The Staffora is a river of the Oltrepò Pavese in the Province of Pavia , north-west Italy and a right-side tributary of the Po . It is probably the river known to the Romans as the Iria .
106-582: The river rises in the Ligurian Apennines at the Fontana di S. Giacomo, elevation 1,343 metres (4,406 ft), near the Passo del Giovà, which lies just to the east of the peak of Monte Chiappo in the commune of Santa Margherita di Staffora . It flows at first through a deep and narrow valley, receiving from the right the waters of the torrents Montagnola and Aronchio before reaching Varzi where
212-748: A 2017 study, the dimensions of the upper and lower carnassial teeth of the Italian wolf are close to those of C. l. maximus . Fluctuations in the size of C. lupus carnassial teeth correlate with the spread of megafauna. The Italian wolf underwent a reduction in body size with the loss of the red deer during the Italian Renaissance only centuries ago. The Italian wolf typically weighs 25–35 kg (55–77 lb), though some big males have been weighed at 40–45 kg (88–99 lb). It measures 110–148 cm (43–58 in) in body length and 50–70 cm (20–28 in) in shoulder height. The pelt
318-639: A continuous distribution along the entire Apennines, from Aspromonte to the Maritime Alps , with some isolated populations in Tuscany and Lazio . In 2008, a wolf carcass was discovered in the Fiemme Valley in Trentino , and by 2010, 45–55 wolves were estimated to have recolonised Piedmont . IUCN assessment information about peninsular population is as follows: “The Italian wolf population
424-548: A derivation with which they all agree. Wilhelm Deecke said: "[…] its etymology is doubtful but some derive it from the Ligurian-Celtish Pen or Ben , which means mountain peak." A large number of place names seem to reflect pen : Penarrig, Penbrynn, Pencoid, Penmon, Pentir, etc. or ben : Beanach, Benmore, Benabuird, Benan, Bencruachan, etc. In one derivation Pen/Ben is cognate with Old Irish cenn , 'head', but an original *kwen- would be required, which
530-544: A picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of twenty men from the Ravenna fleet. Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a considerable number of good mineral springs , some of which are thermal (such as Bagni di Lucca , Montecatini , Monsummano , Porretta, Telese), while others are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini , Cinciano),
636-539: A place on the river's course near Voghera: cascina Stàffela. This Lombardy location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a river in Italy is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Apennine Mountains The Apennines or Apennine Mountains ( / ˈ æ p ə n aɪ n / AP -ə-nyne ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀπέννινα ὄρη or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; Latin : Appenninus or Apenninus Mons –
742-526: A second mDNA haplotype that belonged to the Italian wolf, and called for the morphologically and genetically distinct Italian wolf to be considered as a subspecies. In 2019, an mDNA study of 19 Late Pleistocene-Holocene wolf samples from northern Italy found that these fell within mitochondrial haplogroup 2 except for one sample. Four out of the six detected haplotypes matched ancient Beringian wolves , ancient wolves from northern Europe, some modern European and Chinese wolf populations, and are closely related to
848-715: A series of tunnels have been constructed to conduct "the Bologna-Florence rail line", which is neither a single line nor a single tunnel. The Porrettana Line went into service in 1864, the Direttissima in 1934 and the High Speed in 1996. A few dozen tunnels support the three of them, the longest on the High-Speed Line being the Voglia Tunnel at 16.757 km (10.412 mi). The longest is on
954-465: A singular with plural meaning; Italian : Appennini [appenˈniːni] ) are a mountain range consisting of parallel smaller chains extending c. 1,200 km (750 mi) the length of peninsular Italy . In the northwest they join the Ligurian Alps at Altare . In the southwest they end at Reggio di Calabria , the coastal city at the tip of the peninsula. Since 2000
1060-701: A stone marks the top of the pass. In the vicinity are fragments of the old road and three ruins of former fortifications. At Carcare , the main roads connect with the upper Bormida valley (Bormida di Mallare) before turning west. The Scrivia , the Trebbia and the Taro , tributaries of the Po River , drain the northeast slopes. The range contains dozens of peaks. Toward the southern end the Aveto Natural Regional Park includes Monte Penna . Nearby
1166-452: A study compared the mDNA haplotypes of 24 ancient wolf specimens from Western Europe dated between 44,000 and 1,200 YBP with those of modern gray wolves. The phylogenetic tree indicated that the haplotypes represented two haplogroups that were separated by five mutational steps. The ancient wolf samples from Western Europe all belonged to haplogroup 2, indicating haplogroup 2 predominance in this region for over 40,000 years before and after
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#17327732349371272-546: A threat. Since the 1990s, the Italian wolf's range has expanded into southeastern France and Switzerland. The Italian wolf features prominently in Latin and Italian cultures, such as the she-wolf in the legendary founding of Rome . For this reason it is unofficially considered the national animal of Italy. The modern Italian wolf was first recognised as a distinct subspecies in 1921 by zoologist Giuseppe Altobello , who noted that its colour and skull differed from that of
1378-479: A tooth or tuft of fur was worn as a talisman against the evil eye . The Romans apparently did not consider wolves overly dangerous to people, with the only references to them attacking people being proverbial or mythological. Although Italy has no records of wolf attacks on humans after World War II and the eradication of rabies in the 1960s, historians examining church and administrative records from northern Italy's central Po Valley region (which includes
1484-606: Is at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft), leaving the Apennines below it, except for the one remaining glacier. Snow may fall from October to May. Rainfall increases with latitude. The range's climates, depending on elevation and latitude, are the Oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate . The mammal fauna is mainly composed of Italian wolves (endemic), Corsican hare , badgers , weasels , foxes , marmots , Etruscan shrew , Crested porcupine , European snow vole and Apennine shrews (endemic), Marsican brown bears (endemic),
1590-629: Is deep and separates the Apennines on the left bank from a lesser range, the Tuscan Anti-Apennines (Sub-Apennines) on its right. The Apennine System forms an irregular arc with centers of curvature located in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The northern and southern segments comprise parallel chains that can be viewed as single overall mountain ridges, such as the Ligurian Mountains. The center, being thicker and more complex,
1696-512: Is estimated to be 500-800 individuals distributed along the Apennines. The shape of the range is narrow and elongated, restricted to the Apennines. The population has limited exchanges with the population of the Western Alps and recent genetic evidence indicates a flux of genes only in the direction toward the Alps. In spite of the recent increase in numbers and range, the Italian wolf population
1802-494: Is generally of a grey-fulvous colour, which reddens in summer. The belly and cheeks are more lightly coloured, and dark bands are present on the back and tail tip, and occasionally along the fore limbs. Black wolves have been reported in the north-central Apennines, though their origin is unknown, as some melanistic individuals show no sign of wolf-dog hybridisation . It typically lives in packs of two to seven individuals. Wolf populations strongly declined across Europe during
1908-663: Is geologically divided into an inner and an outer arc with regard to the centers of curvature. The geologic definition, however, is not the same as the geographic. Based on rock type and orogenic incidents, the northern segment of the arc is divided into the Outer Northern Apennines (ONA) and the Inner Northern Apennines (INA). The Central Apennines are divided into the Umbrian–Marchean ( Appennino umbro-marchigiano ) or Roman Apennines in
2014-470: Is mainly grasslands of the Montane grasslands and shrublands biome; with Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, and Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub below it. The tree line in the Apennines can be found in the range 1,600 m (5,200 ft) to 2,000 m (6,600 ft). About 5% of the map area covered by the Apennines is at or above the tree line—or in the treeline ecotone. The snow line
2120-544: Is part of the Monti Sibillini , incorporated into Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini . Further north is the parco naturale regionale della Gola della Rossa e di Frasassi [ it ] , in which are the Gola della Rossa ("Red Gorge") and Frasassi Caves . Still further north is Parco Sasso Simone e Simoncello. The Italian Park Service calls it the "green heart" of Italy. The region is heavily forested , such as
2226-495: Is still highly vulnerable to local extermination from human pressures (poison, shooting, car accidents) and the stochastic nature of these events suggest to maintain a cautionary assessment. The population does not qualify for the category Endangered, but it may easily reverse its current favorable status.” In the early 1990s Italian wolves began to cross from Italy into France, where they have become established in approximately one third of its contintental territories, particularly in
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#17327732349372332-566: Is the Bocca Serriola Pass in northern Umbria , which links Fano and Città di Castello . The Tiber River at Rome flows from Monte Fumaiolo in the Tuscan-Romagnol Apennine from northeast to southwest, projecting into the Tyrrhenian Sea at right angles to the shore. The upper Tiber, however, flows from northwest to southeast, gradually turning through one right angle clockwise. The northern Tiber Valley
2438-727: Is the Italian sparrow . The reasons for this choice are related to the fact that the Italian wolf, which inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps , features prominently in Latin and Italian cultures, such as in the legend of the founding of Rome . In Italy the transhumance took place mainly starting from the Abruzzi Apennines, moving both towards the Tuscan and Lazio Maremma and above all towards
2544-421: Is the highest point of Ligurian Apennines, Monte Maggiorasca at 1,800 m (5,900 ft). The main and only feasible overland route connecting the coastal plain of Liguria to the north Italian plain runs through Bocchetta di Altare. It has always been of strategic importance. Defenders of north Italy have had to control it since ancient times, as the various fortifications placed there testify. Trenitalia ,
2650-479: Is typologically not found in languages that feature labio-velars . Windisch and Brugmann reconstructed Indo-European *kwi- , deriving also the Greek Pindus Mountains from the same root, but *kwen- < *kwi- is not explained by any rule. By some, English pin , as well as pen and Latin pinna or penna , 'feather' (in the sense of the horn of the quill), have been connected to
2756-464: The Alpine system . Prior to the explosion of data on the topic from about the year 2000, many authors took the approach that the Apennines had the same origin as the Alps. Even today, some authors use the term Alpine-Apennine system. They are not, however, the same system and did not have the same origin. The Alps were millions of years old before the Apennines rose from the sea. The northward movement of
2862-628: The Aterno from the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and so is the Sangro . The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome to Pescara via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte to Terni (and thence to Foligno ) follows the Nera valley; while from Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the central chain to Aquila, whence it follows
2968-855: The Dinaric Alps - Balkan Mountains region, the Iberian peninsula, and Italy diverged from each other 10,500 years ago followed by negligible gene flow between them. Their long-term isolation may explain the morphological and genetic differences between them. Golden jackal 1.9 million YBP [REDACTED] Coyote 1.1 million YBP [REDACTED] Himalayan wolf 630,000 YBP [REDACTED] Indian grey wolf 270,000 YBP [REDACTED] Italian wolf (Apennine Peninsula only) [REDACTED] clade B (pockets of Eurasia only) [REDACTED] clade C (pockets of Eurasia only) Dog 40,000 YBP [REDACTED] Holarctic Gray wolf 40,000 YBP [REDACTED] Canis lupus maximus (Boudadi-Maligne, 2012)
3074-728: The Eurasian eagle-owl There are also numerous amphibians such as the Apennine yellow-bellied toad (endemic), the Italian cave salamander (endemic), the Italian newt (endemic), the Italian stream frog (endemic) and the Spectacled salamander (endemic), the Italian tree frog (endemic), the Agile frog , the Italian edible frog (endemic), the Common toad , the Balearic green toad ,
3180-684: The European fallow deer , the European mouflon and the Pyrenean chamois . There are also numerous birds such as the golden eagle , the Bonelli's eagle , the Eurasian goshawk , the hoopoe , the hawk , the European roller , the White-backed woodpecker , the European green woodpecker , the Alpine chough , the Egyptian vulture , the European nightjar , the Italian sparrow (endemic) and
3286-643: The Ligurian Sea in the Gulf of Genoa , from about Savona below the upper Bormida River valley to about La Spezia ( La Cisa pass ) below the upper Magra River valley. The range follows the Gulf of Genoa separating it from the upper Po Valley . The northwestern border follows the line of the Bormida River to Acqui Terme . There the river continues northeast to Alessandria in the Po Valley , but
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3392-703: The Majella Massif. Among them are two national parks: Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park and Majella National Park ; and the Regional Park of the Monti Simbruini. Gran Sasso contains Corno Grande , the highest peak of the Apennines (2912 m). Other features between the western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti , the valley of the Salto, and the Lago Fucino ; while between
3498-838: The Northern spectacled salamander (endemic), the Fire salamander , the Smooth newt , the Alpine newt , and the Italian crested newt . The reptile fauna is mainly composed of suc as the Italian Aesculapian snake (endemic), the Dice snake , the Green whip snake , the Aesculapian snake , the Smooth snake , the Vipera ursinii , the Vipera aspis , the Italian wall lizard (endemic),
3604-486: The Po Valley in northern Italy. Compressional forces have been acting from north to south in the Alps and from south to north in the Apennines, but instead of being squeezed into mountains the valley has been subsiding at 1 to 4 mm (0.16 in) per year since about 25 mya , before the Apennines existed. It is now known to be not an erosional feature, but is a filled portion of the Adriatic Trench, called
3710-513: The Podarcis muralis , the European green lizard . Notable Apennine freshwater fishes are the Brook lamprey (endemic), Lombardy lamprey , Italian bleak (endemic), Horse barbel (endemic), Eurasian carp , Scardola scardafa (endemic), European perch , Chubius Chub , Tench and Northern pike . The Italian wolf is the national animal of Italy, while the national bird of the country
3816-1234: The Pollino National Park , the Vesuvius National Park , the Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni National Park , the Appennino Lucano - Val d'Agri - Lagonegrese National Park , the Sila National Park , the Aspromonte National Park . Important rivers originate from the Apennines are the Panaro , the Secchia , the Reno , the Marecchia , the Rubicon , the Metauro , the Arno , the Tiber ,
3922-959: The Savio , the Nera , the Velino , the Tronto , the Aterno-Pescara , the Aniene , the Liri , the Sangro and the Volturno . Among the lakes of glacial origin of the Alpine type is Lago di Pilato . The Apennines were created in the Apennine orogeny beginning in the early Neogene (about 20 mya , the middle Miocene ) and continuing today. Geographically they are partially (or appear to be) continuous with
4028-399: The Tavoliere delle Puglie . The Apennines are to some extent covered with forests, though these were probably more extensive in classical times ( Pliny mentions especially pine , oak and beech woods, Hist. Nat . xvi. 177); they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at reforestation have been made by
4134-441: The common European wolf . He described the Italian population's skull as being rounder in form than that of the typical European wolf, with smaller teeth closely approaching those of dogs and golden jackals in appearance. Altobello's classification was later rejected by several authors, including Reginald Innes Pocock , who synonymised C. l. italicus with C. l. lupus . In 2002, the noted paleontologist R.M. Nowak reaffirmed
4240-402: The last glacial maximum . A comparison of current and past frequencies indicated that in Europe, haplogroup 2 became outnumbered by haplogroup 1 over the past several thousand years, but in North America, haplogroup 2 became extinct and was replaced by haplogroup 1 after the last glacial maximum. The Italian wolf is the only remaining grey wolf subspecies included in this ancient haplogroup since
4346-409: The orogeny . These extend in a northwest–southeast direction from the River Tronto to the River Sangro , which drain into the Adriatic . The coastal hills of the east extend between San Benedetto del Tronto in the north and Torino di Sangro in the south. The eastern chain consists mainly of the southern part of the Monti Sibillini , the Monti della Laga , the Gran Sasso d'Italia Massif and
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4452-414: The 18th and 19th centuries largely due to human persecution, and by the end of the Second World War they had been eradicated from all of Central Europe and almost all of Northern Europe . Their population decline continued until the 1960s, with isolated populations surviving in Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Finland. Wolf populations have commenced recovering naturally since then. The Italian wolf
4558-422: The Adriatic foredeep after its function as a subduction zone was discovered. Italian wolf The Italian wolf ( Canis lupus italicus or Canis lupus lupus ), also known as the Apennine wolf , is a subspecies of the grey wolf native to the Italian Peninsula . It inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps , though it is undergoing expansion towards the north and east. As of 2022
4664-421: The African Plate and its collision with the European Plate then caused the Alpine Orogeny , beginning in the late Mesozoic. The band of mountains created extends from Spain to Turkey in a roughly east–west direction and includes the Alps. The Apennines are much younger, extend from northwest to southeast, and are not a displacement of the Alpine chain. The key evidence of the difference is the geologic behavior of
4770-538: The Apennine range, and so are Cilento hills on the west. On the converse the promontory of Mount Gargano , on the east, is completely isolated, and so are the Campanian volcanic arc near Naples . The district is traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to Benevento and on to Avellino , and from south-west to northeast by the railways from Caianello via Isernia to Campobasso and Termoli, from Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera Inferiore and Avellino to Rocchetta Sant'Antonio,
4876-435: The Calabrian southern Apennine Mountains extend along the northern coast of Sicily (the Sicilian Apennines, Italian Appennino siculo )— Pizzo Carbonara (6,493 feet (1,979 m)) being the highest peak. The number of vascular plant species in the Apennines has been estimated at 5,599. Of these, 728 (23.6%) are in the treeline ecotone . Hemicryptophytes predominate in the entire Apennine chain. The tree line ecotone
4982-434: The Direttissima, the Great Apennine Tunnel, which at 18.5 kilometres (11.5 miles) is the longest entirely within Italy, although the Simplon Tunnel , which connects Italy and Switzerland, is longer. Automobile traffic is carried by the Autostrada del Sole, Route A1, which goes through numerous shorter tunnels, bypassing an old road, originally Roman, through Futa Pass. In December 2015, a new Route A1 called Variante di Valico
5088-422: The Elder , was minimal compared to other animals such as snakes or bears and, contrary to popular imagery, Roman standard bearers did not wear wolf skins, with the only units attested to have worn them being the velites , who were the poorest and youngest warriors using the wolf skins to distinguish themselves. Wolves entering cities or temples were usually only killed when the animal had no means of escape, unlike
5194-429: The Environment Ministry of Italy, following the recommendations of the Apennines Park of Europe Project, has defined the Apennines System to include the mountains of north Sicily , a total distance of 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) . The system forms an arc enclosing the east of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas. The Apennines conserve some intact ecosystems that have survived human intervention. In these are some of
5300-419: The French Alps and Provence , but also throughout the Massif Central . Even before the presence of wolves was publicly reported in France, some farmers around the Mercantour National Park had reported unusual stock depredation which was at the time attributed by authorities to uncontrolled domestic dogs. Wolves are protected in France; in order to protect the livelihoods of farmers from wolf predation, from
5406-434: The Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding. The railway from South Eufemia to Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian Peninsula , culminating in the Aspromonte (1,960 metres (6,420 ft)) to the east of Reggio di Calabria . In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant. Finally,
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#17327732349375512-413: The Italian wolf population consisted of 100–110 individuals distributed throughout a fragmented range in the main mountainous areas of south-central Italy, from the Sibillini to La Sila . In 1983, the population had reached 200–220 individuals inhabiting two unconnected areas in central and southern Italy. By the late 1990s, the Italian wolf population had increased to an estimated 400–500 individuals with
5618-411: The Late Bronze Age as it is defined in Greece and the Aegean. The people of the Apennine culture were alpine cattle herdsmen grazing their animals over the meadows and groves of mountainous central Italy. They lived in small hamlets located in defensible places. On the move between summer pastures they built temporary camps or lived in caves and rock shelters. Their range was not necessarily confined to
5724-414: The Ligurian Apennines are in Liguria . The etymology most frequently repeated, because of its semantic appropriateness, is that it derives from the Celtic penn , 'mountain', 'summit': A-penn-inus , which could have been assigned during the Celtic domination of north Italy in the 4th century BC or before. The name originally applied to the north Apennines. However historical linguists have never found
5830-487: The Riserva Naturale Statale Gola del Furlo, where Furlo Pass on the Via Flaminia is located. Both the Etruscans and the Romans constructed tunnels here. The Abruzzi Apennines, located in Abruzzo , Molise and southeastern Lazio , contain the highest peaks and most rugged terrain of the Apennines. They are known in history as the territory of the Italic peoples first defeated by the city of Rome . Coincidentally they exist in three parallel folds or chains surviving from
5936-410: The Romans used the Via Flaminia between Rome and Rimini . The montane distance between Florence in Tuscany and Bologna in Emilia-Romagna is shorter, but exploitation of it required the conquest of more rugged terrain, which was not feasible for the ancients. Railway lines were constructed over the mountains in the early 19th century but they were of low capacity and unimprovable. Since 1856,
6042-411: The Sele—joined by the Negro and Calore—on the west, and the Bradano , Basento , Agri, Sinni on the east, which flow into the gulf of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some 64 kilometres (40 mi). The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending
6148-439: The Tuscan Apennines. They extend to the upper Tiber River . The highest point is Monte Cimone at 2,165 m (7,103 ft). A separate branch, the Apuan Alps , goes southwest, bordering the coast south of La Spezia . Whether they are to be considered part of the Apennines is a matter of opinion; certainly, they are part of the Apennine System. Topographically only the valley of the River Serchio , which running parallel to
6254-486: The alps from other wolf populations for many thousands of years. In 1992, an examination of the mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) of 26 grey wolf populations worldwide revealed that the Italian wolf has a unique mitochondrial haplotype (a mutation) not shared by any other grey wolf population. Further tests on grey wolf mDNA revealed that, unlike several European grey wolf populations, Italian wolves do not share haplotypes with either other grey wolves or domestic dogs. In 2010,
6360-399: The best-preserved forests and montane grasslands in Europe, now protected by national parks and, within them, a high diversity of flora and fauna. These mountains are one of the last refuges of the big European predators such as the Italian wolf and the Marsican brown bear , now extinct in the rest of Central Europe . The mountains lend their name to the Apennine peninsula that forms
6466-434: The canton of Glarus, Switzerland, the first hybrid offspring has been documented, born to parent wolves originating from both of these populations. The animal features prominently in pre-Roman, Roman , and later Italian cultures . In Roman mythology , the wolf played a role in the founding of Rome by suckling the twins Romulus and Remus . According to Terry Jones , "The Romans did not see [the tale of Romulus, Remus and
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#17327732349376572-440: The cantons of Grisons, Valais and Ticino . Italian, French and Swiss wolves share the same mtDNA haplotype, a haplotype that has never been found in any other wolf population worldwide, which corroborate the scenario of a natural expansion of wolves from the Italian source population. Although the Italian and Dinaric wolf populations have remained distinct for a long time, their ranges are beginning to overlap as they expand. In
6678-432: The case with wasps, oxen, and owls, which were quickly eliminated if they entered sacred areas. Negative attitudes towards wolves in Italy largely began with the invasion of the Lombards , who zoomorphically described their raids and invasions as wolf raids, bringing wolves into disrepute. The belief in werewolves was still widespread in Italy during the early 1920s, and covering their faces when resting outside at night
6784-461: The central and eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona . The chief rivers on the west are the Nera , with its tributaries the Velino and Salto, and the Aniene , both of which fall into the Tiber. On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow into the Adriatic , from which the highest points of the chain are some 20 km distant, such as the Tronto , Tordino, Vomano and others. The Pescara , which receives
6890-480: The coast turns and exits into the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Pisa , separates the Apuan Alps from the Apennines; geologically the rock is of a slightly different composition, marble . The Roman marble industry was centered at Luna , and is now active in Carrara . As the Tuscan Apennines divide the peninsula between the Po Valley and the plains and hills of Tuscany and Lazio , transportation over them has been used to achieve political and economic unity. Historically
6996-399: The derivation of ‘Voghera’, which lies on the left bank of the Staffora, from Vicus Iria . Some, however, have identified the Iria with the Scrivia . The Roman Emperor Majorian was beheaded on the 7th of August 461 AD, after 5 days of torture by his Magister Militum Ricimer , near the river. The word ‘Stàffora’, once ‘Stàfula’, comes from the Lombard "Staffel", which first referred to
7102-423: The eastern outskirts of Voghera , the principal town on its course, before entering the Po near Cervesina . Although the river flows throughout the year, fed by perennial springs as well as by seasonal rains and melting ice, the regime is torrential: its discharge can vary between 0.7 and 675 cubic metres per second (25 and 23,837 cu ft/s) The river is usually identified with the Roman Iria, following
7208-399: The extinction of the Honshu wolf . In 2016, a study of mDNA sequences of both modern and ancient wolves indicated that in Europe, the two most genetically distinct haplotypes form the Iberian wolf and separately the Italian wolf. The phylogenetic tree generated from the sequences showed the Italian wolf positioned close to the ancient wolves of the Late Pleistocene. In 2017, a study found
7314-423: The government, much remains to be done. They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the Abruzzi : Pliny ( Hist. Nat . xi. 240) praises the cheese of the Apennines. In the forests Italian wolves were frequent, and still are found, the flocks being protected against them by large sheep-dogs; Marsican brown bears , however, which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely disappeared. Nor are
7420-429: The hills; their pottery has been found on the Capitoline Hill in Rome as well as on the islands mentioned above. The Apennines are divided into three sectors: northern ( Appennino settentrionale ), central ( Appennino centrale ), and southern ( Appennino meridionale ). A number of long hiking trails wind through the Apennines. Of note is European walking route E1 coming from northern Europe and traversing
7526-422: The junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta, Bari, and Taranto ) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as the railways: the Via Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi , while the Via Traiana ran nearly to Troia (near Foggia) and thence to Bari. The valley of the Ofanto , which runs into the Adriatic close to Barletta , marks
7632-456: The late 1990s the French government has subsidised various methods of protecting flocks from depredation, including electrified pasture fencing, secured electrified night pens, hiring of additional farm hands, and the purchase, training and upkeep of livestock guardian dogs. The Italian wolf was first sighted in southwestern France in 1992. In the two decades following its initial recolonisation,
7738-619: The latter of which was incorporated into Latin . Although the Romans did not worship wolves, killing them was likely considered taboo ; unlike the Etruscans , the Romans very rarely sacrificed wolves in rituals, and no records have been found of wolves being used in the amphitheatres , despite being more numerous and easily accessible compared to other, more exotic animals used. The use of wolves in Roman folk medicine , while attested by Pliny
7844-526: The lengths of the northern and central Apennines. The Grand Italian Trail begins in Trieste and after winding through the Alpine arc traverses the entire Apennine system, Sicily and Sardinia. The northern Apennines consist of three subchains : the Ligurian ( Appennino ligure ), Tuscan-Emilian ( Appennino tosco-emiliano ), and Umbrian Apennines ( Appennino umbro ). The Ligurian Apennines border
7950-508: The major part of Italy. They are mostly verdant, although one side of the highest peak, Corno Grande , is partially covered by Calderone glacier , the only glacier in the Apennines. The eastern slopes down to the Adriatic Sea are steep, whilst the western slopes form foothills on which most of the towns of peninsular Italy are located. The mountains tend to be named after the province or provinces in which they are located; for example
8056-472: The morphological distinctiveness of the Italian wolf in a study on grey wolf skulls from Italy, other Eurasian localities, and dog skulls. The results of this assessment showed no overlap in the skull morphology of Italian wolves and other grey wolves and dogs. Among the discovered characteristics distinguishing the Italian wolf were its relatively narrow palate between the first premolars , a broad frontal shield , and shallow jugal bone . The study recommended
8162-649: The mountains bend away to the southeast. The upper Bormida can be reached by a number of roads proceeding inland at a right angle to the coast southwest of Savona , the chief one being the Autostrada Torino-Savona. They ascend to the Bocchetta di Altare , sometimes called Colle di Cadibona , 436 m (1,430 ft), the border between the Ligurian Alps along the coast to the west and the Ligurian Apennines. A bronze plaque fixed to
8268-605: The name. This view has the word originating in Latium inconsistently with the theory of the northern origin. None of these derivations is accepted unquestionably. The Apennine culture is a technology complex in central and southern Italy from the Italian Middle Bronze Age (15th–14th centuries BC). In the mid-20th century the Apennine was divided into Proto-, Early, Middle and Late sub- phases , but now archaeologists prefer to consider as "Apennine" only
8374-587: The north and the Abruzzi Apennines ( Appennino abruzzese ) in the south. It extends from Bocca Serriola pass in the north to Forlì pass in the south. The west border of the Umbria-Marche Apennines (or Appennino umbro-marchigiano )) runs through Cagli . They extend south to the Tronto River, the south border of the ONA. The highest peak, Monte Vettore , at 2,478 m (8,130 ft),
8480-649: The northern termination of the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata ), which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basento (on the east)—which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via Potenza to Metaponto —the second range begins to run due north and south as far as the plain of Sibari . The highest point is the Monte Pollino 2,233 metres (7,325 ft). The chief rivers are
8586-750: The ornamental pottery style of the later phase of Middle Bronze Age (BM3). This phase is preceded by the Grotta Nuova facies (central Italy) and by the Protoapennine B facies (southern Italy) and succeeded by the Subapennine facies of 13th-century ("Bronzo Recente"). Apennine pottery is a burnished ware incised with spirals, meanders and geometrical zones, filled with dots or transverse dashes. It has been found on Ischia island in association with LHII and LHIII pottery and on Lipari in association with LHIIIA pottery, which associations date it to
8692-564: The posterior denticules on the lower premolars p2, p3, p4 and upper P2 and P3 are highly developed, and the diameter of the lower carnassial (m1) were larger than any known European wolf. Wolf body size in Europe has followed a steady increase from their first appearance up to the peak of the last glacial maximum. The size of these wolves is thought to be an adaptation to a cold environment ( Bergmann's rule ) and plentiful game, as their remains have been found in association with reindeer fossils. In
8798-603: The recognition of Canis lupus italicus . As of 2005 , it is classed by the third edition of Mammal Species of the World as synonymous with C. l. lupus . Nevertheless, the National Center for Biotechnology Information does list and publish research papers recognising its distinctiveness. The last specimen of the Mosbach wolf Canis mosbachensis in Europe dates to 456–416 thousand years ago, when it gave rise to
8904-522: The return of the first wolves, in 2012 in the canton of Grisons . The reproducing female F07 of this first pack was confirmed to be still alive in 2023, making it 13–14 years old. Since the formation of the first pack, the Swiss population is growing rapidly. In 2023, there were 240 wolves, 18 wolf packs entirely in Switzerland and five on the border to France or Italy. Most of these wolf packs roam in
9010-641: The road and identified in Baix Empordà , Catalonia in 2018. Technicians and veterinarians of the Torreferrussa Wildlife Center identified the body as being of the subspecies Canis lupus italicus . The first evidence of grey wolf expansion into Switzerland occurred in 1995–1996 in the southern Canton of Valais , where around 100 sheep were killed. In 1998–1999, 40 sheep were killed and two wolves were found dead from poaching and car collisions. The first wolf pack formed 17 years after
9116-541: The sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the granite mountains of Calabria begin. The first group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulfs of South Eufemia and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is 1,930 metres (6,330 ft) (the Botte Donato ). The forests which covered it in ancient times supplied
9222-431: The she-wolf] as a charming story; they meant to show that they had imbibed wolfish appetites and ferocity with their mother's milk". The wolf was also considered sacred to Mars , and to see a wolf before going into battle was considered a good omen. The origin of the myth can be traced back to a wolf cult among the neighbouring Sabines . The Sabines had two words for wolf: hirpus (used in religious contexts) and lupus ,
9328-568: The state railway system, highly developed on the coastal plain, now traverses the mountains routinely through a number of railway tunnels, such as the one at Giovi Pass . The southeastern border of the Ligurian Apennines is the Fiume Magra , which projects into the Tyrrhenian Sea south of La Spezia , and the Fiume Taro , which runs in the opposite direction to join the Po. The divide between
9434-679: The three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may be named the Matese , the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto 2,050 metres (6,725 ft). The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or Garigliano with its tributary the Sacco, the Volturno , Sebeto, Sarno, on the north the Trigno, Biferno and Fortore . Daunian mountains , in Apulia , are connected with
9540-496: The two haplotypes currently found in the Italian wolves. The Italian wolf haplotypes were only one or two mutations away from those of the Pleistocene wolves, indicating mutation in their Italian glacial refuge. The Italian wolf population represents genetic uniqueness highlighted in several mitochondrial and nuclear DNA studies. It is the only remaining wolf population in Europe which belongs exclusively to an mDNA haplogroup that
9646-794: The two upper river valleys is the Cisa Pass . Under it (in two tunnels) runs the Autostrada della Cisa between Spezia and Parma . Starting at Cisa Pass , the mountain chain turns further to the southeast, to cross the peninsula along the border between the Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany regions. They are named the Tuscan–Emilian Apennines west of the Futa Pass and the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines east of it, or just
9752-643: The valley begins to widen. The torrent Crenna enters from the right and the Lella from the left before the Staffora receives its major affluents: from the right: the torrent Nizza at Ponte Nizza and the torrent Ardivestra at Godiasco and from the left the torrent Semola near Ponte Nizza. The river flows through Salice Terme (administratively a frazione of Godiasco) before entering the Pianura Padana at Rivanazzano Terme . The Staffora then passes through
9858-749: The valley of the Aterno to Sulmona. In ancient times the Via Salaria , Via Caecilia and Via Tiburtina all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast . The volcanic mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini , part of the Volscian chain, by the valleys of the Sacco and Liri . In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley,
9964-528: The valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia, which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia [ it ] , a branch of the Via Traiana , ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum . At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile and Crati flow to
10070-851: The water of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water elsewhere. The Apennines are home to twelve Italian national parks : the Appennino Tosco-Emiliano National Park , the Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park , the Monti Sibillini National Park , the Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park , the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park , the Maiella National Park ,
10176-504: The wild goats called rotae , spoken of by Marcus Terentius Varro ( Rerum rusticarum II. i. 5), which may have been either Pyrenean chamois or steinbock , to be found. Brigandage appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the more remote parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently. An inscription found near the Furlo pass was set up in AD 246 by an evocatus Augusti (a member of
10282-487: The wolf Canis lupus . The earliest remains of a wolf in Europe were found in the Middle Pleistocene site of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio, 20 km (12 mi) north-west of Rome in deposits dated 406 thousand years ago. The genetic analysis of Apennine wolves indicates that they went through a population decline of 100–1,000 fold between the past 4,700–23,800 years, which indicates genetic isolation south of
10388-634: The wolf has expanded its range at the west of the Rhône , in the Massif Central, the eastern Pyrenees , and the Jura and Vosges Mountains . At least 13 transient Italian wolves (12 males and a female) were counted in Catalonia between 2000 and 2011, a century after the local Iberian wolf ( C. l. signatus ) was extirpated from the area. One of these was reported in the media to have been killed on
10494-439: The wolf population within Italy is estimated to be 3,307 individuals. Although not universally recognised as a distinct subspecies, it nonetheless possesses a unique mtDNA haplotype and a distinct skull morphology . It has been strictly protected in Italy since the 1970s, when the population reached a low of 70–100 individuals. The population is increasing in number, though illegal hunting and persecution still constitute
10600-544: Was a species larger than all other known fossil and extant wolves from Western Europe. The fossilized remains of this Late Pleistocene subspecies were found across a wide area of south-western France at Jaurens cave, Nespouls , Corrèze dated 31,000 YBP; Maldidier cave, La Roque-Gageac , Dordogne dated 22,500 YBP; and Gral pit-fall, Sauliac-sur-Célé , Lot dated 16,000 YBP. The wolf's long bones are 10% longer than those of extant European wolves and 20% longer than its probable ancestor, C. l. lunellensis . The teeth are robust,
10706-529: Was first given legal protection on 23 July 1971, with a nationwide population census being taken in 1973. This census was funded by the Italian branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature as part of a conservation plan dubbed "Operazione San Francesco” (Operation Saint Francis, linked to the traditional legend of peace set by the saint between wolf and men of Gubbio in Umbria region). The census revealed that
10812-449: Was once traditional among rural people, as sleeping whilst facing the full moon was thought to transform the sleeper into a wolf. The wolf also featured prominently in Italian folk medicine. Baby colic was treated by tying a sack filled with a piece of wolf gut around the child's neck, while miscarriages were prevented by tying a wolf's intestine around the mother's abdomen. Rheumatism and tonsillitis were treated with wolf fat, while
10918-607: Was once widespread in central and western Europe for over 40,000 years, and in North America until the Last Glacial Maximum . Additionally, one canid specimen from the Cava Filo archaeological site of San Lazzaro di Savena , Bologna fell within the domestic dog clade A haplotype — it was radio-carbon dated to be 24,700 years old. In 2020, a genomic study of Eurasian wolves found that the populations of
11024-402: Was opened after many years of construction consisting of major tunnels (the longest being the new 8.6-kilometre (5.3-mile) 'Tunel Base') and new overpasses, shortening the traveling time between Florence and Bologna by road. The Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park is in the southern part of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines. The southern limit of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines
11130-492: Was reduced in the decades after World War II because of widespread poisoning campaigns. At least 400 wolves were killed between 1960 and 1970, with the population reaching an all-time low in the early 1970s. The last documented wolf in the northern Apennines was killed in Santo Stefano d'Aveto , Genoa , in 1946, though this was an isolated individual, as the local wolf population had long been extinct. The Italian wolf
11236-615: Was widespread in the Italian Peninsula, including Sicily , until the mid-1800s. The extermination of the grey wolf in Italy was not as complete as in Northern Europe, due to greater cultural tolerance of the species. It was largely extirpated in the Alps during the 1920s, and disappeared from Sicily in the 1940s. Its range along the south-central Apennines was still relatively continuous by the 1950s, though this population
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