the violence continued despite Mussolini's electoral success. There were 207 political killings occurred, and substantially more of the victims were socialists than fascists. Mussolini attempted to reduce the violence by the Pact of Pacification, but it soon became ineffective and was entirely ignored by squadristi . As
1914-402: The countryside. The squads were groups of 30 to 50 that were often led by former army officers. In towns in which socialism was still strong, squadrismo was a tool of intimidation. It was so violent that some have described the events as a civil war. That profoundly decreased the Italian government's credibility, which was seen as incapable of keeping law and order. The habitus of squadrismo
1972-729: The end of the Pacification Pact in the Il Popolo d'Italia on November 15, 1921. Pact of Pacification The Pact of Pacification or Pacification Pact was a peace agreement officially signed by Benito Mussolini , who would later become dictator of Italy, and other leaders of the Fasci with the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the General Confederation of Labor (CGL) in Rome on August 2 or 3, 1921. The Pact called for “immediate action to put an end to
2030-505: The fascists quickly drew attention through its ominous acts of violence. The movement grew exponentially from 1920 onwards with the Fasci di Combattimento , which launched assaults in Northern Italy in rural areas and contributed to the suppression of all other political and trade union organisations. Membership grew rapidly, and Mussolini soon declared war on socialist organisations, which led to "punitive expeditions" of squadre to
2088-449: The leadership of his movement,” whose violence might precipitate a general defeat by policing and military agencies. To remedy the situation, Mussolini challenged the squadristi head-on by signing the peace accord with the socialists in order to put an end to punitive raids and constrain the seemingly uncontrollable squadristi . Considering fascism to be his child, Mussolini wrote that agrarian fascism represented “the private interests of
2146-449: The leadership of his movement,” whose violence might precipitate a general defeat by policing and military agencies. To remedy the situation, Mussolini challenged the squadristi head-on by signing the peace accord with the socialists in order to put an end to punitive raids and constrain the seemingly uncontrollable squadristi . Considering fascism to be his child, Mussolini wrote that agrarian fascism represented “the private interests of
2204-416: The most sinister and contemptible classes in Italy.” He soon came to the realization that he had overplayed his hand in his attacks against the agrarian fascists, and finding himself in the minority, he resigned his position as the leader of fascism. If fascism was going to represent nothing but reactionary opposition, Mussolini “claimed to be prepared to wash his hands of it.” Although Mussolini resigned as
2262-416: The most sinister and contemptible classes in Italy.” He soon came to the realization that he had overplayed his hand in his attacks against the agrarian fascists, and finding himself in the minority, he resigned his position as the leader of fascism. If fascism was going to represent nothing but reactionary opposition, Mussolini “claimed to be prepared to wash his hands of it.” Although Mussolini resigned as
2320-497: The nation, but defense of private interests and of the dullest, deafest, most miserable caste that exists in Italy". In another terse response, Mussolini warned, "I shall defend this pact with all my strength, and if Fascism does not follow me in collaboration with the Socialists, at least no one can force me to follow Fascism". Mussolini was unable to gain significant control over the squadrismo to preserve his old alliance of national syndicalists , revolutionaries and Futurists . At
2378-420: The nationalistic movement of independent and loosely organized anti-socialist militias, although at the time he “did not want to lose his position on the left,” since he was considering the possibility of a “Fascist Labor Party” or “National Labor Party.” Mussolini envisioned a “coalition of labor syndicalists,” but the increasing violence between socialist and anti-socialist squads was harming his chances to amass
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2436-420: The nationalistic movement of independent and loosely organized anti-socialist militias, although at the time he “did not want to lose his position on the left,” since he was considering the possibility of a “Fascist Labor Party” or “National Labor Party.” Mussolini envisioned a “coalition of labor syndicalists,” but the increasing violence between socialist and anti-socialist squads was harming his chances to amass
2494-460: The northern provinces of Italy to denounce the peace pact. Mussolini had planned to assimilate the mostly-self-organising squadrismo into his movement, but the violence against socialists was compromising his strategy of not wanting to "lose his position on the left", which included the establishment of a Fascist Labor Party or National Labor Party. A number of squadristi leaders voiced opposition to Mussolini's leadership and plastered posters in
2552-552: The party’s name by Grandi and Balbos. As a result of Mussolini’s capitulation, the National Fascist Party would not be based on a coalition of labor syndicates, but on an “association of the fasci and their storm squads.” During congressional sessions, Mussolini agreed under pressure by the provincial chieftains to “disavow” what some called “the Appeasement Pact.” Mussolini finally announced publicly
2610-410: The party’s name by Grandi and Balbos. As a result of Mussolini’s capitulation, the National Fascist Party would not be based on a coalition of labor syndicates, but on an “association of the fasci and their storm squads.” During congressional sessions, Mussolini agreed under pressure by the provincial chieftains to “disavow” what some called “the Appeasement Pact.” Mussolini finally announced publicly
2668-423: The peace pact was announced, many of the leading ras opposed it, including Dino Grandi , Italo Balbo , Roberto Farinacci , and Piero Marsich, who refused to recognize the pact, creating a serious split. In the city of Bologna, posters appeared that accused “Mussolini as a traitor to Fascism.” In many Italian cities, including Florence, the local fasci decided to dissolve their local chapter to “protest against
2726-423: The peace pact was announced, many of the leading ras opposed it, including Dino Grandi , Italo Balbo , Roberto Farinacci , and Piero Marsich, who refused to recognize the pact, creating a serious split. In the city of Bologna, posters appeared that accused “Mussolini as a traitor to Fascism.” In many Italian cities, including Florence, the local fasci decided to dissolve their local chapter to “protest against
2784-465: The political strategy of entryism in which a smaller political movement aspires to capture a larger one under a degree of subterfuge and subversion. In a sense, as historian Stanley G. Payne explained, the “new mass Fascism” of the agrarian squadrists “had not been created by Mussolini,” but had instead “sprung up around him.” As Mussolini proceeded to ensnare the mostly self-organizing militias under his fascist banner, his movement began to experience
2842-465: The political strategy of entryism in which a smaller political movement aspires to capture a larger one under a degree of subterfuge and subversion. In a sense, as historian Stanley G. Payne explained, the “new mass Fascism” of the agrarian squadrists “had not been created by Mussolini,” but had instead “sprung up around him.” As Mussolini proceeded to ensnare the mostly self-organizing militias under his fascist banner, his movement began to experience
2900-439: The provincial paramilitary squads and their landowning allies, declaring that they were "the dullest, deafest, most miserable cast that exists in Italy". The agreement was short-lived since many of the action squads leaders denounced the pacification pact with the socialists, along with Mussolini’s leadership, arguing that the Duce "had not created the movement" and that they could "get along without him". The violence between
2958-456: The threats, assaults, reprisals, acts of vengeance, and personal violence of any description,” by either side for the “mutual respect” of “all economic organizations.” The Italian Futurists , Syndicalists and others favored Mussolini’s peace pact as an attempt at “reconciliation with the Socialists.” Others saw it as a means to form a "grand coalition of new mass parties" to "overthrow the liberal systems" via Parliament or civil society. In
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#17327646908483016-484: The turbulent times of infighting, "Mussolini would have been glad as late as 1920–21 to take under his wing the Italian Communists, for which he had great affinities". Many prominent ras pushed for new leadership, lending their support to Gabriele D’Annunzio to "replace Mussolini". Grandi and Balbo sought an audience with the radical nationalist D’Annunzio in August 1921 and offered him a position to lead
3074-410: The “mutual respect” of “all economic organizations.” The Italian Futurists , Syndicalists and others favored Mussolini’s peace pact as an attempt at “reconciliation with the Socialists.” Others saw it as a means to form a "grand coalition of new mass parties" to "overthrow the liberal systems" via Parliament or civil society. In the accord, Mussolini clearly voiced his opposition and contempt for
3132-451: Was a general feeling of disillusion. Diffused poverty, economic fractures and a social and moral political upheaval generated by the mobilisation of the war contributed to the unstable climate proceeding the armistice . That enabled an excess of violence to be present. Furthermore, (new) farmers were opposed to the new rural trade unions which wanted to control the agrarian economy. The middle class decided that it required to fend itself from
3190-430: Was a peace agreement officially signed by Benito Mussolini , who would later become dictator of Italy, and other leaders of the Fasci with the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the General Confederation of Labor (CGL) in Rome on August 2 or 3, 1921. The Pact called for “immediate action to put an end to the threats, assaults, reprisals, acts of vengeance, and personal violence of any description,” by either side for
3248-410: Was characterised by violence, and was used in a political way in which squadristi acted under the oversight of local leaders, also known as ras . Squadrismo had the protection from national and local leaders, which also legitimised and banalised its violence and enhanced the idea that there was no opposition possible to the new Fascist Party. At first, the movement had difficulty gaining power, but
3306-417: Was more specific in spelling out his worries, stating that fascism was drifting towards a “pure, authentic and exclusive movement of conservatism and reaction.” Not long after Mussolini tendered his resignation, Fascist National Council rejected his resignation, explaining that all of his potential rivals were “inexperienced.” During the Third Fascist Congress in Rome on Nov. 7-10, 1921, members voted to turn
3364-417: Was more specific in spelling out his worries, stating that fascism was drifting towards a “pure, authentic and exclusive movement of conservatism and reaction.” Not long after Mussolini tendered his resignation, Fascist National Council rejected his resignation, explaining that all of his potential rivals were “inexperienced.” During the Third Fascist Congress in Rome on Nov. 7-10, 1921, members voted to turn
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