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122-645: The Society was formed in 1988 by ecologists and residents in order to upgrade the facilities of the Stanley Park Zoo , which led to the creation of the Stanley Park Zoological Society (SPZS). They were responsible for leading conservation programs for threatened species and provided nature education. The Park's Nature House was converted from a boathouse on the Lost Lagoon and they turned it into one of their headquarters and

244-774: A shifting baseline . Today, it’s widely recognized that there may be several possible targets for restoration, based on a range of factors. Targets are set based on factors such as the level of ecosystem degredation, how much ecosystem functionality can realistically be restored, local community views, and the costs of restoration efforts. There are many reasons to restore ecosystems. Some include: There are considerable differences of opinion on how to set restoration goals and define their success. As Laura J. Martin writes, "Restoration targets are moral and political matters as well as logistical and scientific ones." Some restorationists urge active restoration (e.g. killing invasive animals) and others believe that protected areas should have

366-488: A biological system, where ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land-use changes (e.g. agriculture ) and natural disturbance. This both reduces the size of the population and increases the degree of isolation. These smaller and isolated populations tend to be more vulnerable to extinction. Fragmenting ecosystems decreases the quality of the habitat. The edge of a fragment has a different range of environmental conditions and therefore supports different species than

488-475: A concession stand that is also used as one of their three facilities as well as to raise money for SPES programs. Volunteers worked towards using recycled products in order to salvage the cob building and a graphic designer sculpted the exterior to add a public art touch. Stanley Park Zoo Stanley Park is a 405-hectare (1,001-acre) public park in British Columbia , Canada, that makes up

610-473: A conversation with archivist Major Matthews , Andy Paull , whose family lived in the area, confirms the account given by Vancouver: As Vancouver came through the First Narrows , the [natives] in their canoes threw these feathers in great handfuls before him. They would of course rise in the air, drift along, and fall to the surface of the water, where they would rest for quite a time. It must have been

732-787: A daily sight at Stanley Park, therefore, the SPES has created programs like Co-existing with Coyotes and Adopt A Nest. Beginning in 2001, the Society began work with the Provincial Ministry of Environment and the City of Vancouver to start the Co-Existing with Coyotes (CwC) public education program. After three reports of coyote attacks on children in Vancouver in 2000 as well as instances of pets being attacked and reported missing,

854-615: A degraded natural ecosystem commenced in 1896, at Nairm (as it is known to people of the Kulin nation), or Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne. Local government and community groups replanted degraded areas of the foreshore reserves with the indigenous plant species, coastal teatree ( Leptospermum laevigatum ). The projects were motivated by utilitarian considerations: to conserve recreation sites, and promote tourism. However, some local residents, including Australian journalist, nature writer and amateur ornithologist, Donald Macdonald , were distressed at

976-400: A desired successional pathway may be difficult if multiple stable states exist. Looking over 40 years of wetland restoration data, Klötzli and Gootjans (2001) argue that unexpected and undesired vegetation assemblies "may indicate that environmental conditions are not suitable for target communities". Succession may move in unpredicted directions, but constricting environmental conditions within

1098-678: A diverse international group of restoration scientists and practitioners. The second edition builds on the first edition of the Standards, which was released December 12, 2016, at the Convention on Biological Diversity 's 13th Conference of the Parties in Cancun, Mexico. The development of these Standards has been broadly consultative. The first edition was circulated to dozens of practitioners and experts for feedback and review. After release of

1220-400: A global level, the concept of nature-positive has emerged as a societal goal to achieve full nature recovery by 2050, including through restoration of degraded ecosystems to reverse biodiversity loss . The Society for Ecological Restoration defines restoration as "the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed." Restoration ecology is

1342-491: A habitat for several at risk species in British Columbia , including coastal cutthroat trout , blue dasher dragonflies , and great blue herons . In January 2011, the Stanley Park Ecological Action Plan was created and one of the main issues that needed to be addressed was the state of Beaver Lake. A part of that action called for the dredging of the lake in order to restore it as there was

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1464-574: A human presence in the park dating back more than 3,000 years. The area is the traditional territory of multiple coastal Indigenous peoples . From the Burrard Inlet and Howe Sound regions, Squamish Nation had a large village in the park. From the lower Fraser River area, Musqueam Nation used its natural resources. Where Lumberman's Arch is now, there once was a large village called Whoi Whoi, or Xwayxway, roughly meaning place of masks . One longhouse , built from cedar poles and slabs,

1586-400: A lighthouse for Brockton Point around the same time. Before the causeway, a wooden footbridge provided the only access route into the park from Coal Harbour. Construction of the causeway (and new roads within the park for emergency access) was completed by 1926. In 1923, the saltwater pipes entering the lake from Coal Harbour were shut off, turning it into a freshwater lake. A lit fountain

1708-590: A means to reduce the presence of invasive species and limit their spread. As this approach emphasizes the control of invaders, the restoration techniques can differ from typical restoration projects. The goal of such projects is not necessarily to restore an entire ecosystem or habitat. These projects frequently use lower diversity mixes of aggressive native species seeded at high density. They are not always actively managed following seeding. The target areas for this type of restoration are those which are heavily dominated by invasive species. The goals are to first remove

1830-688: A narrow range may rein in the possible successional trajectories and increase the likelihood of the desired outcome. A study quantified climate change mitigation potentials of 'high-income' nations shifting diets – away from meat-consumption – and restoration of the spared land. They find that the hypothetical dietary change "could reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61% while sequestering as much as 98.3 (55.6–143.7) GtCO 2 equivalent, equal to approximately 14 years of current global agricultural emissions until natural vegetation matures", outcomes they call "double climate dividend". For most restoration projects it

1952-511: A number of homes on lands he had claimed for the park. Some, who had built their homes less than twenty years earlier, would continue to live on the land for years. Most were evicted by the park board in 1931, but the last resident, Tim Cummings, lived at Brockton Point until his death in 1958. Sarah Avison, the daughter of the first park ranger, recalled when the city evicted the Chinese settlers at Anderson Point in 1889: The Park Board ordered

2074-593: A pretty scene, and duly impressed Captain Vancouver, for he speaks most highly of the reception he was accorded. No significant contact with inhabitants in the area was recorded for decades, until around the time of the Crimean War (1853–1856). British admirals arranged with Chief Joe Capilano that if there were an invasion, the British would defend the south shore of Burrard Inlet and the Squamish would defend

2196-408: A restoration project. Spatial heterogeneity of resources can influence plant community composition, diversity, and assembly trajectory. Baer et al. (2005) manipulated soil resource heterogeneity in a tallgrass prairie restoration project. They found increasing resource heterogeneity, which on its own was insufficient to ensure species diversity in situations where one species may dominate across

2318-504: A restoration site that is closer to remaining vegetation will be more likely to be naturally regenerated through seed disperal than a site that is further away. Ecosystem function describes the most basic and essential foundational processes of any natural systems, including nutrient cycles and energy fluxes . An understanding of the complexity of these ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological processes that may be degraded. Ecosystem functions are emergent properties of

2440-593: A separate field in ecology in the late twentieth century. The term was coined by John Aber and William Jordan III when they were at the University of Wisconsin–Madison . In 2024, the European Union passed a nature restoration law aiming to restore 20% of degraded ecosystems by 2030 and 100% by 2050. The representative of Austria, Leonore Gewessler , voted against the will of its government and can face up to 10 years in prison for doing so. Prior to

2562-1032: A single conceptual umbrella". Community assembly theory attempts to explain the existence of environmentally similar sites with differing assemblages of species. It assumes that species have similar niche requirements, so that community formation is a product of random fluctuations from a common species pool . Essentially, if all species are fairly ecologically equivalent, then random variation in colonization, and migration and extinction rates between species, drive differences in species composition between sites with comparable environmental conditions. Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes. Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices. Population genetic processes that are important to consider in restored populations include founder effects , inbreeding depression , outbreeding depression , genetic drift , maladaption and gene flow . Such processes can predict whether or not

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2684-576: A sort resembling smelt. These good people, finding we were inclined to make some return for their hospitality, showed much understanding in preferring iron to copper. According to historians, the Indigenous peoples probably first saw Vancouver's ship from Chaythoos, a location in the future park that in today's terms lay just east of the Lions Gate Bridge (or First Narrows Bridge as it is sometimes called). Speaking about this event later in

2806-544: A species successfully establishes at a restoration site. Leaf litter accumulation plays an important role in the restoration process. Higher quantities of leaf litter hold higher humidity levels, a key factor for the establishment of plants. The process of accumulation depends on factors like wind and species composition of the forest. The leaf litter found in primary forests is more abundant, deeper, and holds more humidity than in secondary forests. These technical considerations are important to take into account when planning

2928-508: A variety of strategies employed at different restoration sites to better understand the most successful management techniques to control invasion. To develop restoration ecology into a full science and to improve its practice requires generalizations about the processes governing the development of restored communities. While new experiments can be designed, one way forward is to use data from existing restoration studies to relate plant species performance to their ecological trait. Progress along

3050-423: A viable ecosystem restoration strategy, especially in countries with large agriculture footprints. Climate benefits from nature restoration are "dwarfed by the scale of ongoing fossil fuel emissions ". It risks "over-relying on land for mitigation at the expense of phasing out fossil fuels". Despite these issues, nature restoration is receiving increasing attention, with a study concluding that "Land restoration

3172-619: Is Vancouver’s only existing ecology centre. Vancouver residents had voted to phase out the zoo in 1993 and, as a result, the SPZS renamed itself the Stanley Park Ecology Society (SPES). Following the closure of the Park's zoo in 1997, the SPES shifted towards conservation and nature education programs while providing ecological advice to the board. The SPES is overseen by a board of around 14 to 15 members. The staff includes

3294-418: Is a driver of environmental degradation . However it is vital that ecosystem restoration efforts do not clash with increasing needs for food production. Restoration frameworks aim to assist policy decisions by minimizing trade-offs between ecological restoration and production and evaluating the best use of land to balance carbon storage and food growing. For example, agroforestry is increasing considered as

3416-419: Is about one-fifth larger than New York City's 340-hectare (840-acre) Central Park and almost half the size of London's 960-hectare (2,360-acre) Richmond Park . Stanley Park has a long history. The land was originally used by Indigenous peoples for thousands of years before British Columbia was colonized by the British during the 1858 Fraser Canyon Gold Rush and was one of the first areas to be explored in

3538-410: Is an important option for tackling climate change but cannot compensate for delays in reducing fossil fuel emissions" as it is "unlikely to be done quickly enough to notably reduce the global peak temperatures expected in the next few decades". Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as

3660-589: Is an important part of its ecology and a popular recreational site. However, it is becoming overrun with silt, leaving the lake’s water levels low and depleted due to clearcut logging, the introduction of invasive species such as fragrant lilies, and the construction of the Stanley Park causeway in 1938 among other trails and roads. The lake had shrunk from an area of 6.7 hectares in 1938 to 3.9 hectares in 1997 with more than 70 percent of its surface currently covered by water lilies and other plants. The lake provides

3782-550: Is controversial and sometimes critiqued as carbon colonialism. Another driver of restoration projects in the United States is the legal framework of the Clean Water Act , which often requires mitigation for damage inflicted on aquatic systems by development or other activities. Ecological restoration draws on a wide range of ecological concepts. Disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that disrupt

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3904-598: Is generally recommended to source material from local populations, to increase the chance of restoration success and minimize the effects of maladaptation . However the definition of local can vary based on species, habitat and region. US Forest Service recently developed provisional seed zones based on a combination of minimum winter temperature zones, aridity, and the Level III ecoregions. Rather than putting strict distance recommendations, other guidelines recommend sourcing seeds to match similar environmental conditions that

4026-845: Is important for protecting biodiversity. However, conservation biology is primarily rooted in population biology . Because of that, it is generally organized at the population genetic level and assesses specific species populations (i.e. endangered species ). Restoration ecology is organized at the community level, which focuses on broader groups within ecosystems. In addition, conservation biology often concentrates on vertebrate and invertebrate animals because of their salience and popularity, whereas restoration ecology concentrates on plants . Restoration ecology focuses on plants because restoration projects typically begin by establishing plant communities. Ecological restoration, despite being focused on plants, may also have " umbrella species " for individual ecosystems and restoration projects. For example,

4148-548: Is important if we are to understand how to restore natural processes and minimize anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystems. Ecological succession is the process by which a community changes over time, especially following a disturbance. In many instances, an ecosystem will change from a simple level of organization with a few dominant pioneer species to an increasingly complex community with many interdependent species. Restoration often consists of initiating, assisting, or accelerating ecological successional processes, depending on

4270-763: Is located on the second floor of the Stanley Park Pavilion and the other two facilities are Stanley Park Nature House (located on the Lost Lagoon where the SPES meet for their public programs) and the Earthen Architecture Cob Popcorn Stand in the Miniature Train Plaza. The Society's projects include animal species monitoring to provide necessary information about the park species in order to create and update new conservation practices. Small mammals are

4392-440: Is not addressed, and that the time-scales set out for 'complete' restoration are unreasonably short, while other critical markers for full-scale restoration are either ignored or abridged due to feasibility concerns. In other instances an ecosystem may be so degraded that abandonment (allowing a severely degraded ecosystem to recover on its own) may be the wisest option. Local communities sometimes object to restorations that include

4514-476: Is not always a sustainable solution long term without additional weed control, such as mowing, or re-seeding. Restoration projects are also used as a way to better understand what makes an ecological community resistant to invasion. As restoration projects have a broad range of implementation strategies and methods used to control invasive species, they can be used by ecologists to test theories about invasion. Restoration projects have been used to understand how

4636-508: Is responsible for stewardship and conservation projects in Stanley Park. They work to continually improve the habitats of the species that live there, remove invasive species, maintain the aquatic systems and to make the park more sustainable using restoration ecology and trail maintenance practices. In 2012, the Society received an eco-donation of $ 50,000 by HSBC and created the HSBC Freshwater Initiatives. The goal

4758-465: Is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, destroyed or transformed. It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures. Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change , support the provision of ecosystem services and support local economies. The United Nations has named 2021-2030

4880-411: Is this initiative was to aid the aquatic systems of Stanley Park, including the famed Lost Lagoon . The funding enabled it to create “floating islands” for ducks and migratory birds, remove invasive species from riparian habitats, install nest boxes for birds, maintain water levels from Beaver Lake, and to create a tree wire-wrapping project to protect trees from beaver damage. Stanley Park’s Beaver Lake

5002-466: The Monarch butterfly is an umbrella species for conserving and restoring milkweed plant habitat, because Monarch butterflies require milkweed plants to reproduce. Finally, restoration ecology has a stronger focus on soils , soil structure , fungi , and microorganisms because soils provide the foundation of functional terrestrial ecosystems. The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) released

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5124-429: The system as a whole , thus monitoring and management are crucial for the long-term stability of ecosystems. A completely self-perpetuating and fully functional ecosystem is the ultimate goal of restorative efforts. We must understand what ecosystem properties influence others to restore desired functions and reach this goal. Community assembly "is a framework that can unify virtually all of (community) ecology under

5246-461: The "social-ecological restoration". The goal of ecosystem restoration depends on the specific context of each location. Traditionally, the aim has been to return ecosystems to a past state (historic baseline), based on the idea that past conditions represent a 'pristine' or ideal functioning state. However, this approach is now questioned because human-driven environmental changes, including climate change, continuously alter ecosystems, resulting in

5368-747: The 1800s, but it started to see even more activity after the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858, going through a succession of uses when non-Indigenous settlers moved into the area. The shallow waters around the First Narrows and Coal Harbour were popular fishing spots for clams, salmon, and other fish. August Jack Khatsahlano , a celebrated dual chief of the Squamish and Musqueam who once lived at Chaythoos, remembered how he used to fish-rake in Coal Harbour and catch many herrings . They would also hunt grouse, ducks, and deer on

5490-485: The Brockton sports fields. The future park was selectively logged by six different companies between the 1860s and 1880s, but its military status saved the land from further development. Most of today's trails in Stanley Park got their start as old skid roads. Near the end of the 1800s, the city's principal reservoir was built in the area south of Prospect Point that is now a playing field and picnic area. Despite

5612-465: The Broken Hill regeneration area project. This project involved the natural regeneration of indigenous flora on a severely wind eroded site of hundreds of hectares, located in arid western New South Wales. Local and state governments, and the Broken Hill mining industry, supported and funded the project. In fact, as the regeneration area project was so well adapted to the harsh arid-zone conditions,

5734-590: The Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Habitat restoration involves the deliberate rehabilitation of a specific area to reestablish a functional ecosystem. This may differ from historical baselines (the ecosystem's original condition at a particular point in time). To achieve successful habitat restoration, it is essential to understand the life cycles and interactions of species, as well as the essential elements such as food, water, nutrients, space, and shelter needed to support species populations. Scientists estimate that

5856-503: The New South Wales state government adopted it as a model for the proposed restoration of the twenty million hectares of the arid western portion of the state that had been reduced to a severely eroded condition. Legislation to this effect was passed in 1949. Another significant early Australian settler ecological restoration project occurred on the north coast of New South Wales. From approximately 1840 settlers forcibly occupied

5978-506: The Park. The program is set up for both the great blue heron and the urban bald eagles . The program is used to raise funds for their programs for instance monitoring of the birds. Though the great blue heron has not been placed directly under the Species at Risk Act (SARA), this species has been placed on the "special concern" list. However, the subspecies of Ardea herodias fannin found primarily in British Columbia has been listed under

6100-769: The SARA. Vancouver is part of the coastal western hemlock biogeoclimatic zone. Therefore, Stanley Park is considered very biodiverse, with many different tree, flower, and grass species. There are many threats to these plants such as invasive species . Conservation of these species is a priority for the Society as well as the management of existing flora; for instance, the Hollow Tree is a landmark of Stanley Park that needs constant maintenance. Below are some plant species present in Stanley Park: Trees Shrubs Ornamental plants The SPES

6222-719: The SPES aimed to reduce the conflict that coyotes were causing among people and pets. They provided information on how to deal with any potentially dangerous coyotes while also directly intervening with individual scenarios in a non-lethal manner. The program had been successful for nine years in preventing and reducing the conflict between coyotes, people and pets but also in reducing the number of sightings in repeat areas. Although four children were bit between 2006 and 2009 in Surrey and Coquitlam (cities located within Metro Vancouver ), no attacks occurred in Vancouver proper where

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6344-522: The Vancouver Park Board to promote stewardship and conservation in Stanley Park. Construction of the 8.8-kilometre (5.5 mi) seawall and walkway around the park began in 1917 and took several decades to complete. The original idea for the seawall is attributed to park board superintendent W. S. Rawlings, who conveyed his vision in 1918: It is not difficult to imagine what the realization of such an undertaking would mean to

6466-512: The [Chinese settlers] to leave the park; they were trespassers; but [they] would not go, so the Park Board told my father to set fire to the buildings. I saw them burn; there were five of us children, and you know what children are like when there is a fire. So father set fire to the shacks; what happened to the Chinese I do not know. Most of the dwellings at Xwayxway were reported vacant by 1899, and in 1900, two of such houses were purchased by

6588-598: The academic study of the science of restoration, whereas ecological restoration is the implementation by practitioners. Ecological restoration includes a wide diversity of methods including erosion control, reforestation , removal of non-native species and weeds, revegetation of disturbed areas, daylighting streams , the reintroduction of native species , habitat and range improvement for targeted species and establishing wildlife corridors . Many scholars and practitioners argue that ecological restoration must include local communities and stakeholders: they call this process

6710-415: The aim of the restoration, or an incomplete understanding of the underlying ecological framework lead to insufficient measures. This may be because, as Peter Alpert says, "people may not [always] know how to manage natural systems effectively". Furthermore, many assumptions are made about myths of restoration such as carbon copy , where a restoration plan, which worked in one area, is applied to another with

6832-442: The area as "an island ... with a smaller island Deadman's Island (the correct name being Deadman Island) lying before it", suggesting that it was originally surrounded by water, at least at high tide. Vancouver also wrote about meeting the people living there: Here we were met by about fifty [natives] in canoes, who conducted themselves with great decorum and civility, presenting us with several fish cooked and undressed of

6954-448: The area were evicted by the early 20th century, the municipal government still owns a number of field homes used by the park's "live-in caretakers". Caretakers that occupy the field homes are not charged rent by the city, although they are required to assist in park operations and provide a permanent presence for the park board. In 2006, the City of Vancouver decided it would no longer replace live-in caretakers who retired or moved out from

7076-425: The attractions of the park and personally I doubt if there exists anywhere on this continent such possibilities of a combined park and marine walk as we have in Stanley Park. James "Jimmy" Cunningham, a master mason, dedicated 32 years of his life to the construction of the seawall from 1931 until his retirement in 1963. Cunningham continued to return to monitor the wall's progress until his death at 85. The walkway

7198-466: The bare minimum of human interference, such as rewilding . Skeptics doubt that the benefits justify the economic investment or point to failed restoration projects and question the feasibility of restoration altogether. It can be difficult to set restoration goals because, as Anthony Bradshaw writes, "ecosystems are not static, but in a state of dynamic equilibrium." Some scientists argue that, though an ecosystem may not be returned to its original state,

7320-570: The causeway at the entrance to the park from Georgia Street. By the 1950s, visitors could take rented rowboats on Lost Lagoon, but boating and other activities were banned in 1973 as the lake became a bird sanctuary. By 1995, the old boathouse had been turned into the Lost Lagoon Nature House. It is operated by the Stanley Park Ecology Society , which is a nonprofit organization that works alongside of

7442-413: The city. For many years after colonization, the future park, with its abundant resources, would also be home to non-Indigenous settlers . The land was later turned into Vancouver's first park when the city incorporated in 1886. It was named after Lord Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby , a British politician who had recently been appointed Governor General of Canada . It was originally known as Coal Peninsula and

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7564-497: The coastal hinterlands, dispossessed First Nations communities, destroyed extensive areas of biologically diverse rainforest and converted the land to farms. Only small patches of rainforest survived. In 1935 dairy farmer Ambrose Crawford began restoring a degraded four acre (1.7 hectare) patch of local rainforest, or "Big Scrub" (Lowland Tropical Rainforest), as it was referred to, at Lumley Park reserve, Alstonville. His main restoration techniques were clearing weeds that were smothering

7686-658: The current species extinction rate, or the rate of the Holocene extinction , is 1,000 to 10,000 times higher than the normal, background rate. Habitat loss is a leading cause of species extinctions and ecosystem service decline. Two methods have been identified to slow the rate of species extinction and ecosystem service decline: conservation of quality habitat and restoration of degraded habitat. The number and size of ecological restoration projects have increased exponentially in recent years. Restoration goals reflect political choices, and differ by place and culture. On

7808-466: The data. Managers vary in how much data they collect, and how many records they keep. Some agencies keep only a handful of physical copies of data that make it difficult for the researcher to access. Many restoration projects are limited by time and money, so data collection and record-keeping are not always feasible. However, this limits the ability of scientists to analyze restoration projects and give recommendations based on empirical data. Agriculture

7930-545: The development of International Principles & Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration by the Society for Ecological restoration (see below) – however, this approach is contended, with scientists active in the field suggesting that this is restrictive, and instead principles and guidelines offer flexibility. There is further complication in that restoration ecologists who want to collect large-scale data on restoration projects can face enormous hurdles in obtaining

8052-472: The diversity of the species introduced in the restoration affects invasion. We know that generally higher diversity prairies have lower levels of invasion. The incorporation of functional ecology has shown that more functionally diverse restorations have lower levels of invasion. Furthermore, studies have shown that using native species functionally similar to invasive species are better able to compete with invasive species. Restoration ecologists have also used

8174-699: The dramatic increase in the number of protected natural areas in the 1980s. In 1997 the National Wildlife Federation signed a memorandum of understanding with the Intertribal Bison Cooperative, the first-ever conservation agreement between an environmental organization and an inter-tribal group, to advocate for the restoration of wild bison to tribal lands. Anishinaabek/Neshnabék throughout the Great Lakes region are leading ecological restoration projects that, in

8296-504: The educational program exists. However, the program lost its provincial funding in 2011 and funding was since supported by only the Vancouver Park Board and school program fees. On May 16, 2013, a funding request of $ 19,000 in order for the SPES to expand its CwC program was denied by the Vancouver Park Board. The program expansion was estimated to cost between $ 55,000 and $ 61,000 but they were only able to obtain $ 42,000 from

8418-596: The emergence of ecology as a scientific discipline, large-scale restoration began with big game restoration in the early 20th century. The first native plant restoration project in the United States was established in 1907 by Eloise Butler in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was followed by the Vassar College Ecological Laboratory restoration program, founded by Professor Edith Roberts in 1921. The first tallgrass prairie restoration

8540-402: The field homes, with the city opting to convert several unoccupied field homes into artist studios. From 1913 to 1916, a lake was constructed in a shallow part of Coal Harbour , a project that was not without its detractors. The lake was named Lost Lagoon due to its history of "disappearing" at low tide. The lake and a causeway into the park were designed by Thomas Mawson , who also designed

8662-512: The first edition, SER held workshops and listening sessions, sought feedback from key international partners and stakeholders, opened a survey to members, affiliates and supporters, and considered and responded to published critiques. The International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration: Indigenous peoples , land managers, stewards, and laypeople have been practicing ecological restoration or ecological management for thousands of years. Restoration ecology emerged as

8784-426: The following: executive director, conservation programs manager, school programs manager, volunteer coordinator and nature house interpreter, fundraising and communications specialist, urban wildlife coordinator, conservation technician and stewardship coordinator. However, the majority of people involved with the SPES are volunteers. The SPES uses three facilities provided by the Vancouver Park Board. Their main office

8906-693: The forced dispossession of the First Nations communities of Australia. The substantial Traditional Ecological Knowledge of First Nations communities was not utilised in the historical restoration projects. Many of the first Australian settler restoration projects were initiated by volunteers, often in the form of community groups. Many of these volunteers appreciated and utilised science resources, such as botanical and ecological knowledge. Local and state government agencies participated, and also industry. Australian scientists came to play an increasingly important role. A prominent scientist who took an interest in

9028-414: The former leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation . Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest. Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019. Additionally, the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in

9150-417: The functioning of an ecosystem. Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and is a natural component of many communities. For example, many forest and grassland restorations implement fire as a natural disturbance regime . However the severity and scope of anthropogenic impact has grown in the last few centuries. Differentiating between human-caused and naturally occurring disturbances

9272-476: The functions of a " novel ecosystem " are still valuable. Ecosystem restoration can mitigate climate change through activities such as afforestation . However, afforestation can have negative impacts on biodiversity especially when considering tree-planting initiatives in tropical savannas . The impacts of afforestation on water supply and quality are also debated and vary by region, climate and age of afforestation projects. Forestry-based carbon offsetting

9394-531: The future than keeping existing forests intact. It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation. Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution ". Both restoration ecologists and conservation biologists agree that protecting and restoring habitat

9516-497: The indigenous vegetation. It was also found that furrowing (or ploughing) of eroded areas resulted in the natural regeneration of indigenous vegetation. So successful were these programs that the South Australian government adopted them as approved state soil conservation policies in 1936. Legislation introduced in 1939 codified these policies. In 1936 mining assayer Albert Morris and his restoration colleagues initiated

9638-406: The interior. Restorative projects can increase the effective size of a population by adding suitable habitat and decrease isolation by creating habitat corridors that link isolated fragments. Reversing the effects of fragmentation is an important component of restoration ecology. The composition of the surrounding landscape can also influence the effectiveness of restoration projects. For example,

9760-527: The introduction of large predators or plants that require disturbance regimes such as regular fires, citing threat to human habitation in the area. High economic costs can also be perceived as a negative impact of the restoration process. Public opinion is very important in the feasibility of a restoration; if the public believes that the costs of restoration outweigh the benefits they will not support it. Many failures have occurred in past restoration projects, many times because clear goals were not set out as

9882-512: The land, it was again considered a strategic point in case Americans attempted an invasion and launched an attack on New Westminster (then the colonial capital) via Burrard Inlet. In 1865, Edward Stamp decided that Brockton Point would be an ideal site for a lumber mill. He cleared close to 40 hectares (100 acres) with the permission of colonial officials, but the site proved too impractical and he moved his operation east, eventually becoming Hastings Mill . The land cleared by Stamp later became

10004-462: The legal status of Deadman Island as part of the park would remain ambiguous for many years). The park was named after Lord Stanley , who had recently become Canada's sixth governor general . Mayor David Oppenheimer gave a formal speech opening the park to the public and delivering authority for its management to the park committee. The following year, Lord Stanley became the first governor general to visit Vancouver when he officially dedicated

10126-591: The loss of valued biological qualities, and campaigned to fully restore the Teatree ecosystems and conserve them and their indigenous fauna. The degraded arid-zone regions of Australia were the site of historical ecological restoration projects. Pastoral industry established in the arid-zone regions of South Australia and New South Wales resulted in the substantial degradation of these areas by ca.1900 resulting in severe wind erosion. From approximately 1930, Australian pastoralists implemented revegetation projects aiming to

10248-563: The manmade structures present in the park were built between 1911 and 1937 under the influence of then-superintendent W.S. Rawlings. Additional attractions, such as a polar bear exhibit, aquarium, and a miniature train , were added in the post–World War II period. Much of the park remains as densely forested as it was in the late 1800s, with about a half million trees, some of which stand as tall as 76 metres (249 ft) and are hundreds of years old. Thousands of trees were lost (and many replanted) after three major windstorms that took place in

10370-468: The north. The British gave him and his men 60 muskets . Although the attack anticipated by the British never came, the guns were used by the Squamish to repel an attack by an indigenous raid from the Euclataws . Stanley Park was not attacked, but this was when it started to be thought of as a strategic military position. The peninsula was a popular place for gathering traditional food and materials in

10492-471: The northwestern half of Vancouver 's Downtown peninsula, surrounded by waters of Burrard Inlet and English Bay . The park borders the neighbourhoods of West End and Coal Harbour to its southeast, and is connected to the North Shore via the Lions Gate Bridge . The historic lighthouse on Brockton Point marks the park's easternmost point. While it is not the largest urban park , Stanley Park

10614-568: The ocean, before the next high tide of clean water. For many years, children could take swimming lessons for free at Lumberman's Arch under the Vancouver Sun 's Learn to Swim program. The pool was filled in after developing persistent problems and replaced with the current water spray park in 1987. The spray park, the largest of its kind in Vancouver, consists of a series of water geysers, showers, and cannons. Restoration ecology Ecological restoration , or ecosystem restoration,

10736-467: The park board and society service fees. As a result of these outcomes, there has been an increase in coyote sightings in the Lower Mainland area of Vancouver. The SPES has a coyote sightings map on their website where users can plot sightings and see where others have been spotted. The SPES's "Adopt A Nest" program encourages people to learn more about these birds and protect their homes within

10858-431: The park board for $ 25 each and burned. One Squamish family, "Howe Sound Jack" and Sexwalia "Aunt Sally" Kulkalem, continued to live at Xwayxway until Sally died in 1923. Sally's ownership of the property surrounding her home was accepted by authorities in the 1920s, and following her death, the property was purchased from her heir, Mariah Kulkalem, for $ 15,500 and resold to the federal government. Although most residents of

10980-496: The park. Mayor Oppenheimer led a procession of vehicles around Brockton Point along the newly completed Park Road to the clearing at Prospect Point . An observer at the event wrote: Lord Stanley threw his arms to the heavens, as though embracing within them the whole of 1000 acres of primeval forest, and dedicated it "to the use and enjoyment of peoples of all colours, creeds, and customs, for all time. I name thee Stanley Park." When Lord Stanley made his declaration, there were still

11102-548: The past 100 years, the last in 2006. Significant effort was put into constructing the near-century-old Vancouver Seawall , which can draw thousands of people to the park in the summer. The park also features forest trails, beaches, lakes, children's play areas, and the Vancouver Aquarium , among many other attractions. On June 18, 2014, Stanley Park was named "top park in the entire world" by Tripadvisor , based on reviews submitted. Archaeological evidence suggests

11224-473: The peninsula, first at Brockton Point and later on Deadman Island . "Portuguese Joe" Silvey was the first European to settle in the future park. A Chinese settlement also grew in a cleared area at Anderson Point (near the present day Vancouver Rowing Club ). The peninsula was surveyed and made a military reserve in an 1863 survey completed by the Royal Engineers . Despite the houses and cabins on

11346-457: The peninsula. Second Beach was a source of "clay ... which, when rolled into loaves, as (my people) did it, and heated or roasted before a fire, turned into a white like chalk" that was used to make wool blankets. Indigenous inhabitants also cut down large cedar trees in the area for a variety of traditional purposes, such as making dugout canoes . By 1860, non-Indigenous settlers (Portuguese, Scots, and others) had started building homes on

11468-459: The rainforest plants and planting of suitable indigenous rainforest species. Crawford utilised professional government botanists as advisors, and received support from his local government council. The restored rainforest reserve still exists today. The UK Natural Capital Committee (NCC) made a recommendation in its second State of Natural Capital report published in March 2014 that in order to meet

11590-458: The range of resource levels. Their findings were consistent with the theory regarding the role of ecological filters on community assembly. The establishment of a single species, best adapted to the physical and biological conditions can play an inordinately important role in determining the community structure. Restoration is used as a tool for reducing the spread of invasive plant species many ways. The first method views restoration primarily as

11712-503: The reservoir's demolition in 1948, there is still a Reservoir Trail at that location. From the 1860s to 1880s, settlers in Burrard Inlet used Brockton Point, Anderson Point, and nearby Deadman Island as burial grounds. This practice stopped when the Mountain View Cemetery opened in 1887. Deadman Island had already had a long history as a burial site. In 1865, unsuspecting newcomer John Morton found old cedar boxes in

11834-478: The reversal of vegetation degradation was botanist and plant ecologist Professor T G Osborn , University of Adelaide, who, in the 1920s, conducted pioneering research into the causes of arid-zone indigenous vegetation degradation. From this time, Australian botanists, plant ecologists and soil erosion researchers have increasingly developed interests in the recovery of ecological functioning on degraded sites. The earliest known attempt by Australian settlers to restore

11956-405: The same results expected, but not realized. One of the struggles for both fields is a divide between restoration ecology and ecological restoration in practice. Many restoration practitioners as well as scientists feel that science is not being adequately incorporated into ecological restoration projects. In a 2009 survey of practitioners and scientists, the "science-practice gap" was listed as

12078-495: The scope of a problem in-depth, without providing concrete solutions. Additionally many restoration ecology studies are carried out under controlled conditions and frequently at scales much smaller than actual restorations. Whether or not these patterns hold true in an applied context is often unknown. There is evidence that these small-scale experiments inflate type II error rates and differ from ecological patterns in actual restorations. One approach to addressing this gap has been

12200-558: The second edition of the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration on September 27, 2019, in Cape Town, South Africa, at SER's 8th World Conference on Ecological Restoration. The publication provides updated and expanded guidance on the practice of ecological restoration, clarifies the breadth of ecological restoration and allied environmental repair activities, and includes ideas and input from

12322-429: The second most commonly cited reason limiting the growth of both science and practice of restoration. There are a variety of theories about the cause of this gap. However, it has been well established that one of the main issues is that the questions studied by restoration ecologists are frequently not found useful or easily applicable by land managers. For instance, many publications in restoration ecology characterize

12444-497: The severity of the disturbance. Following mild to moderate natural and anthropogenic disturbances, restoration in these systems involves hastening natural successional trajectories through careful management. However, in a system that has experienced a more severe disturbance (such as in urban ecosystems), restoration may require intensive efforts to recreate environmental conditions that favor natural successional processes. Habitat fragmentation describes spatial discontinuities in

12566-437: The species and then in so doing, reduce the number of invasive seeds being spread to surrounding areas. An example of this is through the use of biological control agents (such as herbivorous insects) which suppress invasive weed species while restoration practitioners concurrently seed in native plant species that take advantage of the freed resources. These approaches have been shown to be effective in reducing weeds, although it

12688-711: The species is exposed to, either now, or under projected climate change. For example, sourcing for Castilleja levisecta found that farther source populations that matched similar environmental variables were better suited for the restoration project than closer source populations. Similarly, a suite of new methods are surveying gene-environment interactions in order to identify the optimum source populations based on genetic adaptation to environmental conditions. Some view ecosystem restoration as impractical, partially because restorations often fall short of their goals. Hilderbrand et al. point out that many times uncertainty (about ecosystem functions, species relationships, and such)

12810-490: The study of techniques like prescribed burning . It was followed by the 40-hectare Schulenberg Prairie at the Morton Arboretum , initiated in 1962 by Ray Schulenberg and Robert Betz. Betz then worked with The Nature Conservancy to establish the 260-hectare Fermi National Laboratory tallgrass prairie in 1974. Restoration ecology emerged as a distinct sub-discipline of ecology and natural resources management with

12932-536: The substantial to full restoration of indigenous flora to degraded, wind eroded areas. At his arid-zone Koonamore research station in South Australia, established in 1925, Professor T G Osborn studied the loss of indigenous vegetation caused by overstocking and the resultant wind erosion and degradation, concluding that restoration of the indigenous saltbushes ( Atriplex spp.), bluebushes ( Maireana spp.) and mulga ( Acacia aneura ) vegetation communities

13054-453: The threat that it would fill in completely by 2020 without intervention. It was last dredged in 1929. The planning for the enhancing of Beaver Lake is underway with open houses held by consultants AquaTerra Environmental that have already taken place to discuss its future with the public. Currently, no action plans have been made other than being made part of the Vancouver Park Board 2012-2014 Capital Plan. The Stanley Park Eco-Stewards Program

13176-462: The trees. They turned out to be coffins that had been placed there to keep the remains of important Indigenous persons out of reach of wild animals. In 1886, as its first order of business, Vancouver City Council voted to petition the British government to lease the military reserve for use as a park. To manage their new acquisition, city council appointed a six-person park committee, which in 1890

13298-492: The unwanted biomass in a creative way to reuse and repurpose the bio materials and for people to learn more and connect with nature in a community-based way. They work in partnership with the Vancouver Park Board as well as the Stanley Park Ecology Society. The SPES works towards using remnants of old buildings and fixtures to repurpose them for continued use with a sustainability focus and to turn them into an artistic focal point and for functional use. The Stanley Park Nature House

13420-462: The west, connecting to an additional 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) of beaches and pathways that terminate at the mouth of the Fraser River . By 1933, there were two seaside, saltwater pools in the park, one at Second Beach and one at Lumberman's Arch. These "draw and fill" pools used sun-warmed water from the ocean. Once a week, the pool gates were opened at low tide to release the water back into

13542-458: The words of Kyle Whyte, "seek to learn from, adapt, and put into practice local human and nonhuman relationships and stories at the convergence of deep Anishinaabe history and the disruptiveness of industrial settler campaigns." Australia has been the site of historically significant ecological restoration projects, commencing in the 1930s. These projects were responses to the extensive environmental damage inflicted by colonising settlers, following

13664-438: Was called Chaythoos, meaning high bank . The site of Chaythoos is noted on a brass plaque placed on the lowlands east of Prospect Point commemorating the park's centennial. Both sites were occupied in 1888, when some residents were forcefully removed to allow a road to be constructed around the park, and their midden was used for construction material. The popular landmark Siwash Rock , located near present-day Third Beach,

13786-400: Was converted from a boathouse on the Lost Lagoon and they turned it into one of their headquarters and is Vancouver’s only existing ecology centre. The Earthen Architecture Cob Popcorn Stand in the Miniature Train Plaza was refurbished from a traditional cob building because it met the Park Board's criteria of an environmental, arts and culture, and community building. It has been upgraded as

13908-437: Was extended several times and, as of 2023, is 22 kilometres (14 mi) from end to end, making it the world's longest uninterrupted waterfront walkway. The Stanley Park portion is just under half of the entire length, which starts at Canada Place in the downtown core, runs around Stanley Park, along English Bay , around False Creek , and finally to Kitsilano Beach . From there, a trail continues 600 metres (2,000 ft) to

14030-405: Was initiated to remove invasive species from Stanley Park and is based on a volunteer-run program called Ivy Busters that began in 2004. Since then, it has removed over 3.95 hectares of invasive vegetation including English Ivy . The mission is to abolish and decrease the spread of invasive species while enhancing the natural habitat and planting more native species. . This project finds a use for

14152-417: Was later erected to commemorate the city's golden jubilee . The fountain, installed in 1936, was purchased from Chicago , a leftover from its world's fair in 1933 . The causeway was widened and extended through the centre of the park in the 1930s with the construction of the Lions Gate Bridge , which connects downtown Vancouver to the North Shore . At the same time, two pedestrian subways were added under

14274-413: Was measured at 61 metres (200 ft) long by 18 metres (60 ft) wide. These houses were occupied by large extended families living in different quadrants of the house. The larger houses were used for ceremonial potlatches where a host would invite guests to witness and participate in ceremonies and the giving away of property. Another settlement was further west along the same shore. This place

14396-760: Was once called Slahkayulsh, meaning he is standing up . In the oral history , a fisherman was transformed into this rock by three powerful brothers as punishment for his immorality. In 2010, the chief of the Squamish Nation proposed renaming Stanley Park as Xwayxway Park after the large village once located in the area. The first European explorations of the peninsula were made by expeditions commanded by Spanish captain José María Narváez (1791) and British captain George Vancouver (1792). In A Voyage of Discovery , Vancouver describes

14518-432: Was possible, if a stock exclosure and natural regeneration revegetation technique was applied to degraded paddocks. Most likely influenced by Osborn's research, throughout the 1930s South Australian pastoralists adopted this revegetation technique. For example, at Wirraminna station (or property, ranch), following fencing to exclude stock, severe soil-drifts were fully revegetated and stabilised through natural regeneration of

14640-404: Was replaced with an elected body, the Vancouver Park Board . In 1908, 20 years after the first lease, the federal government renewed the lease for 99 more years. In 2006, a letter from Parks Canada stated that "the Stanley Park lease is perpetually renewable and no action is required by the Park Board in relation to the renewal". On September 27, 1888, the park was officially opened (although

14762-428: Was set aside for military fortifications to guard the entrance to Vancouver harbour. In 1886, Vancouver City Council successfully sought a lease of the park which was granted for $ 1 per year. In September 1888, Lord Stanley opened the park in his name. Unlike other large urban parks, Stanley Park is not the creation of a landscape architect but rather the evolution of a forest and urban space over many years. Most of

14884-410: Was the 1936 Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin–Madison Arboretum . Civilian Conservation Corps workers replanted nearby prairie species onto a former horse pasture, overseen by university faculty including Aldo Leopold , Theodore Sperry , Henry C. Greene , and John T. Curtis . The UW Arboretum was the center of tallgrass prairie research through the first half of the 20th century and

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