81-623: Stegodon ("roofed tooth" from the Ancient Greek words στέγω , stégō , 'to cover', + ὀδούς , odoús , 'tooth' because of the distinctive ridges on the animal's molars ) is an extinct genus of proboscidean , related to elephants . It was originally assigned to the family Elephantidae along with modern elephants but is now placed in the extinct family Stegodontidae . Like elephants, Stegodon had teeth with plate-like lophs that are different from those of more primitive proboscideans like gomphotheres and mammutids . Fossils of
162-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
243-519: A Holocene survival in China for S. orientalis, these claims cannot be substantiated due to loss of specimens and issues regarding dating. [REDACTED] Ancient Greek Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into
324-536: A change in the use of coastal resources and advancements in marine technology. The reasons for these changes have not been confirmed; various triggering mechanisms have been theorized such as climate change , the arrival of new people, or the struggle for resources. The South American land mammal age , the Lujanian , corresponds with the late Pleistocene. The Lujanian is a geologic period from 0.8 - 0.11Ma specifically for prehistoric South American fauna. There
405-577: A change to more humid conditions, which may have reduced grazing habitat. The last records of Stegodon florensis date to around 50,000 years ago, around the time of arrival of modern humans to Flores (the earliest evidence of which dates to 46,000 years ago), suggesting that effects of modern human activity were likely the cause of their extinction. Stegodon became extinct in the Indian subcontinent ( Stegodon namadicus / Stegodon sp .), mainland Southeast Asia and China ( S. orientalis ) at some point during
486-477: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and
567-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in
648-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
729-608: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek
810-630: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as
891-576: A true domestic dog have been dated to 14,200 years ago. Domestication first happened in Eurasia but could have been anywhere from Western Europe to East Asia. Domestication of other animals such as cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep did not begin until the Holocene when settled farming communities became established in the Near East. The cat was probably not domesticated before c. 7500 BC at
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#1732757128560972-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
1053-570: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of
1134-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
1215-666: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to
1296-563: Is conducive for preserving fossils . Neanderthal hominins ( Homo neanderthalensis ) inhabited Eurasia until becoming extinct between 40 and 30 ka, towards the end of the Pleistocene and possibly into the early Holocene and were replaced with modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) who emerged from East Africa about 195,000 years ago. Neanderthals co-existed with the Homo sapiens until they died out. In Eurasia, extinction happened throughout
1377-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
1458-682: Is currently in use as a provisional or "quasi-formal" designation by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Although the three oldest ages of the Pleistocene (the Gelasian , the Calabrian and the Chibanian ) have been officially defined, the late Pleistocene has yet to be formally defined. Following the brief Last Interglacial warm period (~130–115,000 years ago), where temperatures were comparable to or warmer than
1539-610: Is due to the lack of chronological information. The resemblance of Late Pleistocene species in Northern Africa to modern animals is the same as in Southern Africa but it's extremely difficult to date when these fauna came into place because of the lack of reliable samples from the mid-Pleistocene. Most of the significant fossil records are from the Maghreb because of its geology which helps to create deep caves which
1620-499: Is evidence of human habitation in mainland Australia , Indonesia , New Guinea and Tasmania from c. 45,000 BC. The finds include rock engravings, stone tools and evidence of cave habitation. In Australia, there are sites which show evidence of pollen records from the Late Pleistocene and they are mostly found in more temperate regions of the continent. Some megafauna decreased in size over time, while others remained
1701-545: Is still heavily debated what caused the extinctions. Bison occidentalis and Bison antiquus , an extinct subspecies of the smaller present-day bison, survived the late Pleistocene period, between about 12 and 11 ka ago. Clovis people depended on these bison as their major food source. Earlier kills of camels, horses, and muskoxen found at Wally's beach were dated to 13.1–13.3 ka B.P. Over 50 genera (~ 83%) of megafauna in South and North America went extinct during
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#17327571285601782-464: Is suggested to be the largest species, and is known from an old male (50-plus years old) from the Yellow River that is 3.87 m (12.7 ft) tall and would have weighed approximately 12.7 tonnes (12.5 long tons; 14.0 short tons) in life. It had a humerus 1.21 m (4.0 ft) long, a femur 1.46 m (4.8 ft) long, and a pelvis 2 m (6.6 ft) wide. The Indian S. ganesa
1863-599: Is suggested to have a shoulder height of about 3.10 m (10.2 ft), and a body mass of around 6.5 tonnes (6.4 long tons; 7.2 short tons). The Javanese species S. trigonocephalus is suggested to have been around 2.75–2.8 m (9.0–9.2 ft) tall, with a body mass of around 5 tonnes (4.9 long tons; 5.5 short tons). S. orientalis was around the size of an Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ). Similar to modern-day elephants, stegodonts were likely good swimmers, allowing them to disperse to remote islands in Indonesia,
1944-669: The Bering land bridge which joined Alaska to Siberia . The last Ice Age was followed by the Late Glacial Interstadial , a period of global warming to 12.9 ka, and the Younger Dryas , a return to glacial conditions until 11.7 ka. Paleoclimatology holds that there was a sequence of stadials and interstadials from about 16 ka until the end of the Pleistocene. These were the Oldest Dryas (stadial),
2025-881: The Bølling oscillation (interstadial), the Older Dryas (stadial), the Allerød oscillation (interstadial) and finally the Younger Dryas. The end of the Younger Dryas marks the boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Hominids in all parts of the world were still culturally and technologically in the Palaeolithic (Old Stone) Age . Tools and weapons were basic stone or wooden implements. Nomadic tribes followed moving herds. Non-nomadics acquired their food by gathering and hunting . Its present physical geography and climate have changed over time caused by
2106-708: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
2187-693: The Japanese archipelago has been traced to prehistoric times between 40,000 BC and 30,000 BC. The earliest fossils are radiocarbon dated to c. 35,000 BC. An archeological record of Neanderthals has been found in Asia along with records of two other hominin populations, the Denisovans and Homo floresiensis . Japan was once linked to the Asian mainland by land bridges via Hokkaido and Sakhalin Island to
2268-690: The Late Pleistocene epoch, while Asian elephants, which existed in sympatry with Stegodon in these regions, are still extant. The precise timing of extinction is uncertain for these regions, though in India records of Stegodon may date as recently as 35-30,000 years ago. The survival of the Asian elephant as opposed to Stegodon orientalis in Southeast Asia and South China has been suggested to be due to its more flexible diet in comparison to S. orientalis . Although some authors have claimed
2349-433: The Late Pleistocene is estimated to be around 17% the size of mainland Stegodon species, with a shoulder height of around 130 cm (4.3 ft), and a body mass of about 570 kilograms (1,260 lb). During Pliocene-Early Pleistocene (from around 4-1 million years ago), a succession of endemic dwarf species of Stegodon, probably representing a single lineage lived in the Japanese archipelago , probably derived from
2430-423: The Late Pleistocene . The skull of Stegodon is relatively tall but short. The lower jaw in comparison to early elephantimorphs is shortened (brevirostrine), and lacks lower tusks/incisors. The molar teeth are superficially like those of elephants, consisting of parallel lamellae that form ridges but are generally relatively low crowned (brachydont), the numbers of ridges are greater in later species. Members of
2511-549: The Middle Pleistocene which was initially substantially larger, but progressively reduced in size over time, with the earlier subspecies Stegodon florensis florensis from the Middle Pleistocene estimated to be around 50% the size of mainland Stegodon species with a shoulder height of around 190 cm (6.2 ft) and a body mass of around 1.7 tons, while the later Stegodon florensis insularis from
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2592-535: The Nile Valley as the Sahara was transformed from grassland to desert. The Nazlet Khater skeleton was found in 1980 and has been radiocarbon dated to between 30,360 and 35,100 years ago. Most of the knowledge of the Late Pleistocene is obtained from regions like Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia , some coastal regions of Maghreb , Libya and Egypt . The only issue with interpreting the data from this region
2673-850: The North American land mammal age scale, the Rancholabrean spans the time from c. 240,000 years ago to c. 11,000 years ago. It is named after the Rancho La Brea fossil site in California , characterized by extinct forms of bison in association with other Pleistocene species such as the mammoth . During the Late Pleistocene about 35 genera of megafauna went extinct including species such as mastodons , saber-toothed cats and giant ground sloths . Some other species went extinct in North America but not globally. it
2754-539: The Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within the ongoing Quaternary Period. It is currently defined as the time between c. 129,000 and c. 11,700 years ago. The late Pleistocene equates to the proposed Tarantian Age of the geologic time scale , preceded by the officially ratified Chibanian (commonly known as
2835-713: The ancestors of the true elephants and mammoths , but currently they are believed to have no modern descendants. Stegodon is likely derived from Stegolophodon , an extinct genus known from the Miocene of Asia, with transitional fossils between the two genera known from the Late Miocene of Southeast Asia and Yunnan in South China. Stegodon is more closely related to elephants and mammoths than to mastodons . Like elephants, stegodontids are believed to have derived from gomphotheres . The following cladogram shows
2916-474: The mammoth , mastodon , and Irish elk became extinct. Upper Paleolithic people also made paintings and engravings on walls. Cave paintings have been found at Lascaux in the Dordogne which may be more than 17,000 years old. These are mainly buffalo , deer , and other animals hunted by humans. Later paintings occur in caves throughout the world, including Altamira , Spain, and in India, Australia, and
2997-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
3078-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
3159-482: The Alps and interglacials (temperate phase). The evidence of the changes in climatic conditions was from fragmentary sequences in formerly glaciated areas in northern Europe . The only domesticated animal in the Pleistocene was the dog , which evolved from the grey wolf into its many modern breeds . It is believed that the grey wolf became associated with hunter-gatherer tribes around 15 Ka. The earliest remains of
3240-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
3321-568: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs, Late Pleistocene The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy , also known as
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3402-506: The Holocene, the Late Pleistocene was dominated by the cool Last Glacial Period , with temperatures gradually lowering throughout the period, reaching their lowest during the Last Glacial Maximum around 26-20,000 years ago. Most of the world's large ( megafaunal ) animals became extinct during the Late Pleistocene as part of the Late Pleistocene extinctions , a trend that continued into the Holocene. In palaeoanthropology ,
3483-571: The Late Pleistocene Ma’anshan site also in Guizhou, remains of Stegodon orientalis including both adults and juveniles among other animals are found in two layers, the older dating to around 53,000 years Before Present (BP), with the younger dates to around 19,295-31,155 years BP with the minimum number of individuals being 7 and 2 for the older and younger layers respectively, with the older layer containing adults and juveniles while in
3564-603: The Late Pleistocene. Some species which went extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene in Southern Africa are the giant warthog , long-horn buffalo, Southern springbok , etc. These species were common because their distribution changed in response to climatic influences on vegetation. Carnivores were more widespread due to their varying habitat requirements. In Egypt , the Late (or Upper) Palaeolithic began sometime after 30,000 BC. People in North Africa had relocated to
3645-772: The Late Pliocene of the India (including Stegodon insignis ) are suggested to have been variable mixed feeders, while those from the earliest Pleistocene (including Stegodon ganesa ) of the same region are suggested to have been nearly pure grazers based on isotopic analysis. Based on dental microwear analysis, populations of Stegodon from the Pleistocene of China ( Stegodon orientalis and Stegodon huananensis ) and mainland southeast Asia ( S. orientalis ) were found to be browsers , with clear niche differentiation from sympatric Elephas populations, which tended towards mixed feeding (both browsing and grazing ), though isotopic analysis of Stegodon cf. orientalis specimens from
3726-704: The Middle Pleistocene). The beginning of the Late Pleistocene is the transition between the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and the beginning of the Last Interglacial around 130,000 years ago (corresponding with the beginning of Marine Isotope Stage 5 ). The Late Pleistocene ends with the termination of the Younger Dryas , some 11,700 years ago when the Holocene Epoch began. The term Upper Pleistocene
3807-470: The Philippines and Japan. Once present on the islands, due to the process of insular dwarfism , as a result of decreased land area and the reduction of predation and competition pressure, they reduced in body size, with the degree of dwarfism varying between islands as the result of local conditions. One of the smallest species, Stegodon sumbaensis from Sumba in Indonesia, is estimated at around 8% of
3888-673: The Pleistocene but those that happened during the Later Pleistocene were of megafauna and there were no replacements for the extinct species. Some Molluscan species went extinct but not on the same scale as the mammals living during the time. Some examples of species which extinct without replacements include the Straight-tusked elephant ( Palaeoloxodon antiquus ), Giant deer ( Megaloceros giganteus ), cave bear ( Ursus spelaeus ) and woolly rhinoceros ( Coelodonta antiquitatis ). Several large mammalian species including
3969-482: The Pleistocene. most mega mammals (>1000kg) and large mammals (>40kg) went extinct by the end of the Late Pleistocene. During this period there was a major cooling event called the Younger Dryas and the Clovis culture of capturing game became more prominent. Diverse factors such as climate change may have triggered this extinction but it's still in debate what the major factors were. The Late Pleistocene saw
4050-523: The Pliocene of East Africa were found to be browsers to mixed feeders, based on mesowear analysis. Tracks of a group of Stegodon from the Late Pliocene of Japan suggest that like modern elephants, Stegodon lived in social herds. On Flores, where dwarf Stegodon species were the only large herbivores, they were likely the main prey of the Komodo dragon . In the past, stegodonts were believed to be
4131-680: The Sahara. Magdalenian hunter-gatherers were widespread in western Europe about 20 -12.500 cal BP years ago until the end of the Pleistocene. An example of this is the antler-working done by the human groups who lived in the Santimamine cave in the Magdalenian. They invented the earliest known harpoons using reindeer horn. Climatic conditions during the Late Pleistocene in Eurasia were predominantly cold with glaciation events happening in northern Europe , northwest Siberia and
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#17327571285604212-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
4293-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
4374-474: The bone is around 170,000 years old. At the late Middle Pleistocene Panxian Dadong cave site in southern Guizhou Province, southwest China, dating to around 300-190,000 years ago, numerous remains of juvenile (0-12 years of age) and a much smaller number of adult remains of adult Stegodon orientalis , representing a minimum of 12 individuals were found at the site in association with stone tools and human remains. It suggested that Stegodon remains were brought to
4455-532: The cave by humans though none of the elements show clear evidence of processing. At the Xinlong Cave site in the Three Gorges area of Chongqing, suggested to date to around 200-130,000 years ago, two Stegodon cf. orientalis tusks have been found along with human remains. These tusks appear to have been delibrately engraved with patterns and are suggested to have been brought into the cave by humans. At
4536-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West
4617-615: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
4698-416: The dwarf archaic human species Homo floresiensis , with a small number of the bones bearing cut marks . The ambiguous circumstantial association between bones and stone tools, and the rarity of cut marks makes it unclear to what if to any degree, hunting of Stegodon was practiced by Homo floresiensis. The oldest fossils of Stegodon in Asia date to the Late Miocene, around 8-11 million years ago, with
4779-682: The earliest, again in the Near East . A butchered brown bear patella found in Alice and Gwendoline Cave in County Clare and dated to 10,860 to 10,641 BC indicates the first known human activity in Ireland . The topography and geography of Asia were subject to frequent changes such as the creation of land bridges when sea levels dropped which helped with the expansion and migration of human populations . The first human habitation in
4860-416: The following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been
4941-427: The genus are known from Africa and across much of Asia, as far southeast as Timor (with a single record in southeast Europe). The oldest fossils of the genus are found in Late Miocene strata in Asia, likely originating from the more archaic Stegolophodon , subsequently migrating into Africa. While the genus became extinct in Africa during the Pliocene , Stegodon persisted in South, Southeast and Eastern Asia into
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#17327571285605022-454: The genus lack permanent premolars. The tusks are proportionally large, with those of the biggest species being among the largest known tusks in proboscideans, with a particularly large tusk of S. ganesa from the Early Pleistocene of India measured to be 3.89 metres (12.8 ft) long, with an estimated mass of approximately 140 kilograms (310 lb), substantially larger than the largest recorded modern elephant tusk. The Chinese S. zdanskyi
5103-506: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from
5184-424: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to
5265-555: The late Middle Pleistocene of Thailand suggests that these individuals were mixed feeders that consumed a significant amount of C 4 grass. Specimens of Stegodon trigonocephalus from the Early-Middle Pleistocene of Java were found to be mixed feeders to grazers, with a diet similar to that of sympatric Elephas hysudrindicus . The dwarf species from Flores, Stegodon sondaari and Stegodon florensis , are suggested to have been mixed feeders and grazers, respectively, based on stable carbon isotopes. Specimens of Stegodon kaiesensis from
5346-419: The late Pleistocene contains the Upper Palaeolithic stage of human development, including the early human migrations of modern humans outside of Africa, and the extinction of all archaic human species. Paleolithic Epipalaeolithic Mesolithic Neolithic The proposed beginning of the late Pleistocene is the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period (PGP) 126 ka when the Riß glaciation (Alpine)
5427-416: The mainland Chinese S. zdanskyi. In chronological succession these species are Stegodon miensis (4-3 million years ago) Stegodon protoaurorae (3-2 million years ago) and Stegodon aurorae , (2-1 million years ago) which show a progressive size reduction through time, possibly as a result of reducing land area of the Japanese archipelago. The latest and smallest species S. aurorae is estimated to be 25%
5508-408: The movement of tectonic plates and volcanoes but glacial cycles and sea level variation have a more significant effect on the vertebrate communities during the Late Pleistocene. The Late Pleistocene was the time when most animals evolved to resemble modern-day animals and they managed to live through the Late mid-Pleistocene since there were no extinction events of megafauna until the end of
5589-503: The north but was unconnected at this time when the main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu , Kyushu and Shikoku were all separate entities. Human migrations happened during this time with people coming in from Eurasia . From about 28 ka, there were migrations across the Bering land bridge from Siberia to Alaska . The people became the Native Americans . It is believed that the original tribes subsequently moved down to Central and South America under pressure from later migrations. In
5670-400: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
5751-422: The oldest fossils of the genus in Africa being around 7-6 million years old. Stegodon became extinct in Africa during the late Pliocene, around 3 million years ago suggested to be the result of expansion of grassland habitats. The Javanese species Stegodon trigonocephalus became extinct around 130-80,000 years ago during the latest Middle Pleistocene -early Late Pleistocene ( Marine Isotope Stage 5 ) following
5832-551: The only record of the genus in Europe. Indeterminate remains are also known from the Early Pleistocene and early Middle Pleistocene of Israel. Remains at a number of sites suggest that humans (in a broad sense, including archaic humans ) interacted with Stegodon . At a cave deposit on Gele Mountain near Chongqing in southwest China, a mandible of Stegodon orientalis was used to make a handaxe , with dating suggesting
5913-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
5994-424: The placement of the genus Stegodon among other proboscideans, based on hyoid characteristics: Mammut americanum (American mastodon ) Gomphotherium sp. Stegodon zdanskyi Loxodonta africana ( African bush elephant ) Elephas maximus ( Asian elephant ) Mammuthus columbi ( Columbian mammoth ) An indeterminate Stegodon molar of an uncertain locality and age is known from Greece, representing
6075-496: The size of its mainland ancestor with a body mass of around 2,122 kilograms (4,678 lb). S. aurorae also shows morphological straits associated with dwarfism, like shortened limbs. Like modern elephants, but unlike more primitive proboscideans, Stegodon is thought to have chewed using a proal movement (a forward stroke from the back to the front) of the lower jaws. This jaw movement is thought to have evolved independently in elephants and stegodontids. Stegodon populations from
6156-539: The size of mainland Stegodon species, with a body mass of 250 kilograms (550 lb). Sometimes the same island was colonised multiple times by Stegodon, as in Flores , where the Early Pleistocene strongly dwarfed species Stegodon sondaari , which was 120 cm (3.9 ft) tall at the shoulder and weighed about 350–400 kilograms (770–880 lb), was replaced by the species Stegodon florensis during
6237-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
6318-440: The younger later only juveniles are present. Bones at the site display cut marks indicating butchery, and are thought to have been accumulated at the site by people, likely by hunting or possibly scavenging in the case of the large adults found in the older layer. At Liang Bua cave on Flores dating to around 80-50,000 years ago, remains of the dwarf Stegodon species Stegodon florensis are associated with stone tools produced by
6399-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
6480-646: Was being succeeded by the Eemian (Riß-Würm) interglacial period . The Riß-Würm ended 115 ka with the onset of the Last Glacial Period (LGP) which is known in Europe as the Würm (Alpine) or Devensian (Great Britain) or Weichselian glaciation (northern Europe); these are broadly equated with the Wisconsin glaciation (North America), though technically that began much later. The Last Glacial Maximum
6561-772: Was reached during the later millennia of the Würm/Weichselian, estimated between 26 ka and 19 ka when deglaciation began in the Northern Hemisphere. The Würm/Weichselian endured until 16 ka with Northern Europe, including most of Great Britain , covered by an ice sheet. The glaciers reached the Great Lakes in North America. Sea levels fell and two land bridges were temporarily in existence that had significance for human migration : Doggerland , which connected Great Britain to mainland Europe; and
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