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58-636: The office sukkal is also known from various areas to the west and east of Mesopotamia, including the Hurrian kingdom Arrapha , Syrian Alalakh and Mari and Elam under the rule of the Sukkalmah Dynasty , while the concept of divine sukkals was incorporated into Hurrian religion , in which major gods such as Kumarbi or Hebat commonly appear in company of their sukkals, similar to their Mesopotamian counterparts. The word sukkal ( Akkadian : sukkallu ) has Sumerian origin and at first denoted

116-711: A genetic relationship to other language families (e.g., the Northeast Caucasian languages ), but none of these are generally accepted. The Hurrians adopted the Akkadian language and Cuneiform script for their own writing about 2000 BC. Texts in the Hurrian language in cuneiform have been found at Hattusa , Ugarit (Ras Shamra), as well as in one of the longest of the Amarna letters (EA 27), written by King Tushratta of Mitanni to Pharaoh Amenhotep III . It

174-447: A class of human officials, responsible for the implementation of the commands of the king. Translations found in literature include " vizier ," "secretary," and "chancellor." Tonia Sharlach notes that "vizier" is considered to be the standard translation today. The same word is also conventionally employed as a translation of the name of another, unrelated, office, badalum , used in northern Syrian cities, such as Harran and Abarsal , in

232-573: A deity from the circle of Adad who was also associated with justice. In the Neo-Babylonian period both of them were additionally grouped with Ūmu and Dajjānu. It is possible that she was among the deities worshiped in Ebabbar, the temple of Shamash located in this city. Outside Sippar, the pair Kittum and Misharu is also attested in the Tākultu ritual from Assur . References to this pair as

290-510: A divine counterpart of the human officials. Due to more direct evidence present in myths compared to economic and administrative texts, their functions are better known than these of their human namesakes. A sukkal was the highest-ranked member of a deity's court, and in some cases in god lists could appear even before their children. At the same time, not every servant deity was a sukkal. Three distinct classes of divine servants can be found in various documents: advisers and representatives (including

348-561: A goddess, appears as the sukkal of Anu in a single lexical text . Sukkals could act as intercessory deities, leading to comparisons between them and another class of minor deities, lamma , in modern scholarship. Both of them could be depicted in similar scenes on cylinder seals , leading a human visitor to their divine master. The goddess Lammašaga was identified both as a sukkal and a lamma. A third class of deities involved in intercession were wives of major gods, and on occasion comparisons are made between them and sukkals too, for example

406-664: A great impact on the religion of the Hittites. From the Hurrian cult centre at Kummanni in Kizzuwatna, Hurrian religion spread to the Hittite people. Syncretism merged the Old Hittite and Hurrian religions. Hurrian religion spread to Syria, where Baal became the counterpart of Teshub. The Hurrian religion, in different forms, influenced the entire ancient Near East , except ancient Egypt and southern Mesopotamia. While

464-635: A key to the understanding of Hurrian culture and history. The 2nd millennium Hurrians were masterful ceramists. Their pottery is commonly found in Mesopotamia and in the lands west of the Euphrates; it was highly valued in distant Egypt, by the time of the New Kingdom . Archaeologists use the terms Khabur ware and Nuzi ware for two types of wheel-made pottery used by the Hurrians. Khabur ware

522-533: A large population of Hurrians, and there is significant Hurrian influence in Hittite mythology . By the Early Iron Age , the Hurrians had been assimilated with other peoples. The state of Urartu later covered some of the same area. The Khabur River valley became the heart of the Hurrian lands for a millennium. The first known Hurrian kingdom emerged around the city of Urkesh (modern Tell Mozan) during

580-713: A letter from the king of Shubria to an Assyrian magnate from the time of Sargon II was composed in the Hurrian language. Knowledge of Hurrian culture relies on archaeological excavations at sites such as Nuzi and Alalakh as well as on cuneiform tablets, primarily from Hattusa (Boghazköy), the capital of the Hittites, whose civilization was greatly influenced by the Hurrians. Tablets from Nuzi, Alalakh, and other cities with Hurrian populations (as shown by personal names) reveal Hurrian cultural features even though they were written in Akkadian. Hurrian cylinder seals were carefully carved and often portrayed mythological motifs. They are

638-664: A people who inhabited the Ancient Near East during the Bronze Age . They spoke the Hurrian language , and lived throughout northern Syria , upper Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia . The Hurrians were first documented in the city of Urkesh , where they built their first kingdom. Their largest and most influential Hurrian kingdom was Mitanni . The population of the Hittite Empire in Anatolia included

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696-485: A region stretching from the Caucasus Mountains in the north, to the borders of northern Assyria and northern Ancient Iran in the south, and controlled much of eastern Anatolia. Some scientists consider Urartu to be a re-consolidation of earlier Hurrian populations mainly due to linguistic factors, but this view is not universally held. After the destruction of Mitanni by the Hittites around 1350-1325 BC,

754-456: A staff is present on the seal of Lugal-ushumgal , governor of Lagash during the reigns of Naram-Sin of Akkad and his son Shar-Kali-Sharri . A sukkal was expected to walk in front of their master, leading the way with their staff. Sukkals could be associated with doors as well. In literary texts, they could be tasked with screening visitors who wanted to see their master. The title of sukkalmaḫ could be applied to divine sukkals, though there

812-443: A sukkal served as an intermediary between the royal administration and foreign envoys. There is evidence that they often knew more than one language and acted as translators , and some were likely foreigners or children of foreigners who settled in Mesopotamia. In some cases, a specific foreign dignitary was always mentioned alongside the same local sukkal accompanying him. A related office, known from Early Dynastic Girsu and from

870-779: A text referring to her as a "daughter" is now known. She is also attested in the god list An = Anum and in Šurpu . An illness called "hand of Iqbi-damiq" is mentioned in a medical text alongside "hand of Nanaya " and "hand of Kanisurra ." Sources from the Old Babylonian period attest the existence of two temples of Kittum, one in Bad-tibira and another in Raḫabu, a settlement located near Larsa . Their ceremonial names are presently unknown, and available documents simply refer to both as É Ki-it-tim . In offering lists from Sippar , Kittum commonly appears alongside Mīšaru ,

928-484: Is assumed that it referred to a sukkal particularly emotionally close to their master. Deities referred to this way include Ninshubur (both male and female), Bunene , Ninpirig, Nabu and Muduggasa'a (in a bilingual text where he occurs as the equivalent of the former), and Innimanizi. The number of references to each of them is not equal, and only Ninshubur is referred to as SAL.ḪÚB 2 more than once or twice, with seven recorded instances currently known. In one case, she

986-456: Is characterized by reddish painted lines with a geometric triangular pattern and dots, while Nuzi ware has very distinctive forms, and are painted in brown or black. They were also skilled at glass working. The Hurrians had a reputation in metallurgy . It is proposed that the Sumerian term for "coppersmith" tabira / tibira was borrowed from Hurrian, which would imply an early presence of

1044-412: Is known. The deities Mamu and Sisig were regarded as her siblings. Iqbi-damiq functioned as Kittum's sukkal. Instances of a sukkal having a sukkal of their own, while known, should be regarded as an anomaly according to Richard L. Litke. Iqbi-damiq's name means "she said 'it is fine!'" Wilfred G. Lambert 's earlier translation, "he spoke, it is pleasant," presumed Iqbi-damiq was male. However,

1102-439: Is no evidence that a divine sukkalmaḫ was in charge of regular sukkals, and in some cases a deity had multiple sukkals but none of them was referred as a sukkalmaḫ, while in other a sukkalmaḫ was the only sukkal of their master. Most likely addressing a deity as a sukkalmaḫ was only meant to highlight the high position of their master in the pantheon. Deities addressed as sukkalmaḫs include Nuska (the sukkal of Enlil ), Ara (one of

1160-480: Is regarded by Assyriologists as "the earliest and most important" sukkal, the "archetypal vizier of the gods." The attribute associated with all sukkals was a staff. Papsukkal could be called bēl ḫaṭṭi , "lord of the staff." Similarly, Nuska bore the Sumerian epithet en-ĝidri , "lord of the scepter." Alla , Isimud and Ninshubur were depicted holding staffs too. One possible depiction of Ninshubur carrying

1218-406: Is suitable for the sukkals of particularly well established deities: Ninshubur, Nuska, Bunene, Isimud and Alammuš, whose character was independent from that of their masters. It is sometimes argued that a sukkal had to match the gender for their master. However, Namtar , Ereshkigal 's sukkal, was male. The sukkal of the medicine goddess Gula , Urmašum, was a male deity too. Amasagnudi, regarded as

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1276-490: The Amarna Letters during the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten (1353–1336 BC). Domestically, Mitanni records have been found at a number of places in the region including several Hittite sites as well as Tell Bazi , Alalakh , Nuzi , Mardaman , Kemune , and Müslümantepe among others. Another major center of Hurrian influence was the kingdom of Arrapha . Excavations at Yorgan Tepe, ancient Nuzi, proved this to be one of

1334-446: The Hurrian and Urartian languages are related, there is little similarity between corresponding systems of belief. The main gods in the Hurrian pantheon were: Hurrian cylinder seals often depict mythological creatures such as winged humans or animals, dragons and other monsters. The interpretation of these depictions of gods and demons remains uncertain. They may have been both protective and evil spirits. Some are reminiscent of

1392-688: The Ur III period mentions a nameless sukkal of the artisan goddess Ninmug . Frans Wiggermann argues that based on iconographic evidence it can be assumed that sukkals associated with Nanshe and Ningirsu also existed, though their names are unknown. The concept of sukkal was also incorporated into Hurrian religion . The Hurrian spelling of this word was šukkalli . All of the major Hurrian gods were believed to have their own sukkals. Hurrians The Hurrians ( / ˈ h ʊər i ən z / ; Hurrian : 𒄷𒌨𒊑 , romanized:  Ḫu-ur-ri ; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri) were

1450-491: The "attendants of Ekur " ( mazzāz Ekur ) are also known from Neo-Assyrian sources. Theophoric names invoking Kittum are known from Larsa and Ur , two examples being Kittum-lizziz and Apil-Kittum. She is also attested in women's theophoric names from Old Babylonian Mari . She is one of the seven goddesses appearing in names with the element - šimhī , the other six being Annu , Admu , Ishtar , Išḫara , Aya and Tabubu. The name Kittum-šimhī can be translated as "Kittum

1508-573: The Assyrian shedu . The Hurrian gods do not appear to have had particular home temples, like in the Mesopotamian or Ancient Egyptian religion . Some important cult centres were Kummanni in Kizzuwatna and Hittite Yazilikaya . Harran was at least later a religious centre for the moon god, and Shauskha had an important temple in Nineve , when the city was under Hurrian rule. A temple of Nergal

1566-507: The Hurrian deity Teshub , and several Shubrian names have Hurrian origins. Hurrians formed part of the Shubrian population and may have been the predominant group. Some scholars have suggested that Shubria was the last remnant of Hurrian civilization, or even constituted the original homeland of the Hurrians. Karen Radner writes that Shubria "can certainly be described as [a] (linguistically and culturally) Hurrian" state. According to Radner,

1624-554: The Hurrians way before their first historical mention in Akkadian sources. Copper was traded south to Mesopotamia from the highlands of Anatolia . The Khabur Valley had a central position in the metal trade, and copper, silver and even tin were accessible from the Hurrian-dominated countries Kizzuwatna and Ishuwa situated in the Anatolian highland. Gold was in short supply, and the Amarna letters inform us that it

1682-800: The Syrian Department of Antiquities. The tells, or city mounds, often reveal a long occupation beginning in the Neolithic and ending in the Roman period or later. The characteristic Hurrian pottery, the Khabur ware, is helpful in determining the different strata of occupation within the mounds. The Hurrian settlements are usually identified from the Middle Bronze Age to the end of the Late Bronze Age, with Tell Mozan (Urkesh) being

1740-606: The administrative texts of the Third Dynasty of Ur , was that of the sukkalmah (GAL.SUKKAL, sukkalmaḫḫu ). Tonia Sharlach proposes this term should be understood as the equivalent of a modern secretary of state . A sukkalmah was in charge of a number of sukkals. In Elam, this term was adopted as a royal title, possibly because the sukkalmahs of the Ur III state, who resides in Lagash , close to Elamite territory, were in charge of

1798-887: The ancient sites are the many dam projects in the Euphrates , Tigris and Khabur valleys. Several rescue operations have already been undertaken when the construction of dams put entire river valleys under water. The first major excavations of Hurrian sites in Iraq and Syria began in the 1920s and 1930s. They were led by the American archaeologist Edward Chiera at Yorghan Tepe (Nuzi), and the British archaeologist Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak. Recent excavations and surveys in progress are conducted by American, Belgian, Danish, Dutch, French, German and Italian teams of archaeologists, with international participants, in cooperation with

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1856-662: The area of Kirkuk in modern Iraq by the Middle Bronze Age . Their presence was attested at Nuzi , Urkesh and other sites. They eventually occupied a broad arc of fertile farmland stretching from the Khabur River valley in the west to the foothills of the Zagros Mountains in the east. By this point, during the Old Babylonian period in the early second millennium BC, the Amorite kingdom of Mari to

1914-421: The coastal region of Adaniya in the country of Kizzuwatna , southern Anatolia. Yamhad eventually weakened vis-a-vis the powerful Hittites, but this also opened Anatolia for Hurrian cultural influences. The Hittites were influenced by both the Hurrian cultures over the course of several centuries. The city of Shibaniba (Tell Billa) may have also played an important role at that time. Possible Hurrian occupation

1972-579: The control of the Assyrians. The Hurrian entity of Mitanni, which first rose to power before 1550 BC, was first mentioned in the records of Egyptian pharaohs Thutmose I (1506–1493 BC) and Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), the later most notably associated with the Battle of Megiddo in that pharaoh's 22 regnal year. Most of the time Egyptians referred to the kingdom as Naharin . Later, Mitanni and Hanigalbat (the Assyrian name for Mitanni) are mentioned in

2030-519: The embodiment of truth . She belonged to the circle of the sun god Utu /Shamash and was associated with law and justice. Kittum's name means "truth" in Akkadian and she was regarded as a divine hypostasis of this concept. Kittum's Sumerian counterpart, Niĝgina, is not attested before the Old Babylonian period , and it is possible that the Akkadian name was older, which would make Niĝgina an artificial translation. A possible forerunner to

2088-399: The first of his daughters, but some copies instead refer to her as his sukkal (divine vizier), and one lists Kittum and Niĝgina as two separate deities, with the former referred to as a son and the later as a daughter of Utu. Jacob Klein argues that Kittum was regarded as the sun god's "primary" daughter. He points out a text describing her as the "beloved daughter of Utu" ( dumu kiag Utu )

2146-498: The idea of a goddess embodying truth are proverbs or dialogues copied in scribal schools in which truth was personified . Names with the element niĝgina are already attested in sources from the Ur III period , one example being Niĝginaidug ("truth is good"), but there is no indication that they were necessarily theophoric , and the word is written without the dingir sign which preceded divine names. Kittum could alternatively be equated with another of Utu's courtiers, Nigzida, but

2204-405: The main exception. The list includes some important ancient sites from the area dominated by the Hurrians. Excavation reports and images are found at the websites linked. As noted above, important discoveries of Hurrian culture and history were also made at Alalakh, Amarna, Hattusa and Ugarit. Ni%C4%9Dgina Kittum , also known as Niĝgina , was a Mesopotamian goddess who was regarded as

2262-457: The meaning of the latter name was not identical, and terms like " fidelity " or " righteousness " are considered more accurate translations. Kittum was one of the deities associated with law and justice. She could be invoked in legal texts as a divine witness. There are differences regarding the position of Kittum in Utu 's court between individual copies of An = Anum . She usually appears as

2320-602: The most important sites for our knowledge about the Hurrians. Hurrian kings such as Ithi-Teshup and Ithiya ruled over Arrapha, yet by the mid-fifteenth century BC they had become vassals of the Great King of Mitanni. At the end of the second millennium BC the Urartians around Lake Van and Mount Ararat rose in power forming the Kingdom of Urartu . During the 11th and 10th centuries BC, the kingdom eventually encompassed

2378-448: The nature of Lamma deities can be compared to modern idea of guardian angels . In addition to the sukkals listed above, according to the god list An = Anum the following deities had sukkals whose names are either not preserved or only partially preserved in known copies: Dingirmah, a goddess from Adab conflated with Ninhursag , Gishhuranki, the wife of Ashgi , Šulpae , Panigingarra , and Ninsun . An offering list from Umma from

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2436-513: The role of a mediator between a major deity and worshipers played by Ninshubur in the cult of Inanna has been compared to that played by the spouses of other major gods, Aya in the cult of Shamash or Shala in Adad's. Sukkals have also been compared to angels in comparative scholarship, and some researchers, for example Jan van Dijk and Frans Wiggermann, tentatively label study of sukkals as "Sumerian angelology ." Similarly, it has been argued that

2494-417: The south had subdued Urkesh and made it a vassal state. Urkesh later became a Mitanni religious center. The Hurrians also migrated further west in this period. By 1725 BC they are found also in parts of northern Syria , such as Alalakh . The mixed Amorite–Hurrian kingdom of Yamhad is recorded as struggling for this area with the early Hittite king Hattusilis I around 1600 BC. Hurrians also settled in

2552-452: The southeast, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far as west as Kizzuwatna by the Taurus mountains, Tunip in the south, Arraphe in the east, and north to Lake Van . Their sphere of influence is shown in spread Hurrian place names, personal names. Eventually, after an internal succession crisis, Mitanni fell to the Hittites, later to fall under

2610-406: The sukkal), deities dealing with the personal needs of a god, and finally those tasked with upkeep of their household, such as divine cooks or gardeners . In myths, sukkals act both as traveling envoys of their masters, and as their advisors at home. Wisdom was frequently regarded as a trait of this class of deities. While most deities had courtiers, usually only these whose position in the pantheon

2668-624: The swallowed gods is like the Hurrian myth of Teshub and Kumarbi. It has been argued that the worship of Attis drew on Hurrian myth. The agglutinating and highly ergative Hurrian language is related to the Urartian language, the language of the ancient kingdom of Urartu. Together they form the Hurro-Urartian language family . The external connections of the Hurro-Urartian languages are disputed. There exist various proposals for

2726-550: The term Shubaru was used in Assyrian sources to refer to the remnants of the Mitanni in the upper Tigris valley. The Shubaru people revolted against the Assyrians multiple times in the last centuries of the second millennium BC. The term is related to Shubria , the name of a country located north of the upper Tigris River valley. Shubria was located between Urartu and Assyria and existed as an independent kingdom until its conquest by Assyria in 673–672 BC. The Shubrians worshipped

2784-399: The territories surrounding Susa when the state they served reached its maximal extent. The so-called Sukkalmah Dynasty ruled over Elam in the early second millennium BCE. Some lexical texts explain sukkal as pašišu , "salve priest," though the reason behind the equation of these two terms is not known. In Mesopotamian religion , some deities were designated as sukkals and functioned as

2842-471: The third millennium BC. There is evidence that they were initially allied with the Akkadian Empire of Mesopotamia , indicating they had a firm hold on the area by the reign of Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC). A king of Urkesh with the Hurrian name Tupkish had a queen with the name Uqnitum, Akkadian for "girl of lapis lazuli". Hurrian names occur sporadically in northwestern Mesopotamia and

2900-566: The third millennium BCE. It is also the conventional term for the head of the Eblaite administration , most likely referred to as lugal sa-za . The word sukkal is attested in Eblaite documents, but seemingly designates a type of clergyman instead. This office of sukkal is also known from outside southern Mesopotamia, for example from Mari from Alalakh in western Syria, from the Hurrian kingdom of Arrapha in northeastern Mesopotamia, and from Elam . At least in southern Mesopotamia and Mari,

2958-402: The two sukkals of Enki ), Ninpirig (one of the sukkals of Utu ), Ninshubur (the sukkal of Inanna ) and Alammuš (the sukkal of Nanna). A further title used to describe some of the divine sukkals was SAL.ḪÚB 2 . In most of the texts where this word is attested, it occurs in parallel with "sukkal." It only ever designates gods, not human officials, and only a handful of attestations are known. It

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3016-439: Was acquired from Egypt. Not many examples of Hurrian metal work have survived, except from the later Urartu. Some small fine bronze lion foundation pegs were discovered at Urkesh. Among the Hurrian texts from Ugarit are the oldest known instances of written music , dating from c. 1400 BC. Among these fragments are found the names of four Hurrian composers, Tapšiẖuni, Puẖiya(na), Urẖiya, and Ammiya. The Hurrian culture made

3074-454: Was built in Urkesh in the late third millennium BC. The town of Kahat was a religious centre in the kingdom of Mitanni. The Hurrian myth "The Songs of Ullikummi", preserved among the Hittites, is a parallel to Hesiod 's Theogony ; the castration of Uranus by Cronus may be derived from the castration of Anu by Kumarbi , while Zeus 's overthrow of Cronus and Cronus's regurgitation of

3132-449: Was female. It has been argued that many sukkals simply represented the effect of their masters' actions: the fire god Gibil was served by a deified flame , Nablum, while the weather god Ishkur by a deified lightning , Nimgir. Other seem to be personifications of specific commands, for example Eturammi ("do not slacken"), Nēr-ē-tagmil ("kill, spare not") or Ugur ("destroy"). However, Frans Wiggermann points out that neither explanation

3190-471: Was identified at Tell Billa during the middle of the second millenium BC. In 2022 Tell Billa was proposed as the possible site of the city of Šimānum (possibly known as Asimānum during the Akkadian Empire). Šimānum was important during the Ur III period (ca 2100 BC). The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the southwest, Kassites to

3248-399: Was labeled as the "beloved SAL.ḪÚB 2 of Inanna," and appears right after Dumuzi in an enumeration of deities associated with her mistress, before some of her family members, for example her sister in law Geshtinanna . In some cases, terms such as MUNUS.SUKKAL (for example in the case of Sililitum) or nin -sukkal (in the case of Ninshubur and Amasagnudi ) was used to indicate a sukkal

3306-443: Was the only long Hurrian text known until a multi-tablet collection of literature in Hurrian with a Hittite translation was discovered at Hattusa in 1983. Hurrian settlements are distributed over three modern countries, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. The heart of the Hurrian world is bisected by the modern border between Syria and Turkey. Several sites are situated within the border zone, making access for excavations problematic. A threat to

3364-398: Was well established had sukkals, and sukkals of the major city gods were likely the oldest deities of this type. Instances of a sukkal having a sukkal of their own, while known, should be regarded as an anomaly according to Richard L. Litke. For example, Niĝgina , a sukkal of the sun god Utu , had her own sukkal, as did Alammuš , the sukkal of the moon god Nanna . The goddess Ninshubur

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