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91-622: Besides the relevant legal records in the Codex Theodosianus , the major primary source for the events of Stilicho's reign, or at least events prior to 404, are the panegyrics addressed to him by the poet Claudian , whom he patronized after the death of Theodosius I. These are likely quite biased and portray Stilicho in a positive light. For events after 404, Zosimus is the main source; he derived his information on Stilicho from two prior historians, whose texts he copies faithfully, although in summary. One of these historians, Eunapius ,

182-592: A Roman, and his high rank within the empire suggests that he was probably not an Arian like many Germanic Christians but rather a Nicene Christian like his patron Theodosius I , who declared Nicene Christianity the official religion of the empire. Stilicho joined the Roman army and rose through the ranks during the reign of Theodosius I, who ruled the Eastern half of the Roman Empire from Constantinople, and who

273-667: A boy's rule... 'Twas then that Stilicho took my place..." Following the death of Theodosius, Honorius became emperor of the Western Roman Empire while his brother Arcadius was placed on the Eastern throne in Constantinople. As both were underage, Stilicho remained the caretaker for Honorius until he came of age. He would claim to have been given a similar role in regards to Arcadius, although no independent verification of this exists. Neither proved to powerfully assert themselves as leaders, and Stilicho came to be

364-403: A difficult time explaining exactly what led to his marriage to Serena which occurred after his return to Constantinople at the successful conclusion of peace talks. Claudian claims that Theodosius awarded Stilicho with Serena’s hand because of his outstanding achievements, but as Stilicho was actually just a junior member of the embassy and not its leader, nor had he done anything else of note, this

455-495: A large amount of gold. The senate, "inspired by the courage, rather than the wisdom, of their predecessors", as Gibbon put it, favored war with Alaric until Stilicho persuaded them to give into Alaric's demands. They were angry at Stilicho for this, and one of the most outspoken of them, Lampadius, said " Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis (This is not peace, but a pact of servitude)." Stilicho's unsuccessful attempts to deal with Constantine, and rumors that he had earlier planned

546-515: A major victory and killing both of Constantine's magistri militum , but a relief force drove him back and saved the rebellion. Sarus withdrew and Stilicho decided to seal off the Alps to prevent Constantine from threatening Italy. Meanwhile, Constantine's rebellion having interrupted the negotiations between Alaric and Stilicho for the joint attack on Illyria, Alaric demanded the payment he was owed, threatening to attack Italy again if he did not receive

637-405: A minister named Olympius gained the confidence of Honorius. He convinced the emperor that his father-in-law was conspiring with the barbarians to overthrow him. On his return to Ravenna, Honorius ordered the arrest and execution of Stilicho. With Stilicho's fall, Honorius moved against all of his former father-in-law's allies, killing and torturing key individuals and ordering the confiscation of

728-517: A reliance on western provincial sources through the late 4th century and on central, eastern archives thereafter." After 6 years, an initial version was finished in 435 but was not published. Instead, it was improved upon and expanded and finally finished in 438 and taken to the Senate in Rome and Constantinople. Matthews believes that the two attempts are not the result of a failed first attempt; however,

819-513: A single, simplified, and supersedent code, Theodosius II also attempted to solidify Christianity as the Empire's official religion after it had been decriminalised under Galerius ' rule and promoted under Constantine's. In his City of God , St. Augustine praised Theodosius the Great , Theodosius II's grandfather, who shared his faith and devotion, as "a Christian ruler whose piety was expressed by

910-524: A surprise attack on Easter Sunday in 402, Stilicho defeated Alaric at the Battle of Pollentia , capturing his camp and his wife. Alaric himself managed to escape with most of his men. This battle was the last victory celebrated in a triumphal march in Rome, which was saved for the time being. At Verona , Stilicho again bested Alaric, who managed to escape with a diminished force. A truce was made and Alaric went to Illyricum where he and his men were settled in

1001-755: A variety of desperate methods, including efforts to enroll slaves in the army in exchange for their freedom, at Ticinum (Pavia) led this force at the beginning of the campaigning season in 406 against Radagaisus. Fortunately for Stilicho, Radagaisus had split his forces into three divisions; two were pillaging the Italian countryside while the largest contingent – under Radagaisus himself – was laying siege to Florentia. Stilicho marched his entire army against Radagaisus at Florentia, managed to surprise him and captured almost his entire force. Stilicho executed Radagaisus and enrolled 12,000 of his warriors in his army. The rest were sold off as slaves. In late 406, Stilicho demanded

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1092-538: Is certainly panegyrical publicity. Perhaps the varied duties of the notarii at some point placed Stilicho inside the imperial residence of Constantinople where he encountered Serena and they decided the match themselves, or maybe Theodosius saw a good outcome in tying a young, up-and-coming, half-barbarian general to the imperial household. The marriage would see the birth of a son, who was named Eucherius , and two daughters, Maria and Thermantia . Whatever its origin, this match undoubtedly raised Stilicho's prospects. He

1183-509: Is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy ; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy . In his History of the Wars , Procopius mentions a likely apocryphal story where, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished", Honorius was initially shocked, thinking

1274-491: The Codex Hermogenianus , a limited collection of rescripts from c. 295, was published. The Sirmondian Constitutions may also represent a small-scale collection of imperial laws. However, Theodosius desired to create a more comprehensive code that would provide greater insight into law during the later empire (321–429). Peter Stein states, "Theodosius was perturbed at the low state of legal skill in his empire of

1365-616: The Christian emperors since 312. A commission was established by Emperor Theodosius II and his co-emperor Valentinian III on 26 March 429 and the compilation was published by a constitution of 15 February 438. It went into force in the eastern and western parts of the empire on 1 January 439. The original text of the codex is also found in the Breviary of Alaric (also called Lex Romana Visigothorum ), promulgated on 2 February 506. On 26 March 429, Emperor Theodosius II announced to

1456-549: The Julian Alps and began a campaign through the heart of Italy. By September 408, the barbarians stood before the walls of Rome . Without a strong general like Stilicho, Honorius could do little to break the siege, and adopted a passive strategy trying to wait out Alaric, hoping to regather his forces to defeat the Visigoths in the meantime. What followed was two years of political and military manoeuvering, Alaric, king of

1547-663: The Popes of Rome . So it was that Pope Innocent I and Western bishops may have been successful in persuading Honorius to write to his brother, arguing for convening a synod in Thessalonica. At first Honorius based his capital in Milan , but when the Visigoths under King Alaric I entered Italy in 401 he moved his capital to the coastal city of Ravenna , which was protected by a ring of marshes and strong fortifications. While

1638-472: The Theodosian Code . The chief overseer of the work was Antiochus Chuzon , a lawyer and a prefect and consul from Antioch. Their product was a collection of 16 books containing more than 2,500 constitutions issued between 313 and 437, while, at the same time, omitting obsolete provisions and superfluous phrases, and making additions, emendations, and alterations. John F. Matthews illustrated

1729-466: The consulate at the age of two in 386, Honorius was declared augustus by his father Theodosius I , and thus co-ruler, on 23 January 393, after the death of Valentinian II and the usurpation of Eugenius . When Theodosius died in January 395, Honorius and Arcadius divided the Empire. Honorius became Western Roman emperor at the age of ten. During the early part of his reign, Honorius depended on

1820-455: The de facto commander-in-chief of the Roman armies in the west while his rival Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. To strengthen his hold over the emperor, he gave Honorius his daughter Maria's hand in marriage in 398, and after her death, Thermantia's in 408. Both of these marriages did not produce any children. Stilicho used his military leadership as well as Honorius' youth and inexperience to consolidate his authority over

1911-598: The grain supply to Rome , but the governor, Heraclian, who was loyal to Honorius, wiped out this force as soon as it landed on the coast. As Rome was dependent on North African grain for sustenance, the populace was faced with the prospect of famine, and they blamed Attalus for the impending calamity. Growing desperate, Attalus searched for means of pacifying the people, but found himself, in consequence of conciliatory expenditures, incapable of satisfying his debt to Alaric, and thus alienated both Romans and Goths. In turn he came out to be exploited in political terms. Confronted with

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2002-488: The 6,000-soldier legions of the Republic era and Empire period up to late 4th century) from Ravenna to aid Honorius, but Alaric ambushed the legions on the way, and only a handful of them reached Rome. Lacking a strong general to control the by-now mostly Germanic Roman army , Honorius could do little to attack Alaric's forces directly, and apparently adopted the only strategy he could in the situation: wait passively for

2093-499: The Codex Theodosianus is: The Theodosian Code was translated into English, with annotations, in 1952 by Clyde Pharr , Theresa Sherrer Davidson , and others. This translation was very favorably received by scholars. Honorius (emperor) Honorius (9 September 384 – 15 August 423) was Roman emperor from 393 to 423. He was the younger son of emperor Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla . After

2184-551: The Codex, books 6–16, also drew largely from two texts. Books 6–8 of the Codex were preserved in the text of a document known as Parsinus 9643. The document circulated in early medieval French libraries, as well as the other formative document for the latter part of the code, a document held in the Vatican (Vat. Reg. 886), also known as "V". Scholars consider this section to have been transmitted completely. The reference edition of

2275-471: The East." He started a school of law at Constantinople. In 429, he assigned a commission to collect all imperial constitutions since the time of Constantine. While gathering the vast amount of material, editors often had multiple copies of the same law. In addition to this, the source material the editors were drawing upon changed over time. Clifford Ando notes that according to Matthews, the editors "displayed

2366-571: The Eastern Empire, Alaric would defend Illyricum, leaving Stilicho free to concentrate on the north). A combination of all three is also a possibility. In order to protect Italy from invasions by Alaric (401–402) and Radagaisus (405–406), Stilicho had seriously depleted the Roman forces defending the Rhine frontier. He left it defended "only by the faith of the Germans and the ancient terror of

2457-558: The Empire, which Stilicho had promised him. The city bought him off with 5,000 lbs of gold and 30,000 lbs of silver after a short siege with Rome on the verge of famine. A palace revolution in Honorius's court led meanwhile to a change of ministers, and those hostile to the Goths were replaced by officers favorable to Alaric, who began peace negotiations. While the embassy was absent, a new change occurred at Ravenna, and Honorius disclaimed

2548-472: The Goths, attempting to secure a permanent peace treaty and rights to settle within Roman territory. He besieged Rome three times without attacking while the Roman army of Italy watched helplessly, but only after a fourth failed attempt at a deal was Alaric's siege a success. After months under siege the people of Rome were dying of hunger and some were resorting to cannibalism. Then, the Gothic army broke through

2639-511: The Goths, eventually surrounding them somewhere in Thessaly. According to Claudian , Stilicho was in a position to destroy them, but was ordered by Arcadius to return the Eastern Empire's forces and leave Illyricum . Stilicho resented the orders, for he was in a position to defeat Alaric's Goths, but he obeyed them anyway. When the Eastern Empire's forces arrived at Constantinople, Arcadius and Rufinus rode out to meet them. At this meeting Rufinus

2730-547: The Novellae), in that it was largely based not on existing juristic writings and collections of texts, but on primary sources that had never before been brought together." Justinian's Code, published about 100 years later, comprised both ius , "law as an interpretive discipline", and leges , "the primary legislation upon which the interpretation was based". While the first part, or codex, of Justinian's Corpus Civilis Juris contained 12 books of constitutions , or imperial laws,

2821-530: The Picts is highly disputed. The troops defending the British provinces probably defeated an invasion by the Picts without any support from Stilicho – who is never recorded to have left Italy in 398. Claudian refers to Stilicho providing Britannia with forts and a legion to protect it from incursions by Picts and Scots. However, a critical analysis of his panegyric suggests that things went badly. In 401 Stilicho led

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2912-593: The Roman name", as Gibbon put it. In 406 a coalition of Vandals, Alans , and Suevi (Quadians, Marcomanni, and Alemanni) from central Europe arrived at the Rhine frontier. The Franks, Rome's allies on the northern Rhine, tried to stop the Vandals from entering the Empire and fought them on the far bank of the Rhine. The Vandals defeated the Franks with the help of the Alans, but lost their king Godigisel . On 31 December 406,

3003-677: The Romans, the armies of the Eastern Empire were occupied with Hunnic incursions in Asia Minor and Syria . Rufinus, Praetorian Prefect of the East, attempted to negotiate with Alaric in person. Officials in Constantinople suspected Rufinus was in league with the Goths. Stilicho led the army, which had been victorious at the Frigidus and was still assembled in Italy, into the Balkans to confront

3094-409: The Senate of Constantinople his intentions to form a committee to codify all of the laws ( leges , singular lex ) from the reign of Constantine up to Theodosius II and Valentinian III. The laws in the code span from 312 to 438, so by 438 the "volume of imperial law had become unmanageable". Twenty-two scholars, working in two teams, worked for nine years starting in 429 to assemble what was to become

3185-507: The Visigoths poured in. The city had not been under the control of a foreign force since an invasion of Gauls some eight centuries before. The sack itself was notably mild as sacks go. For example, churches and religious statuary went unharmed. The psychological blow to the contemporary Roman world was considerably more painful. The shock of this event reverberated from Britain to Jerusalem, and inspired Augustine to write his magnum opus , The City of God . The revolt of Constantine III in

3276-438: The Visigoths to grow weary and spend the time marshalling what forces he could. This course of action appeared to be the product of Honorius's indecisive character and he suffered much criticism for it both from contemporaries and later historians. To counter Attalus, Honorius tried to negotiate with Alaric in addition to restricting grain shipments to Rome from North Africa. Attalus dispatched an army to conquer Africa and restore

3367-669: The announcement of his elevation was sent to Constantinople, Theodosius refused to recognise him. Constantius, enraged, began preparations for a military conflict with the eastern empire but before he could commence it, he died in September 421. In 420–422, another Maximus (or perhaps the same) gained and lost power in Hispania. By the time of Honorius's death in 423, Britain, Spain and Gaul had been ravaged by barbarians. In his final years, Honorius fell out with his sister after his soldiers clashed with hers. Galla Placidia and her children,

3458-612: The army with Timasius . They were victorious over the Western army at the Battle of the Frigidus . One of his comrades during the campaign was the Visigothic warlord Alaric , who commanded a substantial number of Gothic auxiliaries. Alaric would go on to become Stilicho's chief adversary during his later career as the head of the Western Roman armies. Stilicho distinguished himself at the Frigidus, and Theodosius, exhausted by

3549-474: The assassination of Rufinus and that he planned to place his son on the throne following the death of emperor Arcadius (1 May 408), caused a revolt. The Roman army at Ticinum mutinied on August 13, 408, killing at least seven senior imperial officers ( Zosimus 5.32). John Matthews observed that the following events "have every appearance of a thoroughly co-ordinated coup d'état organized by Stilicho's political opponents". Stilicho retired to Ravenna, where he

3640-568: The border provinces of Noricum and Pannonia (probably Pannonia Secunda ). In 405 Radagaisus , the king of one of the Gothic tribes north of the Danube, led a combined force of Goths, Alans, Sueves, and Vandals across the Danube and the Alps and into Italy. This disrupted Stilicho's plans to re-take Illyricum from the Eastern Empire with the help of Alaric. Stilicho, scraping together a force of c. 20,000 men (thirty numeri of Roman troops with supporting units of federates of Alans and Huns) through

3731-553: The campaign, saw him as a man worthy of responsibility for the future safety of the empire. In several of the Claudian poems celebrating Theodosius's victories, Stilicho's participation and contribution to the campaign were highlighted. This helped him gain popularity in the empire. The last emperor of a united Rome appointed Stilicho guardian of his son Honorius , with the rank of comes et magister utriusque militiae praesentalis (supreme commander), shortly before his death in 395. At

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3822-451: The central government. It removed the imperial governors and allowed the inhabitants, as a dependent federation, to conduct their own affairs, for which purpose representatives of all the towns were to meet every year in Arles . In 417, Constantius married Honorius's sister, Galla Placidia , much against her will. In 421, Honorius recognized him as co-emperor Constantius III; however, when

3913-813: The coalition crossed the poorly defended Rhine frontier . These new migrants proceeded to devastate the provinces of Gaul , as well as triggering military revolts there and in Britannia . Stilicho's reputation would never recover from this disaster. The destruction that occurred in Gaul and the lack of an effective response from the court in Ravenna lent support to the rebellion of Constantine III in Britain, which Stilicho proved unable to quash. As Constantine moved his forces into Gaul, Stilicho sent his subordinate Sarus to oppose him. Sarus had some initial success, winning

4004-578: The death of Theodosius in 395, Honorius, under the regency of Stilicho , ruled the western half of the empire while his brother Arcadius ruled the eastern half. His reign over the Western Roman Empire was notably precarious and chaotic. In 410, Rome was sacked for the first time since the Battle of the Allia almost 800 years prior. Honorius was born to Emperor Theodosius I and Empress Aelia Flaccilla on 9 September 384 in Constantinople . He

4095-490: The delays were caused by such problems as verifying the accuracy of the text and improving the legal coherence of the work." The tone of the work reflected the rhetorical training that the drafters had received, and Averil Cameron has described it as "verbose, moralizing and pretentious". The code was written in Latin and referred explicitly to the two capitals of Constantinople ( Constantinopolitana ) and Rome ( Roma ). It

4186-527: The digest found later in Justinian's Code . But the task proved too great, and in 435, it was decided to concentrate solely on the laws from Constantine to the time of writing. This decision defined the most significant difference between the Theodosian Code and Justinian's later Corpus Juris Civilis . Matthews observes, "The Theodosian Code does, however, differ from the work of Justinian (except

4277-563: The empire, though he acquired many rivals and enemies in the process, both in the West and East. His first brush with such court politics came in 395. After the Battle of Frigidus the Goths, under their new king Alaric, were returning to their allotted lands in Lower Moesia when they decided to raid the countryside. By doing so Alaric effectively broke his treaty with Rome. Unfortunately for

4368-571: The future emperor Valentinian III and his sister, Honoria , were forced to flee to Constantinople. Honorius died of edema on 15 August 423, leaving no heir. In the subsequent interregnum Joannes was nominated Emperor. The following year, however, the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II installed his cousin Valentinian III , son of Galla Placidia and Constantius III , as Emperor. The Mausoleum of Honorius

4459-599: The gates and sacked the city in August of 410 . Many historians argue that the removal of Stilicho was the main catalyst leading to this monumental event, the first barbarian capture of Rome in nearly eight centuries and a part of the fall of the Western Roman Empire . Codex Theodosianus The Codex Theodosianus ("Theodosian Code") is a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under

4550-470: The heart of the Empire, until Stilicho defeated them in 406 and recruited most of them into his forces. Then, in 405 or 406, a number of tribes, according to some sources allegedly including Vandals , Alans , and Suebi , crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul . The situation in Britain was even more difficult. The British provinces were isolated, lacking support from the Empire, and the soldiers supported

4641-576: The importance of Theodosius' code when he said, "the Theodosian Code was the first occasion since the Twelve Tables on which a Roman government had attempted by public authority to collect and publish its leges ." The code covers political, socioeconomic, cultural, and religious subjects of the 4th and 5th centuries in the Roman Empire. A collection of imperial enactments called the Codex Gregorianus had been written in c. 291–4 and

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4732-409: The increasing unpopularity and truculence of Attalus, Alaric dethroned him in 410 and proposed to renew negotiations with Honorius. Honorius, overconfident at Attalus's fall and the victory of his general Heraclian over Attalus's African expeditionary force, refused negotiation, and declared Alaric the eternal enemy of the Republic. Stricken by starvation, somebody opened Rome's defenses to Alaric and

4823-522: The influence of Constantius, Honorius issued the Edict of 418, which was designed to enable the Empire to retain a hold on the lands which were to be surrendered to the Goths. This edict relaxed the administrative bonds that connected all the Seven Provinces (The Maritime Alps, Narbonensis Prima , Narbonensis Secunda , Novempopulania , Aquitania Prima , Aquitania Secunda and Viennensis ) with

4914-555: The laws he had issued in favor of the Catholic Church ". The Codex Theodosianus is, for example, explicit in ordering that all actions at law should cease during Holy Week , and the doors of all courts of law be closed during those 15 days (1. ii. tit. viii.). It also instituted laws punishing homosexuality , which represented a departure from policy under the period of the Roman Republic, under which homosexuality

5005-478: The manuscript support available for books 6–16. The first five books of the surviving Codex draw largely from two other manuscripts. The Turin manuscript, or "T," consists of 43 largely discontinuous folios. The second manuscript is the Breviary of Alaric , and a good part of the Breviarium that is included in book 1 contains the original text of the respective part of the original codex. The latter part of

5096-402: The military leadership of the general Stilicho , who had been appointed by Theodosius and was of mixed Vandal and Roman ancestry. To strengthen his bonds with the young emperor and to make his grandchild an imperial heir, Stilicho married his daughter Maria to Honorius. The epithalamion written for the occasion by Stilicho's court poet Claudian survives. Honorius was also influenced by

5187-599: The new capital was easier to defend, it was poorly situated to allow Roman forces to protect Central Italy from the increasingly regular threat of barbarian incursions. It was significant that the Emperor's residence remained in Ravenna until the overthrow of Romulus Augustulus in 476. That was probably the reason why Ravenna was chosen not only as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy, but also for

5278-470: The news was in reference to a favourite chicken he had named "Roma". At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Rome had perished. And he cried out and said, 'And yet it has just eaten from my hands!' For he had a very large cock, Rome by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it

5369-556: The peace which was on the verge of being concluded. The enraged Alaric returned to Rome in late 409 and forced the Senate to elect Priscus Attalus as emperor, who ratified Alaric's former treaty with Stilicho. Rome had been under Visigothic siege since shortly after Stilicho's deposition and execution in the summer of 408. In 410, the Eastern Roman Empire sent six legions (6,000 men; due to changes in tactics, legions of this period were about 1,000 soldiers, down from

5460-568: The possibility that he simply was never as close to Alaric as Claudian suggests. Later that year, Gildo , the comes et magister utriusque militiae per Africam (the commander of all troops in Africa), revolted . He declared his intention to place the African provinces, the critical source of Rome's grain supply, under the control of the Eastern Empire. Stilicho sent Mascezel , the brother of Gildo, into Africa with an army, which quickly suppressed

5551-477: The praesental army from Italy into Raetia and Noricum in response to an invasion by Vandals and Alans. Sensing an opportunity Alaric invaded Italy and lay siege to Mediolanum (Milan) where Honorius was residing. In 402 Stilicho returned to Italy and hastened forward with a selected vanguard in advance of his main body, breaking the siege of Mediolanum and rescuing the besieged emperor. One of his chieftains implored him to retreat from Italy, but Alaric refused. In

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5642-443: The property of anyone who had borne any office while Stilicho was in command. Honorius's wife Thermantia was taken from the imperial throne and given over to her mother; Eucherius, the son of Stilicho, was put to death. The purge also massacred the families of Stilicho's foederati troops , and they defected en masse to Alaric. In October 408, Alaric returned to Italy to claim more gold and land to settle in, as feudatory vassals of

5733-400: The rebellion. However, upon his return to Italy, Mascezel was drowned under questionable circumstances, perhaps on the orders of a jealous Stilicho. The year 400 also saw Stilicho accorded the highest honour within the Roman state by being appointed consul. Stilicho also fought a war in Britain in this time period, likely in the year 398, dubbed Stilicho's Pictish War . The campaign against

5824-505: The return of the eastern half of Illyricum (which had been transferred to the administrative control of Constantinople by Theodosius), threatening war if the Eastern Roman Empire resisted. The exact reasons for this are unclear, but there are several theories: 1) Stilicho wanted Illyricum as a recruiting ground for his army (recruiting troops in the western provinces proved difficult because most able bodied men were employed by

5915-422: The revolts of Marcus (406–407), Gratian (407), and Constantine III . Constantine invaded Gaul in 407, occupying Arles , and while Constantine was in Gaul, his son Constans ruled over Britain. By 410, Britain may have been told to look after its own affairs and expect no aid from Rome , although it has been argued that the order was sent to the people of Bruttium in Italy, not Britain. The western empire

6006-401: The same fate with which Attalus had threatened Honorius. Remembering how Attalus had suggested that Honorius should retire to some small island, he returned the favor by banishing Attalus to the island of Lipara . Northeastern Gaul became subject to even greater Frankish influence, while a treaty signed in 418 granted to the Visigoths southwestern Gaul, the former Gallia Aquitania . Under

6097-581: The seat of the Byzantine exarchs as well. Honorius's reign experienced continued barbarian incursions into Gaul , Italy and Hispania . At the same time, a host of usurpers rose up. First Gildo , the comes of Africa and magister utriusque militiae per Africam in Northern Africa, led a revolt which lasted for two years (397–398). Stilicho eventually subdued it through the local command of Mascezel , Gildo's brother. The next crisis

6188-721: The second and third parts, the digest and the Institutiones , contained the ius of Classical Roman jurists and the Institutes of Gaius . While the Theodosian Code may seem to lack a personal facet due to the absence of judicial reviews, upon further review, the legal code gives insight into Theodosius' motives behind the codification. Lenski quotes Matthews as noting that the "imperial constitutions represented not only prescriptive legal formulas but also descriptive pronouncements of an emperor's moral and ideological principles". Apart from clearing up confusion and creating

6279-417: The second attempt shows "reiteration and refinement of the original goals at a new stage in the editorial process". Others have put forth alternate theories to explain the lengthy editorial process and two different commissions. Boudewijn Sirks believes that "the code was compiled from imperial copy books found at Constantinople, Rome, or Ravenna, supplemented by material at a few private collections, and that

6370-525: The support of Alans, Burgundians, and the nobility of Gallic descent. Jovinus tried to negotiate with the invading Goths of Ataulf (412), but his proclamation of his brother Sebastianus as Augustus made Ataulf seek alliance with Honorius. Honorius had Ataulf defeat and execute Jovinus in 413. At the same time, Heraclianus raised the standard of revolt in North Africa, but failed during an invasion of Italy. Defeated, he fled back to Carthage and

6461-479: The surrounding mountains. Edward Gibbon , drawing on Zosimus , criticizes Stilicho for being overconfident in victory and indulging in luxury and women, allowing Alaric to escape. Contemporary scholarship disagrees, and finds a variety of possible explanations, including an order from Arcadius directing him to evacuate the Eastern Empire, the unreliability of his mostly barbarian troops, the revolt of Gildo in Africa or

6552-485: The time of Theodosius's death, the field armies that had clashed at the Frigidus were still in disarray and fighting was still continuing. Claudian , Stilicho's panegyrist, makes Theodosius's spirit say "When I was raised to heaven disorder... and tumult did I leave behind me. The army was still drawing the forbidden sword in that Alpine war, and conquerors and conquered gave alternate cause for dissension. Scarce could this madness have been calmed by my vigilance, much less by

6643-465: The west continued through this period. In 409, Gerontius , Constantine III's general in Hispania, rebelled against him, proclaimed Maximus Emperor, and besieged Constantine at Arles. Honorius now found himself an able commander, Constantius , who defeated Maximus and Gerontius , and then Constantine, in 411. Gaul was again a source of troubles for Honorius: just after Constantius's troops had returned to Italy, Jovinus revolted in northern Gaul, with

6734-559: The western elite which he could not afford to antagonize). 2) Stilicho feared that Italy could be invaded from Illyricum if he did not control the Diocese himself (directly or indirectly through Alaric). 3) Stilicho planned to neutralize Alaric as a threat by employing him and his battle-hardened troops in the Western Empire's defences and made him comes et magister militum per Illyricum (Stilicho and Alaric would take Illyricum from

6825-635: Was also concerned with the imposition of orthodoxy – the Arian controversy was ongoing – within the Christian religion and contains 65 decrees directed at heretics. Initially, Theodosius attempted to commission leges generales beginning with Constantine as a supplement for the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus . He intended to supplement the legal codes with the opinions and writings of ancient Roman jurists, much like

6916-425: Was besieged by Alaric, who marched into Liguria . Stilicho narrowly defeated Alaric at Pollentia , on the river Tanarus on Easter Day (6 April 402). Alaric retreated to Verona , where Stilicho attacked him again yet the battle was not entirely conclusive. The Visigoths were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum. In 405 Stilicho met an invasion of Italy led across the Danube by Radagaisus . They brought devastation to

7007-537: Was effectively overstretched due to the massive invasion of Alans , Suebi and Vandals who, although they had been repulsed from Italy in 406, moved into Gaul on 31 December 406, and arrived in Hispania in 409. In early 408, Stilicho attempted to strengthen his position at court by marrying his second daughter, Thermantia , to Honorius after the death of the Empress Maria in 407. Another invasion by Alaric

7098-482: Was erected. The year 410 also saw Honorius reply to a British plea for assistance against local barbarian incursions, called the Rescript of Honorius . Preoccupied with the Visigoths , Honorius lacked any military capability to assist the distant province. According to the sixth century Byzantine scholar Zosimus , "Honorius wrote letters to the cities in Britain, bidding them to guard themselves." This sentence

7189-425: Was hostile to Stilicho, and the other, Olympiodorus , was supportive, resulting in a bit of a garbled, contradictory account. Stilicho also maintained correspondence with his friend, the renowned pagan senator Symmachus . Stilicho was the son of a Vandal cavalry officer and a provincial woman of Roman birth. Despite his father's origins there is little to suggest that Stilicho considered himself anything other than

7280-453: Was killed. In 414, Constantius attacked Ataulf, who proclaimed Priscus Attalus emperor again. Constantius drove Ataulf into Hispania, and Attalus, having again lost Visigoth support, was captured and deposed once again. In the eleventh consulship of Honorius and the second of Constantius, the Emperor entered Rome in triumph, with Attalus at the wheels of his chariot. Honorius punished Attalus by cutting off his right finger and thumb, inflicting

7371-654: Was located on the Vatican Hill , accessed from the transept of the Old Saint Peter's Basilica . It was first used for Maria. Probably Thermantia and Honorius's sister Galla Placidia, and perhaps other imperial family members, were later buried there. In the 8th century it was transformed into a church, the Chapel of St Petronilla , which held the relics of the saint and was demolished when the New St Peter's

7462-577: Was murdered by the troops. Many historians suspect the involvement of Stilicho in the assassination/murder of Rufinus. In 396 Stilicho campaigned against the Franks and other Germanic tribes in Gaul. He used the campaign to boost the morale of the western army – which had suffered three consecutive defeats in the civil wars against Theodosius – and to recruit Germanic auxiliaries to bolster its depleted ranks. The next year, in 397, Stilicho defeated Alaric's forces in Macedonia , but Alaric himself escaped into

7553-406: Was negatively assessed by some 19th and 20th century historians, including J.B. Bury . Honorius issued a decree during his reign, prohibiting men from wearing trousers in Rome. The last known gladiatorial games took place during the reign of Honorius, who banned the practice in 399 and again in 404, reportedly due to the martyrdom of a Christian monk named Telemachus while he was protesting

7644-696: Was prevented in 408 by Stilicho when he forced the Roman Senate to pay 4,000 pounds of gold to persuade the Goths to leave Italy. Honorius, in the meantime, was at Bononia , on his way from Ravenna to Ticinum , when the news reached him of his brother's death in May 408. He at first was planning to go to Constantinople to help set up the court during the transition from Arcadius to Theodosius II . Summoned from Ravenna for advice, Stilicho advised Honorius not to go, and proceeded to go himself. In Stilicho's absence,

7735-515: Was promoted to comes sacri stabuli and soon after to comes domesticorum in 385. It is unclear whether he participated in the campaign against Magnus Maximus or remained in Constantinople during that time. In 392 or 393, Theodosius promoted Stilicho to comes et magister utriusque militiae and gave him command of soldiers in Thrace. After the death of the Western emperor Valentinian II in 392, Theodosius appointed Stilicho as co-commander of

7826-495: Was taken into captivity. Stilicho did not resist and was executed on August 22, 408, as was his son, Eucherius, shortly afterwards. In the disturbances which followed, the wives and children of barbarian foederati throughout Italy were slain by the local Romans. The natural consequence was that these men (estimates describe their numbers as perhaps 30,000 strong) flocked to the protection of Alaric, clamoring to be led against their enemies. The Visigothic warlord accordingly crossed

7917-608: Was the Visigothic invasion of Italy in 402 under the command of their king, Alaric. Stilicho was absent in Raetia in the latter months of 401, when Alaric, who was also the Eastern Empire's magister militum in Illyricum , suddenly marched with a large army through the Julian Alps and entered Italy. Stilicho hurried back to protect Honorius and the legions of Gaul and Britain were summoned to defend Italy. Honorius, at Milan,

8008-532: Was the brother of Arcadius and Pulcheria . In 386, his mother died, and in 387, Theodosius married Galla who had taken a temporary refuge in Thessaloniki with her family, including her brother Valentinian II and mother Justina , away from usurper Magnus Maximus . Theodosius and Galla had a daughter, Honorius's half-sister Galla Placidia . Honorius, Arcadius, and Galla Placidia were the only children of Theodosius to survive into adulthood. After holding

8099-460: Was the city of Rome which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: 'But I thought that my fowl Rome had perished.' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed. —Procopius, The Vandalic War ( III.2.25–26 ) While the tale is discounted as a rumour by more recent historians like Edward Gibbon , it is useful in understanding Roman public opinion towards Honorius. Honorius

8190-535: Was to become the last emperor to rule both the eastern and western halves of the empire jointly. In 383, Theodosius sent him as a tribunus praetorianus , an office in the branch of military administrators known as the notarii, on an embassy mission to the court of the Persian King Shapur III in Ctesiphon to negotiate a peace settlement relating to the partition of Armenia . Historians have

8281-456: Was tolerated and perhaps mocked but was not illegal. The first laws granting tax exemption to the church appear in the Codex and are credited to Constantine and his son Constantius II . These laws specify land owned by clergy , their family members, and churches were exempt from compulsory service and tax payments with the exception of land personally owned by the clerics. Books 1-5 lack

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