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103-569: Some Russian historians believe that the Streltsy uprising represented a reactionary rebellion against the progressive innovations of Peter the Great , who had left the country on a tour of cities in northern and western Europe at the time. Others see it as a riot against the yoke of serfdom oppression, military-service hardships and harassment. The Moscow Streltsy, who had participated in Peter

206-595: A cavalry unit under the command of Aleksey Shein and Patrick Gordon to attack the Streltsy. On 18 June, the Streltsy were defeated not far from the New Jerusalem Monastery ( Voskresensky Monastery ) 40 km west of Moscow. Peter employed savage tortures while investigating the incident. Many suspects were whipped to death with the knout , an extremely stout leather whip composed of numerous twisted strands. Many were stretched until their limbs broke; sophisticated iron thumbscrews were applied to

309-471: A reactionary or a reactionist is a person who holds political views that favor a return to the status quo ante —the previous political state of society—which the person believes possessed positive characteristics that are absent from contemporary society. As a descriptor term, reactionary derives from the ideological context of the left–right political spectrum . As an adjective, the word reactionary describes points of view and policies meant to restore

412-501: A status quo ante . As an ideology , reactionism is a tradition in right-wing politics ; the reactionary stance opposes policies for the social transformation of society, whereas conservatives seek to preserve the socio-economic structure and order that exists in the present. In popular usage, reactionary refers to a strong traditionalist conservative political perspective of a person opposed to social, political, and economic change. Reactionary ideologies can be radical in

515-421: A Catholic idea but also a broader religious one, asserts that faith and religious principles ought to be the basis for public law and policy when possible. The goal of such a system is to integrate religious authority with political power. While integralist principles have been sporadically associated with traditionalism, it was largely popularized by the works of Joseph de Maistre . The countryside, as well as

618-530: A Roman Catholic; Rod Dreher , an Eastern Orthodox Christian ). Another traditionalist who has stated his faith tradition publicly is Caleb Stegall , an evangelical Protestant . A number of conservative mainline Protestants are also traditionalists, such as Peter Hitchens and Roger Scruton , and some traditionalists are Jewish, such as the late Will Herberg , Irving Louis Horowitz , Mordecai Roshwald , and Paul Gottfried . A small portion of traditionalists are also Muslim , such as Mohammed Hijab. Natural law

721-410: A computer programmer) in 2008. Arnold Kling used it in 2010 to describe "Moldbug", and the subculture quickly adopted it. Proponents of the "Neo-reactionary" movement (also called the " Dark Enlightenment " movement) include philosopher Nick Land , among others. Persons who have at times been designated reactionaries, by themselves or others, include: Note that Germany did not become united as

824-551: A country until 1871. Metternich was born in the Holy Roman Empire . Traditionalist conservative Traditionalist conservatism , often known as classical conservatism , is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the importance of transcendent moral principles, manifested through certain posited natural laws to which it is claimed society should adhere. It is one of many different forms of conservatism . Traditionalist conservatism, as known today,

927-461: A lover of the poor, claimed that mobs, plutocrats, anarchists, communists, socialists, liberals, and others were threatening the fabric of British society by exploiting them and perpetuating class animosity. A devotee of Germanic culture and Romanticism , Carlyle is best known for his works, Sartor Resartus (1833–1834) and Past and Present (1843). The Oxford Movement , a religious movement aimed at restoring Anglicanism's Catholic nature, gave

1030-404: A medievalist who considered himself a "Christian communist" and cared much about standards in culture, the arts, and society, continued this tradition. The Industrial Revolution , according to Ruskin (and all 19th-century cultural conservatives), had caused dislocation, rootlessness, and vast urbanization of the poor. He wrote The Stones of Venice (1851–1853), a work of art criticism that attacked

1133-544: A return to the pre-revolutionary model of social relations, with a strong role for the Church. Their utmost philosopher was Nicolás Gómez Dávila . Political scientist Corey Robin argues in his 2011 book The Reactionary Mind that modern conservatism in the United States is "inherently reactionary". Japan 's right-wing nationalist and populist movements and related organizations, which emerged rapidly from

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1236-467: A robustly Thomistic natural law theory. Individuals who embrace non-Thomistic understandings of natural law rooted in, e.g., non-Aristotelian accounts affirmed in segments of Greco-Roman, patristic, medieval, and Reformation thought, can identify with traditionalist conservatism. Traditionalists think that tradition and custom should guide man and his worldview, as their names imply. Each generation inherits its ancestors' experience and culture, which man

1339-460: A role in organicism in conservative thought: Traditional authority is a common tenet of conservatism, albeit expressed in different forms. Alexandre Kojève distinguished between two forms of traditional authority: the father (fathers, priests, monarchs) and the master (aristocrats, military commanders). Obedience to said authority, whether familial or religious, continues to be a central tenet of conservatism to this day. Integralism , typically

1442-771: A think tank, ResPublica . The oldest traditionalist publication in the United Kingdom is The Salisbury Review , which was founded by British philosopher Roger Scruton . The Salisbury Review ' s current managing editor is Merrie Cave. A group of traditionalist MPs known as the Cornerstone Group was created in 2005 within the British Conservative Party . The Cornerstone Group represents "faith, flag, and family" and stands for traditional values. Edward Leigh and John Henry Hayes are two notable members. The Edmund Burke Foundation

1545-430: Is a common value expressed in conservatism. The concept of traditional morality is often coalesced with familialism and family values , being viewed as the bedrock of society within traditionalist thought. Louis de Bonald wrote a piece on marital dissolution named "On Divorce" in 1802, outlining his opposition to the practise. Bonald stated that the broader human society was composed of three subunits (religious society -

1648-555: Is a traditionalist educational foundation established in the Netherlands and is modeled after the Intercollegiate Studies Institute . It was created by traditionalists such as academic Andreas Kinneging and journalist Bart Jan Spruyt as a think tank. The Center for European Renewal is linked with it. In 2007, a number of leading traditionalist scholars from Europe, as well as representatives of

1751-452: Is able to transmit down to his offspring through custom and precedent. Edmund Burke , noted that "the individual is foolish, but the species is wise." Furthermore, according to John Kekes , "tradition represents for conservatives a continuum enmeshing the individual and social, and is immune to reasoned critique." Traditional conservatism typically prefers practical reason instead of theoretical reason . Conservatism, it has been argued,

1854-586: Is also viewed as a social endeavor with spiritual and organic characteristics. Traditionalists think that any positive change arises based within the community 's traditions rather than as a consequence of seeking a complete and deliberate break with the past. Leadership , authority , and hierarchy are seen as natural to humans. Traditionalism, in the forms of Jacobitism , the Counter-Enlightenment and early Romanticism , arose in Europe during

1957-465: Is based on living tradition rather than abstract political thinking. Within conservatism, political journalist Edmund Fawcett argues the existence of two strains of conservative thought, a flexible conservatism associated with Edmund Burke (which allows for limited reform), and an inflexible conservatism associated with Joseph de Maistre (which is more reactionary). Within flexible conservatism, some commentators may break it down further, contrasting

2060-501: Is championed by Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theologiae . There, he affirms the principle of noncontradiction ("the same thing cannot be affirmed and denied at the same time") as being the first principle of theoretical reason, and ("good is to be done and pursued and evil avoided") as the first principle of practical reason, or that which precedes and determines one's actions. The account of Medieval Christian philosophy

2163-411: Is most recognized for his poems and literary, social, and religious criticism. His book Culture and Anarchy (1869) criticized Victorian middle-class norms (Arnold referred to middle class tastes in literature as " philistinism ") and advocated a return to ancient literature. Arnold was likewise skeptical of the plutocratic grasping at socioeconomic issues that had been denounced by Coleridge, Carlyle, and

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2266-497: Is of the past, and so is ecclesiolatry." They further elaborated in their political doctrine that fascism "is not reactionary [in the old way] but revolutionary." Conversely, they explained that fascism was of the right, not the left. Fascism was certainly not simply a return to tradition, as it carried the centralized state beyond even what had been seen in absolute monarchies . Fascist one-party states were as centralized as most communist states , and fascism's intense nationalism

2369-470: Is reaction" and that "fascism, which did not fear to call itself reactionary... has not today any impediment against declaring itself illiberal and anti-liberal." Giovanni Gentile and Mussolini also attacked certain reactionary policies, particularly monarchism, and veiled some aspects of Italian conservative Catholicism . They wrote, "History doesn't travel backwards. The fascist doctrine has not taken Joseph de Maistre as its prophet. Monarchical absolutism

2472-600: Is referred to some as moral traditionalism. Communitarianism is an ideology that broadly prioritizes the importance of the community over the individual's freedoms. Joseph de Maistre was notably against individualism, and blamed Rousseau's individualism on the destructive nature of the French revolution. Some may argue that the communitarian ethic has considerable overlap with the conservative movement, although they remain distinct. While communitarians may draw upon similar elements of moral infrastructure to make their arguments,

2575-695: Is rooted in Edmund Burke 's political philosophy, which represented a combination of Whiggism and Jacobitism , as well as the similar views of Joseph de Maistre , who attributed the rationalist rejection of Christianity during previous decades of being directly responsible for the Reign of Terror which followed the French Revolution . Traditionalists value social ties and the preservation of ancestral institutions above what they perceive as excessive rationalism and individualism . One of

2678-595: Is the appreciation of the concept of the summum bonum or "highest good". It is only through the silent contemplation that someone is able to achieve the idea of the good . The rest of natural law was first developed somewhat in Aristotle 's work, also was referenced and affirmed in the works by Cicero , and it has been developed by the Christian Albert the Great . This is not meant to imply that traditionalist conservatives must be Thomists and embrace

2781-554: The St Petersburg Dialogues , he wrote: "all power, all subordination rests on the executioner: he is the horror and the bond of human association. Remove this incomprehensible agent from the world, and the very moment order gives way to chaos, thrones topple, and society disappears." The concept of social order is not exclusive to conservatism, although it tends to be fairly prevalent within it. Both Jean Jacques Rousseau and Joseph de Maistre believed in social order,

2884-532: The re-criminalisation of homosexuality , restrictions on abortion and divorce, and abolition of the Zhenotdel women's department. Reactionary is also used to denote supporters of authoritarian anti-communist régimes such as Vichy France , Spain under Franco , and Portugal under Salazar . One example occurred after Boris Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature . On 26 October 1958,

2987-521: The Church of England a "catholic rebirth" in the mid-19th century. The Tractarians (so named for the publication of their Tracts for the Times ) criticized theological liberalism while preserving "dogma, ritual, poetry, [and] tradition," led by John Keble , Edward Pusey , and John Henry Newman . Newman (who converted to Roman Catholicism in 1845 and was later made a Cardinal and a canonized saint) and

3090-724: The Coup of 18 Fructidor . During the French Revolution, conservative forces (especially within the Catholic Church ) organized opposition to the progressive sociopolitical and economic changes brought by the Revolution; and so Conservatives fought to restore the temporal authority of the Church and Crown . In 19th Century European politics, the reactionary class included the Catholic Church's hierarchy and

3193-510: The French Revolution and the radical utopianism it engendered. Their collection of poems, Lyrical Ballads , published in 1798, however, rejected the Enlightenment notion of reason triumphing over faith and tradition. Later works by Coleridge, such as Lay Sermons (1816), Biographia Literaria (1817) and Aids to Reflection (1825), defended traditional conservative positions on hierarchy and organic society, criticism of materialism and

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3296-628: The French States-General of 1789 fully prepared to press for expanding such practices in all provinces to the legal limit. They were horrified when, for example, the French Revolution permitted common citizens to go hunting, one of the few perquisites they had always enjoyed. Thus with the Bourbons Restoration, the Chambre Introuvable set about reverting every law to return society to conditions prior to

3399-604: The German Realm and informally as the Drittes Reich (Third Realm), a reference to past reactionary German entities: the Holy Roman Empire (First Realm) and the German Empire (Second Realm). Clericalist movements, sometimes labeled as clerical fascist by their critics, can be considered reactionaries in terms of the 19th century since they share some elements of fascism while at the same time promoting

3502-683: The Novodevichy Monastery , and hoped for her mediation. The runaway Streltsy, despite their resistance, were sent back to their regiments, giving rise to discontent among the rest of them. On 6 June, the Streltsy removed their commanding officers, chose four electives from each regiment, and made their way to Moscow, getting ready to punish the boyars and foreign advisers and blaming them for all adversities. The rebels (approx. 2,300 men) intended to install Sophia or, in case of her refusal, her alleged lover Vasili Golitsyn , who had been in exile. Peter I ordered four regiments (4,000 men) and

3605-672: The Scottish journalist Gerald Warner of Craigenmaddie , the Colombian political theologian Nicolás Gómez Dávila , and the American historian John Lukacs . The French Revolution gave the English language three politically descriptive words denoting anti-progressive politics: (i) "reactionary", (ii) "conservative", and (iii) " right ". "Reactionary" derives from the French word réactionnaire (a late 18th-century coinage based on

3708-675: The Weimar Republic parliamentary era under the Weimar Constitution , which had succeeded the monarchy in 1918, despite it also being capitalist and classical. Although claiming to be separate from reactionism, the Nazis' rejection of Weimar was based on ostensibly reactionary principles, as the Nazis claimed that the parliamentary system was simply the first step towards Bolshevism and instead idealized more reactionary parts of Germany's past. They referred to Nazi Germany as

3811-474: The absolute monarchy of Louis XIV , when the power of the Second Estate was at its zenith. This clearly distinguishes a "reactionary" from a "conservative." The use of the word "reactionary" in later days as a political slur is thus often rhetorical since there is nothing directly comparable with the Chambre Introuvable in the history of other countries. In the French Revolution 's aftermath, France

3914-619: The aristocracy , royal families , and royalists who believed that national government was the sole domain of the Church and the State. In France, supporters of traditional rule by direct heirs of the House of Bourbon dynasty were labeled the legitimist reaction. In the Third Republic , the monarchists were the reactionary faction, later renamed Conservative . In the 19th century, reactionary denoted people who idealized feudalism and

4017-626: The right wing , whilst experimental works and the avant-garde are frequently associated with progressives and the left wing . John Barth , a postmodern writer and literary theorist, said: "I confess to missing, in apprentice seminars in the later 1970s and the 1980s, that lively Make-It-New spirit of the Buffalo Sixties. A roomful of young traditionalists can be as depressing as a roomful of young Republicans." James Fenimore Cooper , Nathaniel Hawthorne , James Russell Lowell , W. H. Mallock , Robert Frost and T. S. Eliot are among

4120-783: The ruling class , including usage between conflicting factions of Marxist movements. Non-socialists also used the label reactionary , with British diplomat Sir John Jordan nicknaming the Chinese Royalist Party the "reactionary party" for supporting the Qing dynasty and opposing republicanism during the Xinhai Revolution in 1912. Despite being traditionally related to right-wing governments, elements of reactionary politics were present in left-wing governments as well, such as when Soviet Union leader Joseph Stalin implemented conservative social policies, such as

4223-671: The "Young England" movement and in books like Vindication of the English Constitution (1835), The Radical Tory (1837), and his "social novels," Coningsby (1844) and Sybil (1845). His one-nation conservatism was revived a few years later in Lord Randolph Churchill 's Tory democracy and in the early 21st century in British philosopher Phillip Blond 's Red Tory thesis. In the early 20th century, traditionalist conservatism found its defenders through

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4326-461: The "pragmatic conservatism" which is still quite skeptical of abstract theoretical reason, vs. the "rational conservatism" which does not have skepticism of said reason, and simply favors some sort of hierarchy as sufficient. Traditionalist conservatives believe that human society is essentially hierarchical (i.e., it always involves various interdependent inequalities, degrees, and classes) and that political structures that recognize this fact prove

4429-634: The 18th century as a backlash against the Enlightenment , as well as the English and French Revolutions . More recent forms have included early German Romanticism , Carlism , and the Gaelic revival . Traditionalist conservatism began to establish itself as an intellectual and political force in the mid-20th century. A number of traditionalist conservatives embrace high church Christianity (e.g., T. S. Eliot , an Anglo-Catholic ; Russell Kirk ,

4532-587: The 19th-century popes buttressed the ideas of the clerical philosophers. From 1815 to 1848, Prince Metternich , the foreign minister of the Austrian Empire , stepped in to organize the containment of revolutionary forces through international alliances to prevent revolutionary fervor. At the Congress of Vienna , he was very influential in establishing the new order, the Concert of Europe , after

4635-515: The Chamber of Deputies. The Franchise was restricted to men over the age of forty, which indicated that for the first fifteen years of their lives, they had lived under the ancien régime . Nevertheless, King Louis XVIII worried he would still suffer an intractable parliament. He was delighted with the ultra-royalists , or Ultras, whom the election returned, declaring that he had found a chambre introuvable , literally, an "unfindable house". It

4738-417: The Church. His basic philosophy was based on Edmund Burke , who championed the need for old roots and the orderly development of society. He opposed democratic and parliamentary institutions but favored modernizing existing structures through gradual reform . Despite Metternich's efforts, a series of revolutions rocked Europe in 1848 . In the 20th century, proponents of socialism and communism used

4841-546: The Classical heritage while upholding Gothic art and architecture. The Seven Lamps of Architecture and Unto This Last (1860) were two of his other masterpieces. Burke, Coleridge, Carlyle, Newman, and other traditionalist conservatives' beliefs were distilled into former British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli 's politics and ideology. When he was younger, Disraeli was an outspoken opponent of middle-class capitalism and

4944-757: The Edmund Burke Foundation and the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, created the Center for European Renewal , which is designed to be the European version of the Intercollegiate Studies Institute. The Federalists had no ties to European-style nobility, royalty, or organized churches when it came to "classical conservatism." John Adams was one of the first champions of a traditional social order . The Whig Party had an approach that mirrored Burkean conservatism in

5047-875: The Eric Voegelin Society, the Conservative Institute's New Centurion Program, the T. S. Eliot Society, the Malcolm Muggeridge Society, and the Free Enterprise Institute's Center for the American Idea are all traditionalist groups. The Wilbur Foundation is a prominent supporter of traditionalist activities, particularly the Russell Kirk Center. Literary traditionalists are frequently associated with political conservatives and

5150-711: The French revolution as "evil schism", and a movement premised on the "sentiment of hatred". After the demise of Napoleon, Maistre returned to France to meet with pro-royalist circles. In 1819, Maistre published a piece called Du Pape which outlined the Pope as the key sovereign, unto which authority derives from. Three cultural conservatives and skeptics of material development , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Thomas Carlyle , and John Henry Newman , were staunch supporters of Burke's classical conservatism. According to conservative scholar Peter Viereck, Coleridge and his colleague and fellow poet William Wordsworth began as followers of

5253-513: The Fugitives published I'll Take My Stand , which applied agrarian standards to politics and economics. Following WWII, the initial stirrings of a "traditionalist movement" emerged. Certain conservative scholars and writers garnered the attention of the popular press. Russell Kirk 's The Conservative Mind , an expansion of his PhD dissertation written in Scotland, was the book that defined

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5356-520: The Great's Azov campaigns in 1695–1696, remained in Azov as a garrison . In 1697, however, the four regiments of Streltsy were unexpectedly sent to Velikiye Luki instead of Moscow. On their way there they were starving and carrying their ordnance by themselves, due to lack of horses. In March 1698, 175 Streltsy left their regiments and fled to Moscow to file a complaint. They secretly established contact with Sophia Alekseyevna , who had been incarcerated at

5459-811: The Manchester liberals' industrial policies (the Reform Bill and the Corn Laws). In order to ameliorate the suffering of the urban poor in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution, Disraeli proposed " one-nation conservatism ," in which a coalition of aristocrats and commoners would band together to counter the liberal middle class's influence. This new coalition would be a way to interact with disenfranchised people while also rooting them in old conservative principles. Disraeli's ideas (especially his critique of utilitarianism ) were popularized in

5562-610: The Mother and the Bride", which was a defence of Roman Catholic German-Americans desire to preserve their faith, ancestral culture, and to continue speaking their heritage language of the German language in the United States , against both the English only movement and accusations of being Hyphenated Americans . Edmund Burke , an Anglo-Irish Whig statesman and philosopher whose political principles were rooted in moral natural law and

5665-654: The Nazis called their 1933 rise to power the Volksgemeinschaft (national revolution) showed that, like the Italian Fascists, they supported some form of revolution; however, the Germans and Italian fascists both idealized tradition, folklore, and the tenets of classical thought and leadership, as exemplified in Nazi-era Germany by the idolization of Frederick the Great . They also rejected

5768-663: The Oxford Movement. Arnold was a vehement critic of the Liberal Party and its Nonconformist base. He mocked Liberal efforts to disestablish the Anglican Church in Ireland, establish a Catholic university there, allow dissenters to be buried in Church of England cemeteries, demand temperance, and ignore the need to improve middle class members rather than impose their unreasonable beliefs on society. Education

5871-734: The Psychological Sciences , the Trinity Forum , and the Center for European Renewal . Modern Age , National Review , The American Spectator , The New Criterion , and City Journal were among the many publications for which he wrote. Phillip Blond , a British philosopher, has recently gained notoriety as a proponent of traditionalist philosophy, specifically progressive conservatism, or Red Toryism . Blond believes that Red Toryism would rejuvenate British conservatism and society by combining civic communitarianism , localism , and traditional values. He has formed

5974-493: The Tractarians, like Coleridge and Carlyle, were critical of material progress, or the idea that money, prosperity, and economic gain constituted the totality of human existence. Culture and the arts were also important to British traditionalist conservatives, and two of the most prominent defenders of tradition in culture and the arts were Matthew Arnold and John Ruskin . A poet and cultural commentator, Matthew Arnold

6077-862: The Twilight, and Lord of the Hollow Dark as well as short stories such as "Lex Talionis", "Lost Lake", "Beyond the Stumps", "Ex Tenebris," and "Fate's Purse." Kirk was also close friends with a number of 20th-century literary heavyweights, including T. S. Eliot , Roy Campbell , Wyndham Lewis , Ray Bradbury , Madeleine L'Engle , Fernando Sánchez Dragó , and Flannery O'Connor , all of whom wrote conservative poetry or fiction. Evelyn Waugh , J.R.R. Tolkien , and G. K. Chesterton – British novelists and traditionalist Catholics – are often considered traditionalist conservatives. With regard to both literature and cultural revival among speakers of Celtic languages ,

6180-422: The United States by the journalist Herbert Agar and Catholic activist Dorothy Day as well as through the influence of the German-born British economist E. F. Schumacher , and were comparable to Wilhelm Roepke 's work. T. S. Eliot was a staunch supporter of Western culture and traditional Christianity. Eliot was a political reactionary who used literary modernism to achieve traditionalist goals. Following in

6283-457: The United States in 1888. He prophesied, "If one were searching for the best means to efface and kill in a whole nation the discipline of self-respect, the feeling for what is elevated, he could do no better than take the American newspapers." One of the issues that traditionalist conservatives have often emphasized is that capitalism is just as suspect as the classical liberalism that gave birth to it. Cultural and artistic critic John Ruskin ,

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6386-406: The West after World War II in the aftermath of fascism and the advent of communism . Roger Scruton, a British philosopher, was a self-described traditionalist and conservative. One of his most well-known books, The Meaning of Conservatism (1980), is on foreign policy, animal rights, arts and culture, and philosophy. Scruton was a member of the American Enterprise Institute , the Institute for

6489-475: The Western heritage, is the one of the first expositors of traditionalist conservatism, although Toryism represented an even earlier, more primitive form of traditionalist conservatism. Burke believed in prescriptive rights, which he considered to be "God-given". He argued for what he called " ordered liberty " (best reflected in the unwritten law of the British constitutional monarchy). He also fought for universal ideals that were supported by institutions such as

6592-401: The church, domestic society - the family, public society - the state). He added that since the family made up one of these core categories, divorce would thereby represent an assault on the social order. Morality, specifically traditional moral values, is a common area of importance within traditional conservatism, going back to Edmund Burke. Burke believed that a notion of sensibility was at

6695-497: The church, the family, and the state. He was a fierce critic of the principles behind the French Revolution , and in 1790, his observations on its excesses and radicalism were collected in Reflections on the Revolution in France . In Reflections , Burke called for the constitutional enactment of specific, concrete rights and warned that abstract rights could be easily abused to justify tyranny. American social critic and historian Russell Kirk wrote: "The Reflections burns with all

6798-409: The committee was shorn of its powers. After the execution of some 104 Robespierre supporters, the Thermidorian Reaction stopped using the guillotine against alleged counter-revolutionaries , set a middle course between the monarchists and the radicals, and ushered in a time of relative exuberance and its accompanying corruption. With the Congress of Vienna , inspired by Tsar Alexander I of Russia ,

6901-435: The communitarian opposition to liberalism is still more limited than that of conservatives. Furthermore, the communitarian prescription for society is more limited in scope than that of social conservatives . The term is typically used in two different senses; philosophical communitarianism which rejects liberal precepts and atomistic theory, vs. ideological communitarianism which is a syncretistic belief that holds in priority

7004-409: The day following the Nobel Committee 's announcement, Moscow's Literary Gazette ran a polemical article by David Zaslavski entitled, Reactionary Propaganda Uproar over a Literary Weed . The Italian Fascists desired a new social order based on the ancient feudal principle of delegation (though without serfdom ) in their enthusiasm for the corporate state . Benito Mussolini said that "fascism

7107-455: The defeat of Napoleon . After the Congress, Prince Metternich worked hard to bolster and stabilize the conservative regime of the Restoration period. He worked furiously to prevent Russia's Tsar Alexander I (who aided the liberal forces in Germany, Italy, and France) from gaining influence in Europe. The Church was his principal ally. He promoted it as a conservative principle of order while opposing nationalist and liberal tendencies within

7210-445: The difference was that Maistre preferred the status quo, indivisibility of law and rule, and the mesh of Church with State. Meanwhile, Rousseau preferred social contract and the ability to withdraw from such (and pick the ruler) as well as a separation of Church and state. Furthermore, Rousseau went on the criticize the "cult of the state" as well. Traditionalists defend classical Western civilization and value an education informed by

7313-444: The efforts of Hilaire Belloc , G. K. Chesterton and other proponents of the socioeconomic system they advocated: distributism . Originating in the papal encyclical Rerum novarum , distributism employed the concept of subsidiarity as a "third way" solution to the twin evils of communism and capitalism. It favors local economies, small business, the agrarian way of life and craftsmen and artists. Otto von Bismarck implemented one of

7416-416: The fingers and toes of some prisoners; while others had their backs slowly roasted or had their flanks and bare feet slowly torn apart with red-hot iron pincers. Peter thus induced suspect after suspect to name accomplices in a virtually unending cavalcade of forced, and likely often false, confessions. Between 22 June and 28 June 1698, fifty-seven of the Streltsy uprising leaders were executed by hanging and

7519-588: The first modern welfare systems in Germany during the 1880s. Traditional communities akin to those found in the Middle Ages were advocated in books like Belloc's The Servile State (1912), Economics for Helen (1924), and An Essay on the Restoration of Property (1936), and Chesterton's The Outline of Sanity (1926), while big business and big government were condemned. Distributist views were accepted in

7622-472: The first uses of the phrase "conservatism" began around 1818 with a monarchist newspaper named " Le Conservateur ", written by Francois Rene de Chateaubriand with the help of Louis de Bonald . The modern concepts of nation , culture , custom , convention , religious roots, language revival , and tradition are heavily emphasized in traditionalist conservatism. Theoretical reason is regarded as of secondary importance to practical reason . The state

7725-481: The footsteps of Edmund Burke , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Thomas Carlyle , John Ruskin , G. K. Chesterton , and Hilaire Belloc , he wrote After Strange Gods (1934), and Notes towards the Definition of Culture (1948). At Harvard University, where he was educated by Irving Babbitt and George Santayana , Eliot was acquainted with Allen Tate and Russell Kirk . T. S. Eliot praised Christopher Dawson as

7828-563: The late 1970s and found a new leader in Ronald Reagan . Ronald Reagan created a coalition of libertarians, foreign-policy rightists, business conservatives, as well as Christian social conservatives and maintained his power by solidifying a newer form of conservative alliance that would continue to dominate the political landscape of the American conservatism to this day. The Trinity Forum , Ellis Sandoz 's Eric Voegelin Institute and

7931-486: The late 20th century, are considered "reactionary" because they revised the post-war peace constitution and have an advocating attitude toward the Japanese Empire . "Neo-reactionary" is a term that is sometimes a self-description of an informal group of online political theorists who have been active since the 2000s. The phrase "neo-reactionary" was coined by "Mencius Moldbug" (the pseudonym of Curtis Yarvin ,

8034-538: The literary figures covered in Russell Kirk 's The Conservative Mind (1953). The writings of Rudyard Kipling and Phyllis McGinley are presented as instances of literary traditionalism in Kirk's The Conservative Reader (1982). Kirk was also a well-known author of spooky and suspense fiction with a Gothic flavor. Ray Bradbury and Madeleine L'Engle both praised novels such as Old House of Fear , A Creature of

8137-602: The merchant class, and the need for "inner growth" that is rooted in a traditional and religious culture. Coleridge was a strong supporter of social institutions and an outspoken opponent of Jeremy Bentham and his utilitarian theory. Thomas Carlyle , a writer, historian, and essayist, was an early traditionalist thinker, defending medieval ideals such as aristocracy, hierarchy, organic society, and class unity against communism and laissez-faire capitalism 's "cash nexus." The "cash nexus," according to Carlyle, occurs when social interactions are reduced to economic gain. Carlyle,

8240-683: The monarchs of Russia , Prussia and Austria formed the Holy Alliance , a form of collective security against revolution and Bonapartism . This instance of reaction was surpassed by a movement that developed in France when, after the second fall of Napoleon , the Bourbon Restoration , or reinstatement of the Bourbon dynasty, ensued. This time it was to be a constitutional monarchy , with an elected lower house of parliament,

8343-401: The most just, thriving, and generally beneficial. Hierarchy allows for the preservation of the whole community simultaneously, instead of protecting one part at the expense of the others. Organicism also characterizes conservative thought. Edmund Burke notably viewed society from an organicist standpoint, as opposed to a more mechanistic view developed by liberal thinkers. Two concepts play

8446-600: The most potent intellectual influence in Britain, and he was a prominent player in 20th-century traditionalism. The belief that religion was at the center of all civilization, especially Western culture, was central to his work, and his books reflected this view, notably The Age of Gods (1928), Religion and Culture (1948), and Religion and the Rise of Western Culture (1950). Dawson, a contributor to Eliot's Criterion , believed that religion and culture were crucial to rebuilding

8549-621: The opposite, rather Conservatives prefer simply that the state allow and encourage units like families and churches to thrive and develop. Alternatively, some theorists state that nationalism can easily be radicalized and lead to jingoism , which sees the state as apart from the local community and family structure rather than as a product of both. An example of a traditionalist conservative approach to immigration may be seen in Bishop John Joseph Frederick Otto Zardetti 's September 21, 1892 "Sermon on

8652-422: The positive right to social services for members of said community. Communitarianism may overlap with stewardship , in an environmental sense as well. Social order is a common tenet of conservatism, namely the maintenance of social ties , whether the family or the law. The concept may also tie into social cohesion . Joseph de Maistre defended the necessity of the public executioner as encouraging stability. In

8755-485: The post-Revolutionary era. Rufus Choate argued that lawyers were the guardians and preservers of the Constitution. In the antebellum period, George Ticknor and Edward Everett were the "Guardians of Civilization." Orestes Brownson examined how America satisfies Catholic tradition and Western civilization. The Southern Agrarians , or Fugitives, were another group of traditionalist conservatives. In 1930, some of

8858-564: The pre-modern era—before the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution—when economies were mostly agrarian , a landed aristocracy dominated society, a hereditary king ruled, and the Catholic Church was society's moral center. Those labeled "reactionary" favored the aristocracy instead of the middle and working classes . Reactionaries opposed democracy and parliamentarism . The Thermidorian Reaction

8961-538: The rest were sent into exile. Upon his hurried return from London on 25 August 1698, Peter I ordered another investigation. Between September 1698 and February 1699, 1,182 Streltsy were executed and 601 were whipped, branded with iron , or (mostly the young ones) sent into exile . The investigation and executions continued up until 1707. The Moscow regiments, which had not participated in the uprising, were later disbanded. Streltsy and their family members were removed from Moscow. Reactionary In political science ,

9064-432: The role of the state or nation over the local community. Traditionalist conservatives believe that allegiance to family, local community, and region is often more important than political commitments. Traditionalists also prioritize community closeness above nationalist state interest, preferring the civil society of Burke's "little platoons". However, this does not mean that Conservatives are against state authority. Quite

9167-462: The root of man's moral intuition. Furthermore, he theorized that divine moral law was both transcendent and immanent within humans. Moralism , as a movement largely still exists within mainstream conservative circles with a focus on inherent or deontological suppositions. While moral discussions exist across the political aisle, conservatism is distinct for including notions of purity-based reasoning. The type of morality attributed to Edmund Burke

9270-456: The sense of political extremism in service to re-establishing past conditions. To some writers, the term reactionary carries negative connotations— Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than a badge of honor." Despite this, the descriptor "political reactionary" has been adopted by writers such as the Austrian monarchist Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn ,

9373-521: The sifting of texts starting in the Roman World and refined under Medieval Scholasticism and Renaissance humanism . Similarly, traditionalist conservatives are Classicists who revere high culture in all of its manifestations (e.g. literature , Classical music , architecture , art , and theatre ). Traditionalists consider localism a core principle, described as a sense of devotion to one's homeland, in contrast to nationalists, who value

9476-683: The term reactionary polemically to label their enemies, such as the White Armies , who fought in the Russian Civil War against the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution . In Marxist terminology, reactionary is a pejorative adjective denoting people whose ideas might appear to be socialist but, in their opinion, contain elements of feudalism , capitalism , nationalism , fascism , or other characteristics of

9579-530: The traditionalist school. Kirk was an independent scholar, writer, critic, and man of letters. He was friends with William F. Buckley Jr. , a National Review columnist, editor, and syndicated columnist. When Barry Goldwater combated the Republican Party 's Eastern Establishment in 1964, Kirk backed him in the primaries and campaigned for him. After Goldwater's defeat, the New Right reunited in

9682-440: The values associated with it, are greatly valued (sometimes even being romanticized as in pastoral poetry). Agrarian ideals (such as conserving small family farms, open land, natural resource conservation, and land stewardship) are important to certain traditionalists' conception of rural life. Louis de Bonald wrote a short piece on a comparison of the agriculturalism to industrialism. The importance of proper family structures

9785-437: The word réaction , "reaction") and " conservative " from conservateur , identifying monarchist parliamentarians opposed to the revolution. In this French usage, reactionary denotes "a movement towards the reversal of an existing tendency or state" and a "return to a previous condition of affairs". The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first English language usage in 1799 in a translation of Lazare Carnot 's letter on

9888-554: The wrath and anguish of a prophet who saw the traditions of Christendom and the fabric of civil society dissolving before his eyes." Burke's influence was felt by later intellectuals and authors in both Britain and continental Europe. The English Romantic poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge , William Wordsworth and Robert Southey , as well as Scottish Romantic author Sir Walter Scott , and the counter-revolutionary writers François-René de Chateaubriand , Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre were all affected by his ideas. Burke's legacy

9991-678: Was a movement within the French Revolution against the perceived excesses of the Jacobins . Maximilien Robespierre 's Reign of Terror ended on 27 July 1794 (9 Thermidor year II in the French Republican Calendar ). The overthrow of Robespierre signaled the reassertion of the French National Convention over the Committee of Public Safety . The Jacobins were suppressed, the prisons were emptied, and

10094-411: Was also the means used by diminished aristocrats to get themselves a bigger piece of the pie. In the 18th century, those gentry whose fortunes and prestige had diminished to the level of peasants would search diligently for every ancient feudal statute that might give them something. For example, the "ban" meant that all peasants had to grind their grain in their lord's mill. Therefore, these gentry came to

10197-624: Was best represented in the United States by the Federalist Party and its leaders, such as President John Adams and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton . Joseph de Maistre , a French lawyer, was another founder of conservatism. He was an ultramontane Catholic, and thoroughly rejected progressivism and rationalism. In 1796, he published a political pamphlet entitled, Considerations on France , that mirrored Burke's Reflections . Maistre viewed

10300-446: Was continually wracked by quarrels between right-wing legitimists and left-wing revolutionaries. Herein arose the clerical philosophers— Joseph de Maistre , Louis de Bonald , François-René de Chateaubriand —whose answer was restoring the House of Bourbon and reinstalling the Catholic Church as the established church . Since then, France's political spectrum has featured similar divisions (see Action Française ). The teachings of

10403-422: Was essential, and by that, Arnold meant a close reading and attachment to the cultural classics, coupled with critical reflection. He feared anarchy—the fragmentation of life into isolated facts that is caused by dangerous educational panaceas that emerge from materialistic and utilitarian philosophies. He was appalled at the shamelessness of the sensationalistic new journalism of the sort he witnessed on his tour of

10506-565: Was not found in the period prior to the French Revolution. Although the German Nazis did not consider themselves fascists or reactionaries and condemned the traditional German forces of reaction (Prussian monarchists , Junker nobility, and Roman Catholic clergy ) as being among their enemies, next to their Red Front enemies in the Nazi Party march Die Fahne hoch , they virulently opposed revolutionary leftism. The fact that

10609-531: Was the Declaration of Saint-Ouen that prepared the way for the Restoration. Before the French Revolution, which radically and bloodily overthrew most aspects of French society's organization, the only way constitutional change could be instituted was by extracting it from old legal documents that could be interpreted as agreeing with the proposal. Everything new had to be expressed as a righteous revival of something old that had lapsed and had been forgotten. This

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