The Stamenti ( Spanish : Estamentos ; Catalan : Estaments ; Sardinian : Istamentos / Stamentus ) was the parliament of Sardinia , consisting of representatives of the three estates of the realm .
124-462: The term " Stamenti " is the plural of " Stamento " and they are both forms which, under Savoyard rule, were Italianized from the original Spanish word " Estamento ", which referred to an estate of the realm. The Sardinian parliament was divided into three traditional estates: the first or ecclesiastical estate, the second or baronial estate, and the third or peasant estate. The single estates were called braços and later bracci , meaning "arms". It had
248-627: A Dodecanese church to limit the influence of the Greek Orthodox Church . Fascist youth organizations were introduced on the islands, and the Italianization of names was encouraged by the Italian authorities. The islanders did not, however, receive full citizenship and were not required to serve in the Italian armed forces. The population was allowed to elect their own mayors. Lagos' successor, Cesare Maria De Vecchi , embarked on
372-514: A Fascist publication, that "The Istrian muse named as Foibe those places suitable for burial of enemies of the national [Italian] characteristics of Istria". The Slovene militant anti-Fascist organization TIGR emerged in 1927. It co-ordinated the Slovene resistance against Fascist Italy until its dismantlement by the Fascist secret police in 1941. At the time, some TIGR ex-members joined
496-698: A betrayal of the Protestant cause. However, Spanish chief minister Olivares correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions. Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included Georg Friedrich of Baden and Christian of Brunswick , while
620-575: A de facto annexation, but the Germans would not approve it. Nevertheless, the Italian authorities continued to prepare the ground for the annexation. Finally, on 22 April 1941, after discussions between the German and Italian rulers, Hitler agreed that Italy could proceed with a de facto annexation of the islands. Thus on 10 August 1941 the islands of Corfu , Cephalonia , Zakynthos , Lefkada and some minor islands were officially annexed by Italy as part of
744-666: A decision of provincial Fascist secretaries dated 12 June 1927. On a specific order from the prefect of Trieste on 19 November 1928, the Edinost political society was also dissolved. Croat and Slovene financial co-operatives in Istria, which at first were absorbed by the Pula or Trieste savings banks, were gradually liquidated. In 1927, Giuseppe Cobolli Gigli , the minister for public works in fascist Italy, wrote in Gerarchia magazine,
868-547: A dispute with the citizens of Cagliari, and the reinstated a short time later, after the intervening viceroy had died. The parliament did not protest, nor did it protest when Ferdinand summoned it to Spain, where it met in Seville and Córdoba in the fall of 1484. The Sardinian elite, mostly descended from Catalans, maintained strong ties with Spain. The final procès-verbal of the meeting in Seville on 27 October declared that
992-539: A forced Italianization campaign in 1936. The Italian language became compulsory in education and public life, with Greek being only an optional subject in schools. In 1937 the elected mayors were replaced by appointed loyal fascists. In 1938, the new Italian Racial Laws were introduced to the islands. The cultural remnants of the Venetian period were Mussolini's pretext to incorporate the Ionian Islands into
1116-668: A higher degree than other linguistic minorities in Italy". It is estimated that around 10 to 13 percent of the young people born in Sardinia are still competent in Sardinian, and the language is currently used exclusively by 0.6% of the total population. A 2012 study conducted by the University of Cagliari and Edinburgh found that the interviewees from Sardinia with the strongest sense of Italian identity were also those expressing
1240-717: A legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of Lusatia , and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by Count Tilly and Charles of Bucquoy , which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at
1364-621: A lesser extent, to the French- and Arpitan -speaking regions of the western Alps (such as the Aosta valley ). On the other hand, other indigenous communities, such as in Lombardy , Venetia and the island of Sardinia , had already undergone cultural and linguistic Italianization starting from an earlier period. The former Austrian Littoral (later renamed the Julian March ) was occupied by
SECTION 10
#17327805095321488-400: A massive and violent Italianization of the annexed provinces: the political secretaries of the fascist party, of the after-work club, of the agricultural consortia and doctors, teachers, municipal employees, midwives were sent to administer them, immediately hated by those whose jobs they took away. Italian was imposed as a compulsory language for officials and teachers, although Serbo-Croatian
1612-776: A mercenary army under Ernst von Mansfeld was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs. By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside Vienna and although Mansfeld's defeat by Imperial forces at Sablat forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen. Gabriel Bethlen , Calvinist Prince of Transylvania , invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although
1736-480: A new currency, the Ionian drachma, was introduced with the aim to hamper trade with the rest of Greece, which was forbidden by Parini. Transportation with continental Greece was limited; in the courts, judges had to apply Italian law, and schooling followed the educational model of the Italian mainland. Greek administrative officials were replaced by Italian ones, administrative officials of non-Ionic origin were expelled,
1860-575: A race as Slavic – inferior and barbaric – we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. We should not be afraid of new victims. The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass , Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps . I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians. This expressed a common Fascist opinion against the Croatian and Slovene minority in
1984-539: A regional grouping or " Imperial circle ", which primarily focused on defence and operated as autonomous bodies. Above all of these was the Imperial Diet , which only assembled on an irregular basis, and then largely served as a forum for discussion, rather than legislation. Although, in theory, emperors were elected, the position had been held by the House of Habsburg since 1440. The largest single landowner within
2108-526: A return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618. Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an Edict of Restitution , which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny
2232-541: Is also known for a process organized by the Kingdom of Italy to force cultural and ethnic assimilation of the native populations living, primarily, in the former Austro-Hungarian territories that were transferred to Italy after World War I in exchange for Italy having joined the Triple Entente in 1915; this process was mainly conducted during the period of Fascist rule between 1922 and 1943. Between 1922 and
2356-732: Is generally traced to 1618 , when Emperor Ferdinand II was deposed as king of Bohemia and replaced by the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate . Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt , Frederick's participation expanded the fighting into the Palatinate , whose strategic importance drew in the Dutch Republic and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. In addition,
2480-633: The Baltic trade . Managing these issues was hampered by the fragmented nature of the empire. Its representative institutions included 300 Imperial Estates distributed across Germany, the Low Countries , Northern Italy , and present-day France. These ranged in size and importance from the seven prince-electors who voted for the Holy Roman Emperor , down to prince-bishoprics and Imperial cities like Hamburg . Each also belonged to
2604-520: The Battle of White Mountain in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country. By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but Maximilian's dynastic ambitions made this impossible. In the October 1619 Treaty of Munich , Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex
SECTION 20
#17327805095322728-586: The Bohemian Revolt in May 1618. Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate heresy within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of Styria in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the Reformation . Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised
2852-596: The Corts , the Estaments demanded the redress of grievances before voting on taxes. Establishing the priority of the former greatly augmented a parliament's power. When the taxes were approved, the Estaments established a committee of three, one from each estate, to oversee their collection. In 1446, the Estaments , or perhaps just the baronial estate, petitioned Alfonso V for the right to assemble without royal permission. Alfonso, who probably saw no threat in it, granted
2976-1023: The Eighty Years' War , the War of the Mantuan Succession , the Franco-Spanish War , the Torstenson War , the Dutch-Portuguese War , and the Portuguese Restoration War . The war can be seen as a continuation of the religious conflict initiated by the 16th-century Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into Catholic and Lutheran states, but over
3100-572: The Elbe and Weser rivers. Ferdinand had paid Albrecht von Wallenstein for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony kreis elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in
3224-563: The Grande Communità del Nuovo Impero Romano (Great Community of the New Roman Empire). As soon as the fascist governor Piero Parini had installed himself on Corfu he vigorously began a forced Italianization policy that lasted until the end of the war. The islands passed through a phase of Italianization in all areas, from their administration to their economy. Italian was designated the islands' only official language;
3348-836: The Heilbronn League in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at Oldendorf . Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb. The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Emperor Ferdinand reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern
3472-523: The North , South , and along the Pyrenees . Since many foreign rulers were also Imperial princes, divisions within the empire drew in external powers like Christian IV of Denmark , who joined the war in 1625 as Duke of Holstein-Gottorp . Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588 Cologne War , caused when its ruler converted to Calvinism. More common were events such as
3596-654: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt in early 1625. As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the Øresund . In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son Frederick became joint-administrator of Lübeck , Bremen , and Verden ; possession ensured Danish control of
3720-882: The Sack of Magdeburg in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory. Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631 Treaty of Bärwalde provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg. These amounted to 400,000 Reichstaler per year, or one million livres , plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops. Gustavus used this army to win victories at Breitenfeld in September 1631, then Rain in April 1632, where Tilly
3844-524: The Sardinian language ceased to be regarded as an identity marker of a specific ethnic group, and was instead lumped in with a dialectal conglomerate which, in the Mainland, had long been subordinate to the national language. The jurist Carlo Baudi di Vesme, in his 1848 essay Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna , stated that Sardinian was one of the most significant barriers separating
Stamenti - Misplaced Pages Continue
3968-653: The Slovene Partisans . As a result of the repression, more than 100,000 Slovenes and Croats emigrated from Italian territory between the two world wars, the vast majority to Yugoslavia. Among the notable Slovene émigrés from Trieste were the writers Vladimir Bartol and Josip Ribičič , the legal theorist Boris Furlan , and the architect Viktor Sulčič . During the Italian annexation of Dalmatia in World War II , Giuseppe Bastianini immediately gave way to
4092-480: The Upper Palatinate . Many Protestant rulers had supported Ferdinand against Frederick because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia. On the same grounds, they viewed Frederick's removal as an infringement of "German liberties", while for Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire. At
4216-621: The Upper Saxon Circle and Brandenburg the Lower , both kreise had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist George William, Elector of Brandenburg became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored
4340-862: The Valtellina , cutting the link between Spanish controlled Milan and the Empire. In May, their main army of 35,000 invaded the Spanish Netherlands, but withdrew in July after suffering 17,000 casualties. In March 1636 , France joined the Thirty Years War as an ally of Sweden, whose loss of most of the territories gained by Gustavus and their taxes made it increasingly reliant on French financing. The Spanish then invaded Northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat. A Swedish army under Johan Banér defeated
4464-481: The balance of power in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of Louis XIV which dominated Europe for the next sixty years. The 1552 Peace of Passau ended the Schmalkaldic War , a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics within the Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg tried to prevent their recurrence by fixing boundaries between the two faiths, using
4588-747: The province of Aosta including also part of the Italian-speaking Canavese . A secret society was organized in the region for the defense of the Aosta Valley identity and the use of the French language, the Ligue valdôtaine , whose founder was Anselme Réan, as well as a partisan activity which led to the Declaration of Chivasso , signed by the representatives of the communities Alpine in defense of their particularism. A member of
4712-480: The tumultuous period from 1700 to 1720 , which include the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) and of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–20), the Stamenti was not convened at all. Its continued existence was assured, however, by the terms of the cession of the kingdom to Savoy by Spain. In August 1720, Saint-Rémy , the viceroy of the new king, Victor Amadeus II , called a meeting of the Stamenti to swear fealty to Victor Amadeus and approve taxes. Early in 1721 it
4836-422: The "decrees, provisions, commissions and other acts granted by His Majesty to the estates of said kingdom ... will remain in suspension and suspended until the grants of money of the said estates are published by His Majesty in the said kingdom of Sardinia." An exaction of 150,000 lire was approved, to be collected over ten years. Had the original proposal been passed, the government would have had no need to summon
4960-458: The 1606 "Battle of the Flags" in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession. Emperor Rudolf approved intervention by the Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria . In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic. When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought formal re-confirmation of
5084-503: The Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir Archduke Ferdinand required the immediate restoration of all property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby the court ruled case by case. This demand threatened all Protestants, paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of Imperial neutrality. Loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies; outside travellers often commented on
Stamenti - Misplaced Pages Continue
5208-713: The Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs often worked together, their objectives did not always align. Spain was a global maritime superpower, whose possessions stretched from Europe to the Philippines , and much of the Americas . In contrast, Austria was a land-based power, focused on ensuring their pre-eminence within Germany and securing their eastern border against the Ottoman Empire . Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. These included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic Bavaria , as well as France, confronted by Habsburg lands on its borders to
5332-428: The Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch. On 13 May 1628, his deputy von Arnim besieged Stralsund , the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led Gustavus Adolphus to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by Alexander Leslie who was also appointed governor. Von Arnim
5456-532: The Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I. The exceptions included Christian of Anhalt and Maurice of Orange , for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions. However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing
5580-474: The Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by Count Thurn met in Prague Castle with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, Vilem Slavata and Jaroslav Borzita . In what became known as the Third Defenestration of Prague , both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary Filip Fabricius , although all three survived. Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into Silesia and
5704-565: The Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn in August completed military operations. However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories. With Saxony dominating
5828-439: The Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including Wimpfen in May 1622 and Höchst in June. By November 1622, the Imperials controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from Frankenthal , which
5952-450: The Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy. Another option was Frederick V, Elector Palatine , a Calvinist who succeeded his father in 1610, and in 1613 married Elizabeth Stuart , daughter of James I of England . Four of
6076-408: The Emperor, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu. In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the Truce of Altmark between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income. Following failed negotiations with
6200-508: The Emperor, Gustavus landed in Pomerania in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the Oder towards Stettin and coerced Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania , into agreeing an alliance which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund. As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634 Smolensk War . However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By
6324-500: The Empire. Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the Republic of Venice to join, but it was overtaken by events. In early 1626, Cardinal Richelieu , main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March Treaty of Monzón , France withdrew from Northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road. Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led
SECTION 50
#17327805095326448-421: The German states and Ferdinand agreed to the Peace of Prague ; in return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues were dissolved and replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict. In March 1635, French soldiers entered
6572-468: The Habsburg heartlands of Lower and Upper Austria , where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for
6696-419: The Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the 1620 Polish war , followed by the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia . On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted
6820-460: The Holy Roman Empire, they controlled lands containing over eight million subjects, including Austria , Bohemia and Hungary . The Habsburgs also ruled the Spanish Empire until 1556, when Charles V divided the two empires between different branches of the family. This bond was reinforced by frequent inter-marriage, while Spain retained Imperial territories such as the Spanish Netherlands , Milan and Franche-Comté . Although these links meant
6944-459: The Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After 1635 , the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between France , chiefly supported by Sweden, and Emperor Ferdinand III , whose principal ally was Spain. Fighting ended with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia , the terms of which included greater autonomy within the empire for states like Bavaria and Saxony , as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted
7068-529: The Imperials at Wittstock on 4 October, and re-established their predominance in North-East Germany, despite the defection of most of their German allies. Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III , who faced a deteriorating military position. Although Matthias Gallas and the main Imperial army had forced Banér back to the Baltic, in March 1638, Bernard destroyed an Imperial army at Rheinfelden . His capture of Breisach in December secured French control of Alsace and severed
7192-461: The Ionian islands ended in September 1943, after the armistice of Cassibile . Thirty Years%27 War The Thirty Years' War , from 1618 to 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history . Fought primarily in Central Europe , an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of Germany reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include
7316-418: The Italian Army after the Armistice with Austria . Following the annexation of the March by Italy, 400 cultural, sporting (for example Sokol ), youth, social and professional Slavic organizations, and libraries ("reading rooms"), three political parties, 31 newspapers and journals, and 300 co-operatives and financial institutions had been forbidden, and specifically so later with the Law on Associations (1925),
7440-425: The Italianization of geographical names, streets and squares. A special office for the Adriatic lands offered loans and benefits to those willing to denationalize, and in the meantime purchased land to redistribute to former Italian combatants. Scholarships were established for Dalmatians who wanted to continue their studies in Italy and 52 Dalmatian Italians and 211 Croatians and Serbs made use of them. In 1919, at
7564-432: The Julian March. Italian teachers were assigned to schools and the use of Croatian and Slovene languages in the administration and in the courts restricted. After March 1923 these languages were prohibited in administration, and after October 1925 in law courts, as well. In 1923, in the context of the organic school reform prepared by the fascist minister Giovanni Gentile , teaching in languages different from Italian
SECTION 60
#17327805095327688-528: The June 1629 Treaty of Lübeck . Christian retained his German possessions of Schleswig and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state. Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder
7812-420: The Kingdom of Italy. Even before the outbreak of World War II and the Greek-Italian 1940-1941 Winter War , Mussolini had expressed his wish to annex the Ionian Islands as an Italian province. After the fall of Greece in early April 1941, the Italians occupied much of the country, including the Ionians. Mussolini informed General Carlo Geloso that the Ionian Islands would form a separate Italian province through
7936-414: The Law on Public Demonstrations (1926) and the Law on Public Order (1926), the closure of the classical lyceum in Pazin, of the high school in Volosko (1918), the closure of the 488 Slovene and Croat primary schools followed. The period of violent persecution of Slovenes in Trieste began with riots on 13 April 1920, which were organised as a retaliation for the assault on the Italian occupying troops by
8060-548: The Mainland's economic growth; Italianization had thus become a mass phenomenon, taking roots in the hitherto predominantly Sardinian-speaking villages. To many Sardinians, abandoning their language and acquiring Italian as a cultural norm represented a means through which they could distance themselves from their original group, which they perceived as marginalized and lacking in prestige, and thereby incorporate themselves into an altogether different social group. The Sardinians have been thus led to part with their language as it bore
8184-413: The Netherlands, while the loss of 's-Hertogenbosch to the Dutch Army under Frederick Henry in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid. From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a war with Poland–Lithuania , ruled by his Catholic cousin Sigismund , who also claimed the Swedish throne and had Imperial support. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like Hesse-Kassel still openly opposing
8308-407: The Sardinians in relation with mainlanders and the Italian language, perceived as a symbol of continental superiority and cultural dominance. Many indigenous cultural practices were to go extinct, shifting towards other forms of socialization. Within a few generations Sardinian, as well as Alghero 's Catalan dialect , would become a minority language spoken by fewer and fewer Sardinian families,
8432-613: The Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the Spanish Road , an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to Flanders . This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the Electoral Palatinate . Since Emperor Matthias had no surviving children, in July 1617 Philip III of Spain agreed to support Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against
8556-545: The Spanish Road, forcing Gallas to divert resources there. Although von Hatzfeldt defeated a combined Swedish-German force at Vlotho in October, lack of supplies forced Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic. In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at Chemnitz , then entered Bohemia in May. To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted Piccolomini 's army from Thionville , ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain. Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut
8680-532: The Swedes and Imperials met at Lützen , where both sides suffered heavy casualties; Gustavus himself was killed, while some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%. Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded. Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed. After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna , and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed
8804-402: The acquisition of territories within the empire by rulers like Christian IV of Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden gave them and other foreign powers an ongoing motive to intervene. Combined with fears the Protestant religion in general was threatened, what started as an internal dynastic dispute became a European conflict. The period from 1618 to 1635 was primarily a civil war within
8928-640: The beginning of World War II , the affected people were the German-speaking and Ladin -speaking populations of Trentino-Alto Adige , Friulians , and Slovenes and Croats in the Julian March . The program was later extended to areas annexed during World War II, affecting Slovenes in the Province of Ljubljana , and Croats in Gorski Kotar and coastal Dalmatia , Greeks in the Ionian islands and, to
9052-476: The dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives. On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed Protestant religious freedoms , but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of
9176-562: The defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor. Swedish defeat at Nördlingen triggered direct French intervention and thus expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with new subsidies , hired mercenaries led by Bernard of Saxe-Weimar for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 declared war on Spain, starting the 1635 to 1659 Franco-Spanish War . A few days later,
9300-535: The difficulty for the Italian-speaking individuals to adapt to a completely different environment and, later on, the alliance between Germany and Italy: under the 1939 South Tyrol Option Agreement , Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini determined the status of the German people living in the province. They either had to opt for emigration to Germany or stay in Italy and become fully Italianized. Because of
9424-439: The electors were Catholic, and three were Protestant; if this balance changed, it would potentially result in the election of a Protestant emperor. When Ferdinand became king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the predominantly Protestant nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. These factors combined to bring about
9548-695: The empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. In the June 1624 Treaty of Compiègne , France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625 Treaty of The Hague , the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in
9672-614: The end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg, Christian William whose capital was under siege by Tilly. Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave. Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and Frankfurt an der Oder , while
9796-408: The existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an Imperial edict , once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success. At
9920-621: The growing militarisation of Germany in this period. In 1608, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine formed the Protestant Union , and Maximilian responded by setting up the Catholic League in July 1609. Both were created to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, but combined with the 1609 to 1614 War of the Jülich Succession , the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire. Some historians who see
10044-440: The island to the Mainland in such a way as to prevent either future attempts of political separation or curb a renewed interest on the part of Spain . In fact, the complex linguistic composition of the native islanders , theretofore extraneous to Italian and its cultural sphere, had been previously roofed by Spanish as the prestige language of the upper class for centuries; in this context, Italianization, while difficult at first,
10168-581: The islanders from the Italian Mainland, and only the suppression of their dialects could ensure that they might understand the governmental instructions, issued in Italian, and become properly "civilized" subjects of the Savoyard Kingdom. However, it was not until the rise of fascism that Sardinian was actively banned and/or excluded from any residual cultural activities to enforce a thorough shift to Italian. According to Guido Melis,
10292-467: The king confirm all the acts previously passed by parliament. In the end, the crown won and the leaders of the opposition were executed and their heads displayed on the towers of Cagliari. The last time the Estamentos were convened under Spanish rule was in 1697, by Charles II . This session lasted until 1699. It was the only time that the parliament reduced the king's sum before passing it. During
10416-479: The king's proposed expropriations. In 1624–25 there was strong resistance from the Estamentos to the king's request for money to pay for the ongoing Thirty Years' War , resistance which was also met around the same time in the Parliament of England and the Corts of Catalonia. At the time, the viceroy, Juan Vivas, had the support of the town of Sassari and the nobles who were usually resident in Spain, while he
10540-479: The lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg , and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for
10664-480: The law of exclusion passed in 1355. The king refused on the grounds that it was not right for laws passed by the parliament of one kingdom to be revoked by the parliament of another. This was relevant to Peter's other dispute with the Catalans, who wished to be exempted from the Sardinian customs regime. So long as Catalans were residents of the island they were subject to its parliament's laws. In 1421, in imitation of
10788-698: The local Croatian population in the 11 July Split incident . Many Slovene-owned shops and buildings were destroyed during the riots, which culminated in the burning down of the Narodni dom ("National Home"), the community hall of the Triestine Slovenes, by a group of Italian Fascists, led by Francesco Giunta . Benito Mussolini praised this action as a "masterpiece of the Triestine fascism". Two years later he became prime minister of Italy. In September 1920, Mussolini said: When dealing with such
10912-557: The local gendarmes were partially replaced by Italian Carabinieri , although Parini initially allowed the Greek judges to continue their work, they were ultimately replaced by an Italian Military Court based in Corfu. The "return to the Venetian order" and the Italianization as pursued by Parini were even more drastic than the Italianization policies elsewhere, as their aim was a forced and abrupt cessation of all cultural and historical ties with
11036-814: The main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in Magdeburg , supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and Maurice of Hesse-Kassel . The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at Dessau Bridge in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on Wolfenbüttel , where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at Lutter in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November. Many of Christian's German allies, such as Hesse-Kassel and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination with Danish, while few of
11160-608: The majority of whom have turned into monolingual and monocultural Italians. This process has been slower to take hold in the countryside than in the main cities, where it has become most evident instead. Nowadays, the Sardinians are linguistically and culturally assimilated into Italian and, despite the official recognition conferred to Sardinian by the national law in 1999, according to Giulio Paulis "identify with their language to lesser degree than other linguistic minorities in Italy, and instead seem to identify with Italian to
11284-591: The mark of a stigmatized identity, the embodiment of a long-suffered social and political subordination in a chained society, as opposed to the social advancement granted them by embracing Italian; such social stigma went beyond the Sardinian language itself to also encompass the Sardinian-influenced accent when speaking Italian, which, unlike other accents, was equally considered uncouth and befitting criminals, or ignorance. Research on ethnolinguistic prejudice has pointed to feelings of inferiority amongst
11408-551: The most unfavourable opinion towards Sardinian. The twelve major islands of the Dodecanese , of which the largest is Rhodos, were ruled by Italy between 1912 and 1945. After a period of military rule, civil governors were appointed in 1923 shortly after Fascists began to rule Italy and Italians were settled on the islands. The first governor, Mario Lago , encouraged intermarriage between Italian settlers and Greeks, provided scholarships for young Greeks to study in Italy and set up
11532-484: The next 50 years the expansion of Protestantism beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and Imperial authority were important factors in causing the war, some contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the contest for European dominance between Habsburg -ruled Spain and Austria , and the French House of Bourbon . Its outbreak
11656-479: The old mother country. The only newspaper on the islands was the Italian language "Giornale del Popolo". By early 1942 pre-war politicians in the Ionian Islands began to protest Parini's harsh policies. Parini reacted by opening a concentration camp on the island of Paxi , to which two more camps were added on Othonoi and Lazaretto islands. Parini's police troops arrested about 3,500 people, which were imprisoned at these three camps. The Italianization efforts in
11780-424: The outbreak of World War II , this agreement was never fully implemented and most ethnic Germans remained or returned at the end of the war. Following World War II, South Tyrol was one of the first regions to be granted autonomy on the ground of its peculiar linguistic situation; any further attempts at Italianization were formally abandoned. In the 21st century, just over 100 years after the Italian annexation of
11904-470: The parliament again. In fact, it was summoned in 1494 when the 150,000 lire were spent. From 1497 to 1511 the Estaments conducting business in a series of distinct sessions, making for a parliament of unprecedented length. In the sixteenth century, the Estamentos stagnated. It was regularly called every nine or ten years to approve taxes, but as the costs of Spain's foreign wars rose in the early seventeenth century it became increasingly reluctant to grant
12028-513: The petition. The king was proved right, since the Estaments never assembled on their own initiative. In 1420, Alfonso convened a meeting at Bonifacio of representatives of the baronage, the church and the cities of Corsica , but this institution did not develop and Aragonese control of Corsica—together with Sardinia forming the regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae —soon waned. Shortly after his accession, Ferdinand II had his viceroy , Ximene Pérez Scrivá, summon parliament to Oristano (November 1481),
12152-637: The post-1555 expansion of Protestantism into areas previously designated as Catholic. Another factor was the growth of Protestant faiths not recognised by Augsburg, especially Calvinism , which was viewed with hostility by both Lutherans and Catholics. The Peace of Augsburg also gave individual rulers within the empire greater political autonomy and control over the religion practised in their domains, while weakening central authority. Conflict over economic and political objectives frequently superseded religion, with Lutheran Saxony , Denmark–Norway and Sweden competing with each other and Calvinist Brandenburg over
12276-560: The power to authorise taxation , although its powers were executed by a commission of deputies after 1721 and it was abolished via the " Perfect Fusion " of the Savoyard States in 1847, replaced by the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia . In 1355 Peter IV called a parliament of the Sardinian nobility in order to address the resistance to his rule of Judge Marianus IV of Arborea , but the greater nobles refused to attend. This
12400-481: The principle of cuius regio, eius religio . This designated individual states as either Lutheran , then the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the religion of their ruler. Other provisions protected substantial religious minorities in cities like Donauwörth , and confirmed Lutheran ownership of property taken from the Catholic Church since Passau. These agreements were undermined by
12524-734: The region, 64% of the population of South Tyrol speak German as their first and everyday language. Fascism tried to Italianize Aosta Valley , suppressing the French-speaking schools ( French : Écoles de hameau ), establishing the exclusive use of the Italian language in judicial offices (Royal Decree of 15 October 1925, n. 1796), suppressing the teaching of the French language (Royal Decree 22 November 1925, n. 2191), Italianizing toponyms (ordinance of 22 July 1939) and suppressing newspapers in French, such as Le Duché d'Aoste , Le Pays d'Aoste and La Patrie valdôtaine . Furthermore, with Royal Decree n. 1 of 2 January 1927, Aosta Valley became
12648-421: The resistance, Émile Chanoux, arrested by the fascist militia, was assassinated in prison on the night of 18-19 May 1944. In 1720, the island of Sardinia was ceded to Alpine House of Savoy , which at the time already controlled a number of other states in the Italian mainland, most notably Piedmont . The Savoyards had imposed the Italian language on Sardinia as part of a wider cultural policy designed to bind
12772-498: The resources needed to achieve this. Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially France , although the strongly Catholic Louis XIII of France faced his own Protestant rebels at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and Savoy . Funded by Frederick and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy ,
12896-528: The resulting assimilation created "an intergenerational rift that could no longer be healed". After the end of the Second World War, efforts continued to be made to further Italianize the population, with the justification that by doing so, as the principles of the modernization theory ran, the island could rid itself of the "ancient traditional practices" which held it back, regarded as a legacy of barbarism to be disposed of at once in order to join
13020-637: The same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their war in the Spanish Netherlands had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the Dutch West India Company captured their treasure fleet at Matanzas in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from
13144-899: The same time, the strategic importance of the Spanish Road to their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate, drew in the Spanish. When an army led by Córdoba occupied the Lower Palatinate in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the Mediterranean , while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in Parliament , who considered his pro-Spanish policy
13268-476: The site of a recent rebellion. The parliament was later moved to Cagliari and then Sassari . The purpose of this assembly was to raise monies—Pérez requested a permanent annual tax rate of one ducat per household—for the island's defence from the Ottoman Turks , who had captured Otranto the year before. The weakness of the Sardinian parliament was displayed in these events. Pérez was removed because of
13392-434: The sole permissible language in courts of law. Illegal Katakombenschulen ("Catacomb schools") were set up by the local German-speaking majority to teach children the German language. The government created incentives to encourage immigration of native Italians to South Tyrol. Several factors limited the effects of the Italian policy, namely the adverse nature of the territory (mainly mountains and valleys of difficult access),
13516-428: The subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid. Charles I of England allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him. By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg , Pomerania , and Jutland , and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of
13640-465: The time of its annexation, South Tyrol was inhabited by almost 90% German speakers. In October 1923, the use of the Italian language became mandatory (although not exclusive) on all levels of federal, provincial and local government. Regulations by the fascist authorities required that all kinds of signs and public notices be in Italian only. Maps, postcards and other graphic material had to show Italian place names. In September 1925, Italian became
13764-455: The war as primarily a European conflict argue Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the Dutch Republic the Protestant. External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute due to the imminent expiry of the 1609 Twelve Years' Truce , which suspended the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities, Ambrosio Spinola , commander in
13888-619: Was abolished. In the Julian March this meant the end of teaching in Croatian and Slovenian. Some 500 Slovene teachers, nearly half of all Slovene teachers in the Littoral region, were moved by the Italians from the area, to the interior of Italy, while Italian teachers were sent to teach Slovene children Italian. However, in Šušnjevica (it: Valdarsa) the use of Istro-Rumanian language was allowed after 1923. In 1926, claiming that it
14012-581: Was called upon again to approve emergency taxes to deal with an epidemic of bubonic plague . This was the last time the Stamenti met. Thereafter only its commission of deputies was asked to re-authorise the previously approved taxes, which it duly did every three years. This brought Sardinia in line with the other possessions of the House of Savoy, save the Duchy of Aosta , the last one where parliamentary approval
14136-481: Was exceeded by the conflict of 1665–68, in which both the leader of the noble opposition, Augustín de Castellví, and the viceroy, Manuel de los Cobos were assassinated. The parliament—or at least the faction led by the local nobility—disputed the king's right to appoint Spaniards to public office in Sardinia, defended noble jurisdiction against royal encroachment, asserted the right of cities to export grain without first storing it in government granaries and demanded that
14260-439: Was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at Wolgast . He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the War of the Mantuan Succession , Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in
14384-534: Was held by a small English garrison under Sir Horace Vere . The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in The Hague until his death in November 1632. At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from
14508-490: Was intended as a cultural policy whereby the social and economic structures of the island could become increasingly intertwined with the Mainland and expressly Piedmont, where the Kingdom's central power lay. The 1847 Perfect Fusion , performed with an assimilationist intent and politically analogous to the Acts of Union between Britain and Ireland , determined the conventional moment wherefrom, according to Antonietta Dettori,
14632-564: Was killed. Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at Fürth , from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the Battle of the Alte Veste in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign. Two months later,
14756-586: Was nevertheless the first Sardinian parliament. One of its acts was to exclude all those of non-noble birth from entering the nobility ( heretats ). Its role was formalised in the constitution promulgated by Alfonso V in 1421, after which it was convened (semi-)regularly every ten years. Many members of the Sardinian parliament visited the Corts of Catalonia and were familiar with its functioning. The Corts in turn seems to have regarded Sardinia as lying within its jurisdiction, for in 1366 it petition Peter IV to revoke
14880-496: Was opposed by the town of Cagliari (a traditional rival of Sassari) and by the rest of the noble and ecclesiastical estates. At one point Vivas quartered Lombard soldiers in his opponents' houses to break their opposition, but for the most part each side merely delivered grievances to the Council of Aragon in Spain. In 1654–55 another conflict between viceroy and parliament broke out, this time accompanied by rioting and unrest. It
15004-495: Was restoring surnames to their original Italian form, the Italian government announced the Italianization of German, Slovene and Croat surnames. In the Province of Trieste alone, 3,000 surnames were modified and 60,000 people had their surnames amended to an Italian-sounding form. First or given names were also Italianized. Slovene and Croat societies and sporting and cultural associations had to cease every activity in line with
15128-449: Was still required for raising money. Italianisation Italianization ( Italian : italianizzazione [italjaniddzatˈtsjoːne] ; Croatian : talijanizacija ; French : italianisation ; Slovene : poitaljančevanje ; German : Italianisierung ; Greek : Ιταλοποίηση , romanized : Italopoíisi ) is the spread of Italian culture , language and identity by way of integration or assimilation . It
15252-534: Was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria. Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria , new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at Nördlingen which destroyed Swedish power in Southern Germany and led to
15376-524: Was tolerated for communications within the civil administration. In the major centres, various signs written in Croatian were replaced by writings in Italian, Croatian flags, newspapers and posters were prohibited except the bilingual ones published by the Italian civil and military authorities; cultural and sporting societies dissolved, the Roman salute imposed, some Italian surnames restored. We also proceeded, as already in Julian March and South Tyrol , with
#531468