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62-685: Sun Chemical is the world's largest producer of printing inks and pigments and is located in Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey . It was incorporated in 1945. The company has its roots as the Lorilleux & Cie. Paris in 1818, but was incorporated under the Sun name in 1945. The company operates the Daniel J. Carlick Technical Center in Carlstadt, New Jersey . Sun Chemical is a member of

124-461: A color range than dyes. Pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to provide color. Pigment molecules typically link together in crystalline structures that are 0.1–2 μm in size and comprise 5–30 percent of the ink volume. Qualities such as hue , saturation , and lightness vary depending on the source and type of pigment.Solvent-based inks are widely used for high-speed printing and applications that require quick drying times. And

186-782: A pestle and mortar , then pour it into a ceramic dish to dry. To use the dry mixture, a wet brush would be applied until it reliquified. The manufacture of India ink was well-established by the Cao Wei dynasty (220–265 AD). Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang . The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early South India. Several Buddhist and Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink. Cephalopod ink , known as sepia , turns from dark blue-black to brown on drying, and

248-446: A catalyst to cellulose oxidation. These chemical reactions physically weaken the paper, causing brittleness . Indelible means "un-removable". Some types of indelible ink have a very short shelf life because of the quickly evaporating solvents used. India, Mexico, Indonesia, Malaysia and other developing countries have used indelible ink in the form of electoral stain to prevent electoral fraud . Election ink based on silver nitrate

310-404: A change of ink texture or formation of plaque on the surface of the ink (Reibland & de Groot 1999). Iron gall inks require storage in a stable environment, because fluctuating relative humidity increases the rate that formic acid, acetic acid, and furan derivatives form in the material the ink was used on. Sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst to cellulose hydrolysis, and iron (II) sulfate acts as

372-446: A chemical shock. The osmotic changes that occur as a result are characterized by increased quantities of osmotically active material and induce the cell metaplasia and gall formation. When the chemical shock is of high intensity, metaplasia does not occur. Instead, the plant cells local to the shock die, thereby rejecting the insect and defending the plant tissue. Galls are rich in resins and tannic acid and have been used widely in

434-427: A common pen can be harmful. Though ink does not easily cause death, repeated skin contact or ingestion can cause effects such as severe headaches, skin irritation, or nervous system damage. These effects can be caused by solvents, or by pigment ingredients such as p -Anisidine , which helps create some inks' color and shine. Three main environmental issues with ink are: Some regulatory bodies have set standards for

496-473: A kind of soot , easily collected as a by-product of fire. Ink was used in Ancient Egypt for writing and drawing on papyrus from at least the 26th century BC. Egyptian red and black inks included iron and ocher as pigments, in addition to phosphate , sulfate , chloride , and carboxylate ions, with lead also used as a drier. The earliest Chinese inks may date to four millennia ago, to

558-427: A nutritive cellular layer. In a general gall wasp gall, the outermost layer is the epidermis followed by outer cortex and then inner cortex. In some galls these two cortex layers are separated by a lignified layer. The innermost part of a gall is the larval chamber. The nutritive layer is situated between the larval chamber and the inner cortex. There is a nutritional gradient (high to low) from inside to outside of

620-401: A polymer to suspend the carbon nanotubes. These inks can be used in inkjet printers and produce electrically conductive patterns. Iron gall inks became prominent in the early 12th century; they were used for centuries and were widely thought to be the best type of ink. However, iron gall ink is corrosive and damages paper over time (Waters 1940). Items containing this ink can become brittle and

682-605: A range of colors (red, green, yellow, and black). Different taxonomic groups of gall inducers vary in the complexity and diversity of gall formation and organization, with insect induced galls generally being more complex and diverse. Additionally, gall frequency varies based on factors such as weather, plant susceptibility, and pest populations. There are four stages of gall development: initiation, growth and differentiation, maturation, and dehiscence. Gall tissues are nutritive and present high concentrations of lipids, proteins, nitrogen, and other nutrients. The formation of galls which

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744-642: A range of colors (red, green, yellow, and black). Different taxonomic groups of gall inducers vary in the complexity and diversity of gall formation and organization, with insect induced galls generally being more complex and diverse. Additionally, gall frequency varies based on factors such as weather, plant susceptibility, and pest populations. There are four stages of gall development: initiation, growth and differentiation, maturation, and dehiscence. Gall tissues are nutritive and present high concentrations of lipids, proteins, nitrogen, and other nutrients. The formation of galls begins with insect saliva on plants inducing

806-534: A reservoir. In the 15th century, a new type of ink had to be developed in Europe for the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg . According to Martyn Lyons in his book Books: A Living History , Gutenberg's dye was indelible, oil-based, and made from the soot of lamps (lamp-black) mixed with varnish and egg white. Two types of ink were prevalent at the time: the Greek and Roman writing ink (soot, glue, and water) and

868-439: A thickener. When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull brown. Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote principally on parchment or vellum . One 12th century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black. Wine

930-535: A wild rice, produces an edible gall highly valued as a food source in the Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces of China. Gall-causing bacteria include Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Pseudomonas savastanoi . Gall forming virus was found on rice plants in central Thailand in 1979 and named rice gall dwarf. Symptoms consisted of gall formation along leaf blades and sheaths, dark green discoloration, twisted leaf tips, and reduced numbers of tillers. Some plants died in

992-428: Is controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The interior of a gall can contain edible nutritious starch and other tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts. Galls may also provide the insect with physical protection from predators. Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by

1054-447: Is induction begins with insect saliva on plants. Insect saliva contains various chemicals, induces shock and osmotic changes in the host plant cell. The severity of insect feeding injures the plant varies depending on the insect. The osmotic changes that occur as a result are characterized by increased quantities of osmotically active material and induce the cell metaplasia and gall formation. Gall growth occurs gradually over time, with

1116-425: Is influenced by plant vigor and module size, with larger, fast-growing plant modules resulting in larger galls. Conversely, galls are easily induced on smaller plant modules. Galls are unique growths on plants, and how the plant's genetic instructions could produce these structures in response to external factors is still a fresh field of science. Genetic mechanisms of gall formation is a unique interplay between

1178-569: Is that carbon ink does not harm paper. Over time, the ink is chemically stable and therefore does not threaten the paper's strength. Despite these benefits, carbon ink is not ideal for permanence and ease of preservation. Carbon ink tends to smudge in humid environments and can be washed off surfaces. The best method of preserving a document written in carbon ink is to store it in a dry environment (Barrow 1972). Recently, carbon inks made from carbon nanotubes have been successfully created. They are similar in composition to traditional inks in that they use

1240-586: The Chinese Neolithic Period . These included plant, animal, and mineral inks, based on such materials as graphite ; these were ground with water and applied with ink brushes . Direct evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to modern inksticks , is found around 256 BC, in the end of the Warring States period ; being produced from soot and animal glue . The preferred inks for drawing or painting on paper or silk are produced from

1302-662: The DIC Corporation group of companies based in Japan. The company provides materials to packaging, publication, coatings, plastics, cosmetics and other industrial markets, including electronic materials, functional and specialty coatings, brand protection and product authentication technologies. Ink Ink can be a complex medium, composed of solvents , pigments, dyes , resins , lubricants , solubilizers , surfactants , particulate matter , fluorescents , and other materials. The components of inks serve many purposes;

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1364-512: The Latin galla , 'oak-apple') or cecidia (from the Greek kēkidion , anything gushing out) are a kind of swelling growth on the external tissues of plants. Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues, similar to benign tumors or warts in animals. They can be caused by various parasites , from viruses , fungi and bacteria , to other plants , insects and mites . Plant galls are often highly organized structures so that

1426-418: The larvae of the insects into the plants and possibly mechanical damage. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. To form galls, the insects must take advantage of the time when plant cell division occurs quickly: the growing season, usually spring in temperate climates, but which is extended in the tropics. The meristems , where plant cell division occurs, are

1488-622: The woolly aphid Adelges abietis , which parasitises coniferous trees such as the Sitka spruce and the Norway spruce. Some dipteran flies such as the cecidomyiid gall midges Dasineura investita and Neolasioptera boehmeriae , and some Agromyzidae leaf-miner flies cause galls. Mites, small arachnids, cause distinctive galls in plants such as the lime tree . Nematodes are microscopic worms that live in soil. Some nematodes ( Meloidogyne species or root-knot nematodes ) cause galls on

1550-560: The 12th century variety composed of ferrous sulfate, gall, gum, and water. Neither of these handwriting inks could adhere to printing surfaces without creating blurs. Eventually an oily, varnish -like ink made of soot, turpentine , and walnut oil was created specifically for the printing press. Ink formulas vary, but commonly involve two components: Inks generally fall into four classes: Pigment inks are used more frequently than dyes because they are more color-fast, but they are also more expensive, less consistent in color, and have less of

1612-425: The adult exits either by chewing its way out or utilizing an opening created by the larval stage. Conversely, insects with sucking mouthparts rely on partially open galls or those that naturally open to facilitate emergence. An example of the latter type is the aphid, which forms marble-sized galls on the leaf stems of cottonwood trees. While these galls have thin walls, they harbor entire colonies of aphids within. When

1674-577: The amount of heavy metals in ink. There is a trend toward vegetable oils rather than petroleum oils in recent years in response to a demand for better environmental sustainability performance. Ink uses up non-renewable oils and metals, which has a negative impact on the environment. Carbon inks were commonly made from lampblack or soot and a binding agent such as gum arabic or animal glue . The binding agent keeps carbon particles in suspension and adhered to paper. Carbon particles do not fade over time even when bleached or when in sunlight. One benefit

1736-505: The best solution. Yet others think an aqueous procedure may preserve items written with iron gall ink. Aqueous treatments include distilled water at different temperatures, calcium hydroxide, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, and calcium hyphenate. There are many possible side effects from these treatments. There can be mechanical damage, which further weakens the paper. Paper color or ink color may change, and ink may bleed. Other consequences of aqueous treatment are

1798-913: The cause of the gall can often be determined without the actual agent being identified. This applies particularly to insect and mite plant galls. The study of plant galls is known as cecidology. Galls develop on various plant organs, providing nutrition and shelter to inducing insects. Galls display vast variation in morphology , size, and wall composition. The size of insect galls can range significantly, from approximately two inches in diameter to less than one-sixteenth of an inch. Some galls are so small that they are merely slightly thickened patches on leaves. Their shape can range from spherical to bursiform, bullet-shaped, flower-shaped, cylindrical, or diamond-like. Factors influencing gall morphology include plant species, tissue type, gall-inducing agent, and environmental conditions. They typically exhibit symmetrical forms, although their end shapes vary due to differences in

1860-484: The developing gall wasp larva. The defense-related genes are found to be suppressed in inner gall tissues as a strategy to accommodate the feeding activity of the parasite. Plant galls are caused by a wide range of organisms, including animals such as insects, mites, and nematodes; fungi; bacteria; viruses; and other plants. Insect galls are the highly distinctive plant structures formed by some herbivorous insects as their own microhabitats. They are plant tissue which

1922-519: The efficacy of resistance genes deployed in agriculture. The evolutionary arms race between plants and parasites, underscored by the expansion of gene families involved in biotic interactions, shapes their genomic landscape, influencing their adaptive strategies and diversification. Crown galls formed under the influence of the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens exhibit several distinctive characteristics when compared to other types of galls. This bacterium transfers genetic material known as T-DNA into

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1984-584: The establishment of metaplasied cells and localized metabolic changes to repair the wound and neutralize stress. Osmotic stress leads to the development of metaplasied cells, characterized by increased quantities of osmotically active material. The rejection response by the plant triggers the synthesis of defense compounds and enzymes . There are two primary categories of galls: closed and open. Insects such as wasps, moths, and flies, possessing chewing mouthparts during their adult or larval stages, typically inhabit completely enclosed galls. Upon reaching maturity,

2046-428: The fresh print. Other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings (which must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as inkjet printer inks. Another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the opposite charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating, while

2108-414: The gall while defense gradient to the opposite direction. Gall morphogenesis involves the regulation of the organ on which the gall occurs while maintaining differentiation freedom. Gall development begins from a single or group of metaplasied cells and progresses through promoter-mediated cell expansion, cell multiplication, programmed differentiation, and control of symmetry. Plant response involves

2170-503: The glasshouse in the later stages of infection. The causal agent was transmitted by the hemipteran bug Nephotettix nigropictus after an incubation of two weeks. Polyhedral particles of 65 nm diameter in the cytoplasm of phloem cells were always associated with the disease. No serologic relationship was found between this virus and that of rice dwarf. The hemiparasitic plant mistletoe forms woody structures sometimes called galls on its hosts. More complex interactions are possible;

2232-539: The inclusion of TiO2 powder provides superior coverage and vibrant colors. Dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, potentially allowing the ink to bleed at the edges of an image. To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on

2294-803: The initial defense layer of plant cells, activated upon detection of "danger signals." These signals, termed damage-associated-molecular-patterns (DAMPs) if originating from the plant or microbe/pathogen-associated-molecular-patterns (MAMPs, PAMPs, or HAMPs) if from the parasite, engage pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) triggering signaling cascades. PRRs, classified as receptor-like kinases (RLKs), mediate intercellular communication by bridging external stimuli with intracellular defense mechanisms. Antagonists, employing effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS) manipulate host-cell functions through effector molecules encoded by effector genes, aiming primarily at suppressing plant defenses. Notably, some effectors exploit plant traits, known as "plant susceptibility traits," diverting

2356-457: The ink's carrier, colorants, and other additives affect the flow and thickness of the ink and its dry appearance. Many ancient cultures around the world have independently discovered and formulated inks due to the need to write and draw. The recipes and techniques for the production of ink are derived from archaeological analyses or from written texts itself. The earliest inks from all civilizations are believed to have been made with lampblack ,

2418-497: The intensity and appearance of dyes. Dye-based inks can be used for anti-counterfeit purposes and can be found in some gel inks, fountain pen inks, and inks used for paper currency. These inks react with cellulose to bring about a permanent color change. Dye based inks are used to color hair. There is a misconception that ink is non-toxic even if swallowed. Once ingested, ink can be hazardous to one's health. Certain inks, such as those used in digital printers, and even those found in

2480-490: The length, breadth, and height of the galls increasing proportionally. The growth rate is maximal during the insect's early developmental stages and slows as it approaches adulthood. Hormones like auxins play a crucial role in gall growth. The presence of stress and insect secretions stimulates the synthesis of growth-promoting substances, possibly involving a combination of different growth promoters like auxins and kinins. Gall growth involves both cell enlargement and division, but

2542-530: The manufacturing of permanent inks (such as iron gall ink ) and astringent ointments, in dyeing , and in leather tanning . The Talmud records using gallnuts as part of the tanning process as well as a dye-base for ink. Medieval Arabic literature records many uses for the gall, called ˁafṣ in Arabic. The Aleppo gall , found on oak trees in northern Syria , was among the most important exports from Syria during this period, with one merchant recording

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2604-423: The outer gall transcriptome resembles that of twigs, leaf buds, and reproductive structures, the inner gall transcriptome is distinct from normal oak tissues, underscoring the complexity of gall formation. Furthermore, there is an upregulation of genes related to sugar and amino acid metabolism in both outer and inner gall tissues, suggesting a role in transporting plant metabolites to support the nutritional needs of

2666-441: The paper, and paper composition (Barrow 1972:16). Corrosion is caused by acid catalyzed hydrolysis and iron(II)-catalysed oxidation of cellulose (Rouchon-Quillet 2004:389). Treatment is a controversial subject. No treatment undoes damage already caused by acidic ink. Deterioration can only be stopped or slowed. Some think it best not to treat the item at all for fear of the consequences. Others believe that non-aqueous procedures are

2728-406: The parasite and the host plant in shaping the developmental trajectory of the gall organ. The 'zigzag' model introduced by Jones & Dangl (2006) demonstrates the molecular interactions underlying gall induction. This model, refined over time and subject to ongoing enhancements, illustrates the intricate dynamics between antagonistic molecular players. Pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), constitutes

2790-489: The parasitic plant Cassytha filiformis sometimes preferentially feeds on galls induced by the cynipid wasp Belonocnema treatae . Insects induce the formation of galls on plants from which they receive various services, such as a source of nutrition and a place to lay eggs, develop, and be provided protection from the environment and enemies. The gall producers are specific to specific plants, thus inducing galls with unique appearances (balls, knobs, lumps, warts, etc.) and

2852-529: The physical actions and chemical stimuli of different insects. Around 90% of galls occur on the leaves of dicotyledons . Galls can develop on various parts of the host plant, such as roots, leaf bases, branches, or leaflets. Internally, galls also exhibit diverse structures. Some are simple, comprising only outgrown and curved leaf tissues, while others feature complex, hierarchical arrangements with multiple chambers containing different types of tissues, including collenchyma , parenchyma , physalides-parenchyma, and

2914-596: The plant and causing growth suppression elsewhere. The bacteria possess virulence genes that control their ability to colonize plants and produce cytokinins, which influence plant growth. While parasitic gall-inducers are typically harmful to plants, researchers are exploring ways to harness their growth-promoting abilities for agricultural benefit. Some derivatives of R. fascians are being investigated for their potential to promote balanced plant growth, and scientists are also studying plant interactions with these bacteria to discover traits that could enhance crop yields. Most of

2976-510: The plant cells, where it becomes integrated into the chromosomes . The T-DNA contains genes that encode for production of auxin, cytokinin and opines. As a result, the infected plant cells undergo rapid multiplication, essentially transforming into "bacterial factories" that produce more bacterial bodies. Certain bacteria, like Rhodococcus fascians , induce the formation of leafy galls on plants, affecting their growth. These galls act as permanent sinks, diverting nutrients away from other parts of

3038-601: The plant's resources in favor of the parasite. Effectoromics, involving high-throughput expression screens, aids in identifying effector candidates crucial for colonization. Conversely, Effector-Triggered Immunity (ETI) responsible for plant's counterattack, leveraging effectors as "danger signals" to render the parasite avirulent. During ETI, nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat (NLR)-containing receptors detect perturbations induced by effectors, leading to downstream signaling events that promote defense responses. However, parasites can counteract ETI by modifying ETS, undermining

3100-464: The resin of the pine trees between 50 and 100 years old. The Chinese inkstick is produced with a fish glue, whereas Japanese glue (膠 nikawa ) is from cow or stag. India ink was invented in China, though materials were often traded from India, hence the name. The traditional Chinese method of making the ink was to grind a mixture of hide glue, carbon black , lampblack, and bone black pigment with

3162-524: The roots of susceptible plants. The galls are often small. Many rust fungi induce gall formation, including western gall rust , which infects a variety of pine trees and cedar-apple rust . Galls are often seen in Millettia pinnata leaves and fruits. Leaf galls appear like tiny clubs; however, flower galls are globose. Exobasidium often induces spectacular galls on its hosts. The fungus Ustilago esculenta associated with Zizania latifolia ,

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3224-544: The solvent soaks into the paper. Cellulose , the wood-derived material most paper is made of, is naturally charged, and so a compound that complexes with both the dye and the paper's surface aids retention at the surface. Such a compound is commonly used in ink-jet printing inks. An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that the dye molecules can interact with other ink ingredients, potentially allowing greater benefit as compared to pigmented inks from optical brighteners and color-enhancing agents designed to increase

3286-536: The specific factors triggering cell enlargement remain unclear. The earliest impact from the insect leads to metaplasia in the affected cells, where they undergo changes in structure and function. When the chemical shock is of high intensity, metaplasia does not occur. Instead, the plant cells local to the shock die, thereby rejecting the insect and defending the plant tissue. Enzymes like invertases are involved in gall growth, with greater activity correlating with stronger gall development. Gall-inducing insect performance

3348-469: The time is right, a slit appears on one side of the gall, allowing the aphids to escape as the slit's lips unfold. Insects induce the formation of galls on plants from which they receive various services, such as a source of nutrition and a place to lay eggs, develop, and be provided protection from the environment and enemies. The gall producers are specific to specific plants, thus inducing galls with unique appearances (balls, knobs, lumps, warts, etc.) and

3410-406: The tissue-specific gene expression. There are substantial differences in  gene expression between inner and outer gall tissues compared to adjacent leaf tissues. Notably, approximately 28% of oak genes display differential expression in the gall compared to leaves, indicating significant transcriptional changes associated with gall development. According to the transcriptome analysis , while

3472-410: The transcriptomic studies on plant galls used entire gall samples resulting both gall and non-gall cells leading to thousands of gene expressions during gall development. Recent studies on gall induced by gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) Dryocosmus quercuspalustris on northern red oak ( Quercus rubra L. ) leaves demonstrate the complexity of genetic mechanisms underlying galls by quantifying

3534-612: The tribe Cynipini , their hosts mostly being oak trees and other members of the Fagaceae (the beech tree family). These are often restricted taxonomically to a single host species or a group of related species. Some wasps from other groups, such as the Diplolepididae and the Chalcidoidea , also cause plant galls. Among the hemipteran bugs that cause galls are the psyllid bug Pachypsylla celtidisumbilicus , and

3596-687: The usual sites of galls, though insect galls can be found on other parts of the plant, such as the leaves, stalks , branches , buds , roots , and even flowers and fruits . Gall-inducing insects are usually species-specific and sometimes tissue-specific on the plants they gall. Gall-inducing insects include gall wasps , gall midges , gall flies , leaf-miner flies , aphids , scale insects , psyllids , thrips , gall moths, and weevils . Many gall insects remain to be described. Estimates range up to more than 210,000 species, not counting parasitoids of gall-forming insects. More than 1400 species of cynipid wasps cause galls. Some 1000 of these are in

3658-480: The writing fades to brown. The original scores of Johann Sebastian Bach are threatened by the destructive properties of iron gall ink. The majority of his works are held by the German State Library, and about 25% of those are in advanced stages of decay (American Libraries 2000). The rate at which the writing fades is based on several factors, such as proportions of ink ingredients, amount deposited on

3720-412: Was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make the final ink. The reservoir pen, which may have been the first fountain pen , dates back to 953, when Ma'ād al-Mu'izz , the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in

3782-719: Was first applied in the 1962 Indian general election , after being developed at the National Physical Laboratory of India . The election commission in India has used indelible ink for many elections. Indonesia used it in its election in 2014. In Mali, the ink is applied to the fingernail. Indelible ink itself is not infallible as it can be used to commit electoral fraud by marking opponent party members before they have chances to cast their votes. There are also reports of "indelible" ink washing off voters' fingers in Afghanistan. Gall Galls (from

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3844-527: Was used as an ink in the Graeco-Roman period and subsequently. Black atramentum was also used in ancient Rome ; in an article for The Christian Science Monitor , Sharon J. Huntington describes these other historical inks: About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for centuries. Iron salts, such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric acid), were mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and

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