113-555: The Summerland Peninsula is located at the western end of Phillip Island in Victoria, Australia . The peninsula lies within the Gippsland Plain Bioregion and is a site of high conservation significance. As part of a protected area the peninsula supports a diverse array of animal and plant life, including a number of species listed as of conservation concern by international, federal and state bodies including
226-486: A coastal dune system and wetlands, made up of a freshwater lagoon, Swan Lake, and swamp, Green Lake. The north coast of the peninsula faces into the calm waters of Western Port Bay and the south coast into the more turbid waters of Bass Strait . The area includes the offshore rock formations of the Nobbies, three small islands, and Seal Rocks (Seal Rock and Black Rock) two rocky islets of 8 hectares, about 1.5 km off
339-427: A Shearwater Protection Program was established to remove and re-locate birds on roads to safer areas. A recent study on Phillip Island into plastic ingestion in shearwater fledglings found all sampled birds contained plastic particles, passed on from the fish caught by their parents, it has been found that shearwaters have a particularly high prevalence of marine debris in their systems. The protection of Seal Rocks as
452-686: A colony in Western Port . This saw the dispatch from Sydney of HMS Fly , under the command of Captain Wetherall, and the brigs Dragon and Amity , by Governor Darling . While the French colonisation did not eventuate, Wetherall reported on finding a sealer's camp and also two acres of wheat and corn. A fort was constructed near Rhyll , and named Dumaresq after the Governor's private secretary. The "abundance" of wood, quality soil and
565-480: A decline in marine habitats over the last 60 years. The rising sea levels and temperatures have caused soil erosion , coastal flooding , and loss of quality in the UK marine ecosystem . About one-fifth (20%) of marine coastal areas have been highly modified by humans. One-fifth of coral reefs have also been destroyed, and another fifth has been severely degraded by overfishing , pollution, and invasive species ; 90% of
678-502: A given area or country. This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general. Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and water such as seawalls and bulkheads. Living shorelines are gaining attention as
791-498: A growth in wood (logging) and food markets. Growth in these markets, in turn, progresses the commercialization of agriculture and logging industries. When these industries become commercialized, they must become more efficient by utilizing larger or more modern machinery that often has a worse effect on the habitat than traditional farming and logging methods. Either way, more land is cleared more rapidly for commercial markets. This common feedback example manifests just how closely related
904-431: A hostile environment/matrix. This process is generally due to pure habitat loss as well as fragmentation effects. Pure habitat loss refers to changes occurring in the composition of the landscape that causes a decrease in individuals. Fragmentation effects refer to an addition of effects occurring due to the habitat changes. Habitat loss can result in negative effects on the dynamic of species richness. The order Hymenoptera
1017-424: A lesser extent. Only 10–20% of the world's drylands , which include temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands , scrub , and deciduous forests , have been somewhat degraded. But included in that 10–20% of land is the approximately 9 million square kilometers of seasonally dry-lands that humans have converted to deserts through the process of desertification . The tallgrass prairies of North America, on
1130-594: A major source of habitat destruction. Commercial farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land, so they will use more fertilizers and show less concern for the environment to meet the market demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture. Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either directly by habitat destruction or indirectly by fragmentation, degradation , or pollution . Any efforts to protect
1243-404: A new stabilization method. These can reduce damage and erosion while simultaneously providing ecosystem services such as food production, nutrient and sediment removal, and water quality improvement to society Preventing an area from losing its specialist species to generalist invasive species depends on the extent of the habitat destruction that has already taken place. In areas where the habitat
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#17327838806871356-425: A night. In 2007 PINP established a dedicated fox eradication program with the aim of removing all foxes from Phillip Island and as a result there has been a decline in penguin moralities by foxes on the peninsula from 125 killed in 2007/2008 to five killed in the subsequent four years. In 2012 there was an estimated 11 foxes remaining across the whole of Phillip Island, if the program is successful Phillip Island will be
1469-740: A number of which are listed as of conservation concern by international, federal and state bodies and treaties including the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA). Lack of native ground-dwelling predators and rich local marine resources provide plentiful resources for seabirds to breed. The area is recognised as a priority conservation area by BirdLife International with globally significant bird populations of little penguins, short-tailed shearwaters and Pacific gulls ( Larus pacificus pacificus ) also listed as vulnerable in Victoria. IUCN listed species include
1582-601: A reason for change to more sustainable practices. Education about the necessity of family planning to slow population growth is important as greater population leads to greater human caused habitat destruction. Habitat restoration can also take place through the following processes; extending habitats or repairing habitats. Extending habitats aims to counteract habitat loss and fragmentation whereas repairing habitats counteracts degradation. The preservation and creation of habitat corridors can link isolated populations and increase pollination. Corridors are also known to reduce
1695-417: A result of climate change , threaten the penguins' habitat, and it has been observed that they do not move away from fire. A project is under way to replace more flammable introduced plants with less flammable endemic species, creating natural firebreaks. The island's penguins have also been threatened by an invasive fox population. After the foxes were mostly eradicated in 2017, the absence of predators led to
1808-540: A result of habitat destruction include watershed management , nitrogen fixation , oxygen production, pollination (see pollinator decline ), waste treatment (i.e., the breaking down and immobilization of toxic pollutants), and nutrient recycling of sewage or agricultural runoff . The loss of trees from tropical rainforests alone represents a substantial diminishing of Earth's ability to produce oxygen and to use up carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing carbon dioxide levels
1921-401: A rise in the invasive rabbit population, which in turn exacerbated erosion and threatened native orchid species. Conservationists have used phosphine gas to fumigate the island's extensive rabbit warrens, which can destabilise houses. In addition, there is a wildlife park where wallabies and kangaroos roam freely amongst the visitors and can be fed by hand. Seal Rocks , at the western end of
2034-465: A significant Australian fur seal breeding and nursery site, national and state protection of all seals in Australian waters from 1975 and dedicated scientific research has helped the population slowly recover from the effects of commercial sealing in the late 1790s – 1900s and subsequent culls by fisheries. Today, Seal Rocks supports an estimated 30,000 individuals. Marine debris has been identified as
2147-639: A significant threat on the peninsula, impacting wildlife and habitat as well as threatened plant species and vegetation communities. African Boxthorn ( Lycium ferocissimum ), Gorse ( Ulex europaeus ), Kikuyu grass ( Pennisetum clandestinum ) and Melaleuca species have been given priority for management as they threaten seabird habitat and provide shelter for feral cats and foxes. Introduced species such as Marram Grass ( Ammophila arenaria ) and Sea Wheat-grass ( Thinopyrum junceiforme ) have become well-established in many areas affecting dune development and morphology. Intensive revegetation and weed control work continues on
2260-523: A significant threat to the ground-nesting colonial seabirds and shorebirds of the Summerland Peninsula. Foxes were introduced to Phillip Island in 1907 and while various control methods have been implemented since 1918 none were successful. Fox monitoring and control is difficult as foxes have high breeding productivity, are wary of humans, highly mobile, ecologically adaptable and their 'surplus kill' hunting behaviour can kill up to 30 penguins
2373-540: A squatting run and took possession in 1842. The McHaffies, and later settlers, assisted the Victorian Acclimatisation society (forerunner of the committee which established the Melbourne Zoo ) by introducing animals such as pheasants, deer and wallabies to Phillip Island. Plans for the first bridge to the island, from San Remo to Newhaven commenced in 1938, at a cost of £50,000, with
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#17327838806872486-407: A threat to the colony, with recent research estimating 302 entanglements occurring per year on Seal Rocks with pups and juveniles most at risk due to their inquisitive and playful nature. Understanding the effects of marine debris on the population can establish more effective management of both debris sources as well as the wildlife that interacts with it. Current major threats to the biodiversity of
2599-429: A universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country. Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in
2712-605: Is a diverse group of plant pollinators who are highly susceptible to the negative effects of habitat loss, this could result in a domino effect between the plant-pollinator interactions leading to major conservation implications within this group. It is observed from the worlds longest running fragmentation experiment over 35 years that habitat fragmentation has caused a decrease in biodiversity from 13% to 75%. Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to natural disasters like flood and drought , crop failure , spread of disease , and water contamination . On
2825-664: Is also home to two major state tourism assets managed by PINP, the Penguin Parade and the Nobbies Centre , which receive over 600,000 visitors annually. As a not-for-profit organisation operating revenue from these eco-tourism activities fund conservation work across PINP managed land. The Summerland Peninsula is approximately 360 ha (890 acres) in area and is an exposed coastal plateau surrounded by coastlines of sandy and basalt boulder beaches and rock platforms among rocky basalt cliffs. Other major landforms include
2938-488: Is becoming better understood is climate regulation . On a local scale, trees provide windbreaks and shade; on a regional scale, plant transpiration recycles rainwater and maintains constant annual rainfall; on a global scale, plants (especially trees in tropical rainforests) around the world counter the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by sequestering carbon dioxide through photosynthesis . Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as
3051-1177: Is directly correlated to the poverty status of the local people, most of whom lacking an education and family planning. According to the Geist and Lambin (2002) study, the underlying driving forces were prioritized as follows (with the percent of the 152 cases the factor played a significant role in): economic factors (81%), institutional or policy factors (78%), technological factors (70%), cultural or socio-political factors (66%), and demographic factors (61%). The main economic factors included commercialization and growth of timber markets (68%), which are driven by national and international demands; urban industrial growth (38%); low domestic costs for land, labor, fuel, and timber (32%); and increases in product prices mainly for cash crops (25%). Institutional and policy factors included formal pro- deforestation policies on land development (40%), economic growth including colonization and infrastructure improvement (34%), and subsidies for land-based activities (26%); property rights and land-tenure insecurity (44%); and policy failures such as corruption , lawlessness, or mismanagement (42%). The main technological factor
3164-711: Is lost, a catastrophic event such as an earthquake, flood, or volcanic eruption could cause an ecosystem to crash, and humans would obviously suffer from that. Loss of biodiversity also means that humans are losing animals that could have served as biological-control agents and plants that could potentially provide higher-yielding crop varieties, pharmaceutical drugs to cure existing or future diseases (such as cancer), and new resistant crop-varieties for agricultural species susceptible to pesticide-resistant insects or virulent strains of fungi , viruses , and bacteria . The negative effects of habitat destruction usually impact rural populations more directly than urban populations. Across
3277-478: Is moderately low (averaging 738.1 mm (29.06 in) per annum), but rainfall is frequent, as Phillip Island receives 151.4 precipitation days annually (with a maximum frequency of rain in winter ). The island is not very sunny, experiencing 31.8 clear days and 98.7 cloudy days per year. Extreme temperatures have ranged from 41.5 °C (106.7 °F) on 29 January 2009 to −2.3 °C (27.9 °F) on 28 July 1994. Phillip Island's Grand Prix motorcycle race
3390-456: Is named after Governor Arthur Phillip , the first Governor of New South Wales , by explorer and seaman George Bass , who sailed in a whaleboat , arriving from Sydney on 5 January 1798. Phillip Island forms a natural breakwater for the shallow waters of the Western Port . It is 26 km (16 mi) long and 9 km (5.6 mi) wide, with an area of about 101 km (40 sq mi). It has 97 km (60 mi) of coastline and
3503-488: Is one of the main contributors to global climate change . The loss of biodiversity may not directly affect humans, but the indirect effects of losing many species as well as the diversity of ecosystems in general are enormous. When biodiversity is lost, the environment loses many species that perform valuable and unique roles in the ecosystem. The environment and all its inhabitants rely on biodiversity to recover from extreme environmental conditions. When too much biodiversity
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3616-543: Is one such example, with irreversible reclamation proceeding prior to environmental impact assessments and approvals. Other such areas include the eastern coasts of Asia and Africa, northern coasts of South America , and the Caribbean Sea and its associated islands . Regions of un sustainable agriculture or unstable governments, which may go hand-in-hand, typically experience high rates of habitat destruction. South Asia , Central America , Sub-Saharan Africa , and
3729-751: Is overseen by a Board of Management appointed by the Victorian Minister for Environment, Climate Change and Water. PINP reports to the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP). Phillip Island is part of Bunurong country, of which PINP acknowledges their custodianship of Phillip Island and surrounds. PINP manage four main visitor attractions across Phillip Island including Penguin Parade, Nobbies Centre, Koala Conservation Centre and Churchill Island. PINP's role in wildlife and environment conservation includes "seeking to understand more about
3842-499: Is part of the Bass Coast Shire . A 640 m (2,100 ft) concrete bridge (originally a wooden bridge) connects the mainland town San Remo with the island town Newhaven . In the 2021 census , the island's permanent population was 13,799, compared to 7,071 in 2001. During the summer, the population swells to 40,000. 60% of the island is farmland devoted to grazing of sheep and cattle. The earliest inhabitants of
3955-401: Is relatively undisturbed, halting further habitat destruction may be enough. In areas where habitat destruction is more extreme ( fragmentation or patch loss), restoration ecology may be needed. Education of the general public is possibly the best way to prevent further human habitat destruction. Changing the dull creep of environmental impacts from being viewed as acceptable to being seen
4068-564: Is that shifting cultivation is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension (including the construction of new roads ) is the largest single proximate factor responsible for deforestation. Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for
4181-506: Is traditionally held in October, often seeing unreliable and fickle weather conditions, such as very cold surface temperatures and extreme wind. On 10 August 2005, snow was observed on the island. This was a very unusual event. Phillip Island is a tourist destination visited by 3.5 million people annually. The Penguin Parade at Phillip Island Nature Park , in which little penguins come ashore in groups, attracts visitors from all over
4294-566: Is under way to replace more flammable introduced plants with less flammable endemic species, creating natural firebreaks. The peninsula supports a variety of ecological vegetation communities which are of conservation concern within the Gippsland Plains Bioregion. These include Grassy Woodland (Endangered), Bird Colony Succulent Herbland (Rare), Estuarine Flats Grassland (Endangered), Coastal Tussock Grassland (Vulnerable) and Coastal Dune Scrub (Depleted). Overall vegetation of
4407-597: The Amazonian tropical rainforest areas of South America are the main regions with unsustainable agricultural practices and/or government mismanagement. Areas of high agricultural output tend to have the highest extent of habitat destruction. In the U.S., less than 25% of native vegetation remains in many parts of the East and Midwest . Only 15% of land area remains unmodified by human activities in all of Europe. Currently, changes occurring in different environments around
4520-691: The Bering Straits , Alaska to breed in burrows each year. Historically, shearwaters were harvested for food and oil but are now protected in Victoria. The threat of fox predation on the colony has been largely reduced due to control and eradication, however township light pollution and the ingestion of marine plastic waste remain significant threats of which scientists are currently researching. Fledglings on their first flights to sea are attracted to artificial lights which disorientates their path and leaves many landing and stranded on roads. High mortality rates from road traffic were recorded until 1999, before
4633-658: The Black Swamp Wallaby ( Wallabia bicolor ), Cape Barren Goose ( Cereopsis novaehollandiae) , Short-beaked Echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus), Copperhead Snake (Austrelaps superbus), Blotched Blue-tongued Lizard (Tiliqua nigrolutea) and the threatened Growling Grass Frog ( Litoria raniformis ) found at Swan Lake. Surrounding waters are a feeding area for the Great White Shark ( Carcharodon carcharias ) listed as vulnerable in Australia under
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4746-592: The Fairy Tern ( Sternula nereis ) listed as vulnerable, Hooded Plover ( Thinornis cucullatus ) listed as vulnerable and the visiting Shy Albatross ( Thalassarche cauta ) listed as near threatened. Other seabird species include the Kelp Gull ( Larus dominicanus ), Sooty Oystercatcher ( Haematopus fuliginosus ) and the Pied Oystercatcher ( Haematopus longirostris ). The peninsula also supports
4859-630: The International Union for the Conservation of Nature , Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act), the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (FFG Act) and it is a BirdLife International Important Bird Area. It is home to one of the largest little penguin ( Eudyptula minor ) breeding colonies in Australia, the second largest breeding colony of Australian Fur Seals ( Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus ) in
4972-585: The Philippines , and Japan . South and East Asia—especially China , India , Malaysia , Indonesia , and Japan—and many areas in West Africa have extremely dense human populations that allow little room for natural habitat. Marine areas close to highly populated coastal cities also face degradation of their coral reefs or other marine habitat. Forest City , a township in southern Malaysia built on Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) Rank 1 wetland
5085-646: The Victoria State Government accepted the need for urgent action to assist, and with the then Penguin Reserve Committee of Management developed the Penguin Protection Plan. Under this plan, the government instituted a buy-back program for all infrastructure on the Summerland Peninsula and allocated funds for substantial further scientific research into better understanding penguins on land and their lives at sea. In
5198-473: The expanding human population ; rate of population increase over time; spatial distribution of people in a given area ( urban versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas. Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to biodiversity hotspots . This may explain why human population density accounts for 87.9% of
5311-525: The use of natural resources , agriculture, industrial production and urbanization ( urban sprawl ). Other activities include mining , logging and trawling . Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, climate change , introduction of invasive species , ecosystem nutrient depletion , water and noise pollution are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial habitat fragmentation . Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of
5424-401: The 1830s and 1840s. In 1839 the entire island (approximately 10,000 hectares) was cleared by burning to make way for agriculture, by 1872 farmers had settled the peninsula cultivating chicory and bringing cattle and rabbits which further decimated the land. Residential developments and recreational activities soon followed in the 1900s. In the late 1920s tourism became an established business in
5537-504: The EPBC Act. The little penguin colony on the Summerland Peninsula is one of the largest breeding colonies in Australia, with the current population size estimated to be 31,000 breeding individuals, of which 10% are located within the Penguin Parade area. Extensive conservation work has prevented a population decline and predicted extinction of this colony over the past 30 years. Scientific research into little penguins has been ongoing in
5650-561: The Philippines' coral reefs alone have been destroyed. Finally, over 35% of the mangrove ecosystems worldwide have been destroyed. Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire , and climate change is well documented in the fossil record. One study shows that habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously
5763-559: The State Government of Victoria awarded $ 48 million to upgrade PINP's out-dated Penguin Parade facilities built in 1988 to a better equipped centre with a smaller environmental footprint which will also allow the restoration of eight hectares of critical habitat back for the penguins. Phillip Island Phillip Island ( Boonwurrung : Corriong , Worne or Millowl ) is an Australian island about 125 km (78 mi) south-southeast of Melbourne , Victoria . The island
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#17327838806875876-650: The Summerland Beach declined. Scientists found that these penguins had died from starvation and gastro-intestinal parasitism due to the mass mortality of one of their main food species, which also impacted penguin breeding success the following season. Further research into little penguin diets continues to better understand the impact of prey mortalities on their biology and foraging ecology. Approximately one million short-tailed shearwaters (commonly known as mutton birds in Australia) return to Phillip Island from
5989-432: The Summerland Peninsula include predation and competition from introduced species such as foxes, feral cats ( Felis catus ), rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) and black rats ( Rattus rattus ) as well as loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat from invasive pest plants, climate change, disease, impacts to food supply, fire, oil spills and general human disturbance. Introduced predators, in particular foxes, are
6102-813: The Summerland Peninsula is dominated by Coast Tussock-grass ( Poa poiformis ), Bower Spinach ( Tetragonia implexicoma ), Seaberry Saltbush ( Rhagodia candolleana ), Rounded Noon-flower ( Disphyma crassifolium subsp. davellatum ) and coastal tea-tree ( Leptospermum laevigatum ). Several species of plant found on the peninsula are listed as either rare or threatened in Victoria or Australia including River Swamp Wallaby-grass ( Amphibromus fluitans ) listed as vulnerable in Australia, Purple Blown-grass ( Lachnagrostis punicea subsp. filifolia ) listed as vulnerable in Victoria and Pale-flower Cranesbill ( Geranium sp. 3 ), Creeping Rush ( Juncus revolutus ), Dune Wood-sorrel ( Oxalis rubens ) and Dune Poa ( Poa poiformis var. ramifer ) all listed as rare in Victoria. Pest plants and weeds are
6215-403: The area after three locals began taking tourists to view the nightly "penguin parade", where little penguins arrive ashore at Summerland Beach and head to their burrows and rock cavities on the peninsula to rest, breed, feed chicks and moult. By the late 1980s the Penguin Parade was recognised as one of the most popular attractions in Victoria with 500,000 visitors annually. Between 1920 and 1961,
6328-435: The area for 48 years, monitoring the colony both on land and at sea to better understand threats to population and breeding. Threats at sea include disease, impacts to food supply as well as climate change. In 1995 a previously unknown Herpes virus infected millions of pilchards ( Sardinops sagax ) across Australia, at the same time increases in little penguin moralities were reported across western Victoria and numbers crossing
6441-476: The area was frequented by sealers from Van Diemen's Land , whose interaction with the Bunurong people was not without conflict. In 1801, navigator James Grant visited the adjoining Churchill Island (which he named) and planted a crop of corn and wheat. In 1826, the scientific voyage of Dumont d'Urville , in command of the corvette Astrolabe , led to British concerns of an attempt by the French to establish
6554-684: The area were the Yalloc Bulluk clan of the Bunurong people , of the Kulin nation . In the Bunwurrung language the island is known as corriong or millowl . Their coastal territory with its sheltered bays meant that the Yalloc Bulluk, along with other Bunurong clans, were among the first Aboriginal people in Victoria to have contact with European mariners. Following reports of the 1798 exploration by George Bass and Matthew Flinders ,
6667-1187: The attention concerning the destruction of habitat. From the approximately 16 million square kilometers of tropical rainforest habitat that originally existed worldwide, less than 9 million square kilometers remain today. The current rate of deforestation is 160,000 square kilometers per year, which equates to a loss of approximately 1% of original forest habitat each year. Other forest ecosystems have suffered as much or more destruction as tropical rainforests . Deforestation for farming and logging have severely disturbed at least 94% of temperate broadleaf forests ; many old growth forest stands have lost more than 98% of their previous area because of human activities. Tropical deciduous dry forests are easier to clear and burn and are more suitable for agriculture and cattle ranching than tropical rainforests; consequently, less than 0.1% of dry forests in Central America's Pacific Coast and less than 8% in Madagascar remain from their original extents. Plains and desert areas have been degraded to
6780-515: The balance of species keeping up with the extinction threshold leading to a higher likelihood of extinction. Habitat loss is one of the main environmental causes of the decline of biodiversity on local, regional, and global scales. Many believe that habitat fragmentation is also a threat to biodiversity however some believe that it is secondary to habitat loss. The reduction of the amount of habitat available results in specific landscapes that are made of isolated patches of suitable habitat throughout
6893-513: The benefit of both wildlife and tourism were recognised and a large penguin reserve was established by the government. Scientific research into little penguin breeding and survival on the peninsula only began in 1968 with the formation of the volunteer Penguin Study Group (PSG). Despite this new focus on conservation, studies by the PSG and a newly established Scientific Advisory Committee revealed
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#17327838806877006-556: The complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide. Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable ecosystem services . Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon cycles , which has increased the frequency and severity of acid rain , algal blooms , and fish kills in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global climate change . One ecosystem service whose significance
7119-430: The country, as a result of widespread deforestation in the 20th century. As habitat destruction of an area occurs, the species diversity offsets from a combination of habitat generalists and specialists to a population primarily consisting of generalist species . Invasive species are frequently generalists that are able to survive in much more diverse habitats. Habitat destruction leading to climate change offsets
7232-538: The destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via erosion , salinization , compaction , nutrient depletion , pollution , and urbanization . Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as birdwatching , recreational uses like hunting and fishing , and ecotourism usually rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many people value
7345-523: The discovery of coal at Cape Woolamai , were mentioned in newspaper accounts. Wetherall also erected a flag staff on "the flat-top'd rock off Point Grant" (commonly known today as The Nobbies ) on the Island's Western extremity as a marker for the harbour entrance. Of his encounters with the Bunurong people , Wetherall told Darling : "The Natives appear numerous, but we have not been able to obtain an interview, as they desert their camp, and run into
7458-898: The drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles. Habitat destruction caused by humans includes land conversion from forests, etc. to arable land , urban sprawl , infrastructure development , and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and pollution are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse. Desertification , deforestation , and coral reef degradation are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas ( deserts , forests , coral reefs ). The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as drivers of habitat destruction. Demographic , economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction. Demographic drivers include
7571-482: The ecology and dispersal of invasive species to help improve efficiency of weed control programs. PINP is responsible to undertake all possible measures to prevent and minimise the dangers the spread of fires for the protection of both the public, visitors, and wildlife under the Country Fire Authority Act 1958 . In addition, PINP along with state government have response plans in place to manage
7684-483: The eventual move to Settlement Point on the mainland coast. During the third voyage of HMS Beagle , in 1839, water was "found by digging in the centre of a clump of bushes on the outer part of the point at the N.E. extremity of the island, which at high water became an island, [and] occasionally made the water brackish" although it was noted "better might have been found a short distance in shore, as there were abundance of shrubs and other indications of water in
7797-413: The first factor—in those areas (25%). Geist and Lambin (2002) assessed 152 case studies of net losses of tropical forest cover to determine any patterns in the proximate and underlying causes of tropical deforestation. Their results, yielded as percentages of the case studies in which each parameter was a significant factor, provide a quantitative prioritization of which proximate and underlying causes were
7910-463: The globe, poor people suffer the most when natural habitat is destroyed, because less natural habitat means fewer natural resources per capita , yet wealthier people and countries can simply pay more to continue to receive more than their per capita share of natural resources. Another way to view the negative effects of habitat destruction is to look at the opportunity cost of destroying a given habitat. In other words, what do people lose out on with
8023-505: The island include: Habitat destruction Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction ) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers . Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide. Humans contribute to habitat destruction through
8136-492: The island's interior public roads was used for the inaugural Australian Grand Prix in 1928 and continued to be used for the race up until 1935 . Racing on public road circuits continued through to 1940. In 1952 the Phillip Island Auto Racing Club was formed and commenced construction on the permanent Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit which opened in 1956. In 1960 , the inaugural Armstrong 500
8249-422: The island's penguin population was in decline due to habitat destruction , introduced plants and animals, road traffic and disturbance in the penguin colony, however direct impacts from tourism were slight. Research indicated that introduced predators, namely foxes, were adversely effecting breeding success and adult survival, and that habitat reduction and destruction due to developments was significantly depressing
8362-695: The island's population of little penguins is estimated at around 40,000, with the birds living on the Summerland Estate on the Summerland Peninsula (which was bought by the Victorian Government in the 1980s for use as a wildlife reserve ). After many penguins died in a 2019 heatwave, native plants such as bower spinach were planted around penguin boxes to insulate them. Grass fires , largely due to poor practices since settlement, and projected to occur more frequently as
8475-476: The island, hosts the largest colony of fur seals in Australia (up to 16,000 around 2008). In recent years, other than local population of critically endangered endemic Burrunan dolphins or migratory killer whales , southern right whales and humpback whales are starting to show recoveries in the area long after commercial and illegal hunts by the Soviet Union with the help of Japan in 1970s, and
8588-552: The largest island from which red foxes have been eradicated. The peninsula's disturbed landscape makes it particularly susceptible to weed infestations which threaten wildlife and habitat, threatened plant species and ecological vegetation classes as well as other areas of vegetation, in addition the introduction of soil pathogens and fungi pose further threats to habitat and wildlife. PINP works with community and other stakeholders on strategic weed management and prevention of further infestation, as well as funding scientific research into
8701-437: The last remaining houses and redundant infrastructure, revegetation and the provision of artificial nests and pest and predator control. These extensive conservation efforts have helped the little penguin population on the Summerland Peninsula grow from an estimated 12,000 birds in the 1980s headed for extinction to an estimated 31,000 breeding individuals in 2014. As of 2023 the Summerland Estate's population of little penguins
8814-404: The late 1980s, revegetation of penguin habitat and installation of artificial nesting boxes had been initiated, as well as improved control of tourists and vehicles. While some fox control was in place, improved strategies were imperative to reduce the mortality of predator-killed penguins of which 56% of deaths were attributed to foxes between 1986 and 1989. Control of visitors to the Penguin Parade
8927-524: The more diverse species. Even the simplest forms of agriculture affect diversity – through clearing or draining the land, discouraging weeds and pests , and encouraging just a limited set of domesticated plant and animal species. There are also feedbacks and interactions among the proximate and underlying causes of deforestation that can amplify the process. Road construction has the largest feedback effect, because it interacts with—and leads to—the establishment of new settlements and more people, which causes
9040-597: The most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of endangered species . Biodiversity hotspots are chiefly tropical regions that feature high concentrations of endemic species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's terrestrial species. These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in areas of high human population density has already been destroyed (WRI, 2003). Islands suffering extreme habitat destruction include New Zealand , Madagascar ,
9153-678: The most significant. The proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of agricultural expansion (96%), infrastructure expansion (72%), and wood extraction (67%). Therefore, according to this study, forest conversion to agriculture is the main land use change responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%), permanent cultivation (48%), cattle ranching (46%), shifting ( slash and burn ) cultivation (41%), subsistence agriculture (40%), and fuel wood extraction for domestic use (28%). One result
9266-416: The needs of native species, identifying management practices to optimise the size and spread of populations, and monitoring changes in populations and habitats” through scientific research and dedicated environmental management. PINP continues to prioritise the restoration of the Summerland Peninsula, developing a Summerland Peninsula Special Management Area and Summerland Peninsula Master Plan. In April 2016,
9379-438: The negative impacts of habitat destruction. The biggest potential to solving the issue of habitat destruction comes from solving the political, economical and social problems that go along with it such as, individual and commercial material consumption, sustainable extraction of resources, conservation areas , restoration of degraded land and addressing climate change. Governmental leaders need to take action by addressing
9492-519: The neighbourhood". The water question was again addressed, by Captain Moore, who accompanied Surveyor Robert Hoddle in 1840, that "water can be obtained on Phillip Island, near the best anchorage, off Sandy Point." In 1835 Samuel Anderson established the third permanent settlement in what would be Victoria at the mainland site of Bass across the bay from Phillip Island. In 1841, brothers John David and William McHaffie, were granted Phillip Island as
9605-838: The numbers using the area as nursery were growing rapidly by October 2014, allowing a rise in hopes to establish commercial whale watching activities in the vicinity of the island. Phillip Island possesses an oceanic climate ( Köppen: Cfb), with tepid, relatively dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Tempered by prevailing south-westerly winds from the Bass Strait , the island has a milder climate than Melbourne . Average maxima vary from 23.8 °C (74.8 °F) in February to 13.5 °C (56.3 °F) in July, while average minima fluctuate between 14.0 °C (57.2 °F) in February and 6.8 °C (44.2 °F) in July. Mean precipitation
9718-672: The official opening by Premier Albert Dunstan taking place in November 1940. A full public holiday was declared on the island to celebrate. Phillip Island Nature Parks manages nature conservation and ecotourism on the island. The southern and western coasts of the island lie within the Phillip Island Important Bird Area , so identified by BirdLife International because of its importance in supporting significant populations of little penguins , short-tailed shearwaters and Pacific gulls . As of 2023
9831-482: The other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good management practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts. Eliminating swamps—the habitat of pests such as mosquitoes —has contributed to the prevention of diseases such as malaria . Completely depriving an infectious agent (such as a virus) of its habitat—by vaccination , for example—can result in eradicating that infectious agent. Agricultural land can suffer from
9944-517: The other hand, have less than 3% of natural habitat remaining that has not been converted to farmland. Wetlands and marine areas have endured high levels of habitat destruction. More than 50% of wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in just the last 200 years. Between 60% and 70% of European wetlands have been completely destroyed. In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in demand for coastal housing and tourism which has caused
10057-737: The past, such as the Rip Curl Pro and the Roxy Pro Women's Surfing Festival. Other events include the Churchill Island Working Horse and Pioneer Festival. In September 2023 authorities issued a safety reminder after a 22-year-old woman fell 50 metres down a cliff edge from the Pinnacles Lookout at Cape Woolamai while taking photos for social media. Phillip Island is steeped in the history of Australian motor racing. A temporary circuit utilizing
10170-413: The peninsula was subdivided into 776 residential allotments. Further buildings and infrastructure were erected within the penguin colony and the area became known as the Summerland Estate. As human activity grew so did introduced threats such as invasive weeds, red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) and traffic which was negatively impacting biodiversity. Slowly the importance of protecting the area's natural values for
10283-410: The peninsula with the aim of restoring it nearer to the pre-European settlement environment, in 2015 over 2,500 plants were planted with works focused on Allocasuarina shrubs to assist in slowing the spread of Melaleuca. The protection of the peninsula provides critical breeding and non-breeding habitat for a diverse range of wildlife including native and migratory birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles
10396-468: The plateau include Grassy Woodland and Coastal Tussock Grassland; the steep, exposed coastal cliffs of the peninsula consist of Coastal Tussock Grassland and Coastal Dune Scrub, and extensive areas of Bird Colony Succulent Herbland are found on the southern cliff faces and cliff tops among Little penguin and short-tailed shearwater colonies, including the Nobbies. Modification of Phillip Island and its Summerland Peninsula began after European Settlement in
10509-417: The population. By the late 1970s nine out of Phillip Island's ten little penguin colonies were extinct with the last colony restricted to the Summerland Peninsula. Ecological modelling estimated that if threats were not managed the Summerland Peninsula penguin colony would also be extinct by 1998-99 and the Penguin Parade cease to be a viable tourist attraction. In 1985, presented with these research findings,
10622-814: The proximate and underlying causes are to each other. Climate change contributes to destruction of some habitats, endangering various species. For example: When a habitat is destroyed, the carrying capacity for indigenous plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that populations decline , sometimes up to the level of extinction . Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat to organisms and biodiversity. Temple (1986) found that 82% of endangered bird species were significantly threatened by habitat loss. Most amphibian species are also threatened by native habitat loss, and some species are now only breeding in modified habitat. Endemic organisms with limited ranges are most affected by habitat destruction, mainly because these organisms are not found anywhere else in
10735-404: The reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of infertile youths, as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon China's giant panda , once found in many areas of Sichuan . Now it is only found in fragmented and isolated regions in the southwest of
10848-492: The removal of a given habitat? A country may increase its food supply by converting forest land to row-crop agriculture, but the value of the same land may be much larger when it can supply natural resources or services such as clean water, timber, ecotourism, or flood regulation and drought control. The rapid expansion of the global human population is increasing the world's food requirement substantially. Simple logic dictates that more people will require more food. In fact, as
10961-480: The threat of oil spills on wildlife and the environment. The Summerland Peninsula is managed by Phillip Island Nature Parks , created in 1996 by the State Government of Victoria to protect 1805 hectares of Crown Land under the Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978 "for the conservation of areas of natural interest or beauty or of scientific, historic or archaeological interest." PINP is a not-for-profit organisation and
11074-413: The underlying driving forces, rather than merely regulating the proximate causes. In a broader sense, governmental bodies at a local, national, and international scale need to emphasize: It is argued that the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation can be counteracted by including spatial processes in potential restoration management plans. However, even though spatial dynamics are incredibly important in
11187-416: The variation in numbers of threatened species across 114 countries, providing indisputable evidence that people play the largest role in decreasing biodiversity . The boom in human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are making conservation efforts not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local human interests. The high local population density in such areas
11300-571: The western tip of the peninsula in Bass Strait. The area has a temperate climate , with cool wet winters (June – August) and hot and dry summers (December – February). The majority of rainfall occurs in winter, with between 500mm and 1100mm per year, and the area is exposed to the full force of southwest gales. Vegetation communities are determined by wind exposure, salt-spray, soil composition, geology, presence of seabird colonies and past land management practices. Ecological vegetation classes on
11413-437: The woods on our approach, watching our movements until we depart. As I am aware it is Your Excellency's wish to conciliate them as much as possible, I have not allowed them to be pursued, or molested in any way." The only reservation Wetherall had was on the island's supply of water; he dug a "tide-well" near the fort but assessed the source as "not in sufficient quantities for the supply of shipping" and this problem would lead to
11526-436: The world are changing the specific geographical habitats that are suitable for plants to grow. Therefore, the ability for plants to migrate to suitable environment areas will have a strong impact on the distribution of plant diversity. However, at the moment, the rates of plant migration that are influenced by habitat loss and fragmentation are not as well understood as they could be. Tropical rainforests have received most of
11639-449: The world's population increases dramatically, agricultural output will need to increase by at least 50%, over the next 30 years. In the past, continually moving to new land and soils provided a boost in food production to meet the global food demand. That easy fix will no longer be available, however, as more than 98% of all land suitable for agriculture is already in use or degraded beyond repair. The impending global food crisis will be
11752-817: The world's remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans' growing demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands. Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by Sustainable Development Goal 15 "Life on Land" and Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water". However, the United Nations Environment Programme report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals. Tropical deforestation: In most cases of tropical deforestation , three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes. This means that
11865-423: The world, and thus have less chance of recovering. Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a certain ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may also take place very long after the destruction of habitat, a phenomenon known as extinction debt . Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This can result in
11978-424: The world, one of the largest breeding colonies of Greater crested terns ( Sterna bergii ) in Victoria and an important breeding ground for Short-tailed shearwaters ( Puffinus tenuirostris ). Several plants regarded as rare or threatened in either Victoria or Australia have been recorded on the peninsula, including River Swamp Wallaby-grass ( Amphibromus fluitans ) listed as vulnerable in Australia. The peninsula
12091-455: The world. They come to see one of the few areas where this species of penguin can be seen, but visitors are reminded photography is not permitted for the birds' safety. Phillip Island is home to approximately 40,000 penguins, which can be seen by tourists at sunset every day of the year. The island is recognised as having some of the most consistently reliable and varied surf conditions in the country. The island has hosted various surf events in
12204-410: Was estimated at around 40,000. After many penguins had died in a 2019 heatwave, native plants such as bower spinach were planted around penguin boxes to insulate them. Grass fires , largely due to poor practices since settlement, and projected to occur more frequently as a result of climate change , threaten the penguins' habitat, and it has been observed that they do not move away from fire. A project
12317-590: Was held, although, with the bridge to the mainland unable to support heavy hotmix bitumen equipment, the track broke up during the third running of the race in 1962 . The damage rendered the circuit unusable for racing and for 1963 the Armstrong 500 was relocated to the Mount Panorama Circuit and over time evolved into what is known today as the Bathurst 1000 . The circuit was refurbished and
12430-459: Was improved with the installation of boardwalks and stands to prevent trampling through the colony and allowing only 10% of the penguin population to be viewed by the public for 1–2 hours after dusk. In 2010 the Summerland Peninsula buy-back was completed and in 2011 a subsequent Summerland Restoration Project initiated with a $ 3.4 million grant from the State Government of Victoria. The program included under-grounding power, demolition and removal of
12543-775: Was reopened in October 1967. It was closed in 1978, but was redeveloped and re-opened in 1988 and the following year hosted the first international version of the Australian motorcycle Grand Prix . It continues to host the race today and is also a venue for rounds of the Superbike World Championship , the MotoGP Championship , the V8 Supercars Championship and the Australian Drivers' Championship . Towns on
12656-493: Was significantly modified by agricultural, residential and recreational developments until the 1980s causing overall ecosystem degradation, however protection, management and restoration efforts over the past 30 years has seen the area's biodiversity recover. Today Phillip Island Nature Parks (PINP) manage the peninsula as an area of ecological significance under the Crown Land Reserves Act 1978 . The peninsula
12769-519: Was the poor application of technology in the wood industry (45%), which leads to wasteful logging practices. Within the broad category of cultural and sociopolitical factors are public attitudes and values (63%), individual/household behavior (53%), public unconcern toward forest environments (43%), missing basic values (36%), and unconcern by individuals (32%). Demographic factors were the in-migration of colonizing settlers into sparsely populated forest areas (38%) and growing population density—a result of
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