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100-437: Construction began in 1976, the reactor went critical in 1985 and was connected to the grid in 1986. The project suffered cost overruns, delays and enormous public protests. Overall, the reactor totalized a very low operation factor of 14.4%. Despite many technical issues related to being a first-of-a-kind project most of its downtime was caused by administrative procedure: the plant was technically capable of resuming operations but

200-625: A civil partnership or union between two people of any genders. During his term, with the help of a favorable economic situation, unemployment fell by 900,000. There were several women but no ethnic minorities in Jospin's government. The "law against social exclusion " (1998) extended social security and introduced various measures to combat poverty. These included: (1) The optimization of extra earnings for Revenu minimum d'insertion recipients. (2) The introduction of CMU . (3) Guaranteeing supplies of telephone, water, and electricity services for

300-428: A fuel consuming power plant or one using renewable energy , such as wind, the sun or hydro-electric installations. The average capacity factor can also be defined for any class of such installations, and can be used to compare different types of electricity production. The actual energy output during that period and the capacity factor vary greatly depending on a range of factors. The capacity factor can never exceed

400-513: A capacity factor of: Sites with lower capacity factors may be deemed feasible for wind farms, for example the onshore 1 GW Fosen Vind which as of 2017 is under construction in Norway has a projected capacity factor of 39%. Feasibility calculations may be affected by seasonality. For example in Finland, capacity factor during the cold winter months is more than double compared to July. While

500-466: A care home, a benefit for seriously injured or sick children, and a benefit to encourage women to re-enter the labour market. A new benefit was introduced called the Prime pour l'Emploi (PPE) which, as noted by one study, "is presented as a means of 'compensating taxes on and contributions from workers income,' which aim both to 'aid return to work' and to provide 'maintenance in work'." An enhancement of

600-759: A commission on deontology and ethics in French political life. This commission has been criticized for being too similar to the Edouard Balladur commission Nicolas Sarkozy created on the same topic in 2007. Some Union for a Popular Movement members also criticized the participation of Roselyne Bachelot . The commission was to give its recommendations by the end of the year. Governmental functions Electoral mandates European Parliament National Assembly of France Regional Council General Council Municipal Council Political function Capacity factor The net capacity factor

700-567: A higher capacity factor than many other power sources, and geothermal resources are generally available all the time. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), from 2013 to 2017 the capacity factors of utility-scale generators were as follows: However, these values often vary significantly by month. The following figures were collected by the Department of Energy and Climate Change on

800-469: A housebuilding programme, the rebuilding of run-down parts of cities, and a 37-hour workweek. Following the Socialists' landslide defeats of 1992–94, Jospin was considered to have little chance of victory. But he did surprisingly well, leading in the first round and losing only very narrowly to Jacques Chirac in the final runoff election. His performance was seen to mark a revival of the Socialists as

900-519: A hundred serious injuries, with the police being reluctantly forced to use truncheons and fire tear gas grenades to disperse the violent protestors. Against a background of ongoing protest and low-level sabotage, on the night of January 18, 1982 an RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenade attack was launched against the unfinished plant. Five rockets were fired across the Rhône at the incomplete containment building . Two rockets hit and caused minor damage to

1000-422: A larger volume and in otherwise useless materials. This section is known as the blanket . Such a design also has the quality that it generates more fuel than it consumes, as long as the breeding ratio is greater than 1. Such a design has three major advantages over conventional military designs. The downside is that it has to be fueled with some sort of enriched fuel, although the fissile material being bred in

1100-478: A law against paedophile pornography, the establishment of a government student lunch programme, the launching of "Initiatives citoyennes" to teach children how to live together, the launching of a campaign against "hazing" of children, the creation of programs for parental involvement in schools together with national campaigns for the elections of parent-representatives, the passage of a law designed to safeguard children's rights and campaign against violence in schools,

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1200-460: A law against the prostitution of minors that included penalties for clients, the establishment of the "Childhood and the Media" association against violence in the media and the creation of 40,000 new child-care places. Various measures were introduced to enhance facilities and benefits for people with disabilities. A turnaround of the justice system was carried out to ensure that a defendant really

1300-506: A law was passed on sexual equality in the workplace, including an article repealing the ban on night work for women, in order to comply with EU sex equality legislation. A law was passed in July 2001 that included various social, educational and cultural provisions that lay the legal foundation for the implementation of back to work assistance programs included in an unemployment insurance agreement from January that year. An anti-discrimination law

1400-404: A material is liquid sodium , although salts and other metals have also been used. This not only greatly reduces the size of the reactor, but the fast neutrons from a single reaction are capable of causing several breeding reactions. By surrounding the core with additional fertile material such as natural uranium , or even nuclear waste from other reactors, the breeding reaction will take place in

1500-429: A plant is only needed during the day, for example, even if it operates at full power output from 8 am to 8 pm every day (12 hours) all year long, it would only have a 50% capacity factor. Due to low capacity factors, electricity from peaking power plants is relatively expensive because the limited generation has to cover the plant fixed costs. A third reason is that a plant may not have the fuel available to operate all of

1600-667: A plant to incorporate the 5,500 tonnes of sodium coolant in 70,000 tonnes of concrete . The plan is similar to that used following the closure of the Dounreay Fast Reactor in the United Kingdom. Superphénix was the last fast breeder reactor operating in Europe for electricity production. Lionel Jospin Lionel Robert Jospin ( French: [ljɔnɛl ʁɔbɛʁ ʒɔspɛ̃] ; born 12 July 1937)

1700-457: A position markedly more pro-Israel than Chirac's. On 26 February, when Jospin visited Birzeit University , Palestinian students threw stones at him, causing a minor injury. Jospin was a candidate in the presidential campaign of 2002 . While he appeared to have momentum in the early stages, the campaign came to be focused mainly on law-and-order issues, in which, it was argued, the government had not achieved convincing results; this coincided with

1800-696: A proportion of household revenue from by 16%, the biggest five-year increase in over twenty years. In addition, total government spending rose 8.9% from 1997 to 2002. Altogether, the social and economic policies implemented by the Jospin Government helped to reduce social and economic inequalities, with income inequality in terms of the Gini coefficient falling between 1997 and 2001. In international affairs, Jospin mostly steered clear of foreign policy, but in 2000 he denounced Hezbollah 's "terrorist attacks against Israeli soldiers and civilian populations",

1900-483: A representative of Paris (1978–86), and then of Haute-Garonne département (1986–88). He lost his seat in the National Assembly in the Socialists' landslide defeat in the 1993 legislative election and announced his political retirement. In 1993, Jospin was appointed ministre plénipotentiaire , 2nd class (a rank of ambassador), a position he held until his appointment as prime minister in 1997, but he

2000-433: A stopped condition to full power in just a few minutes. Wind farms are variable, due to the natural variability of the wind. For a wind farm, the capacity factor is determined by the availability of wind, the swept area of the turbine and the size of the generator . Transmission line capacity and electricity demand also affect the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors of current wind farms are between 25 and 45%. In

2100-608: A strong force in French politics and he returned to being the party's First Secretary. Jospin built a new coalition with the other left-wing parties: the French Communist Party , the Greens , the Left Radical Party and the dissident Citizen and Republican Movement . Two years later, Chirac decided to call an early election for the National Assembly, hoping for a personal endorsement. The move backfired:

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2200-442: A strong media focus on a number of egregious crime cases. The far left also strongly criticized Jospin for his moderate economic policies, which they contended were not markedly different from that of right-wing governments favoring businesses and free markets. Jospin's 2002 presidential manifesto was nevertheless a strongly progressive one, calling for access to housing to be made a universal right, supporting employee representation on

2300-414: A wide range of redundancy provisions such as the requirement to convene negotiations on the 35-hour week prior to any redundancy plan, enhanced powers for works councils, a contribution to the regeneration of closed sites by companies with a workforce of over 1,000, nine-month redeployment leave for redundant workers, and the doubling of the minimum redundancy compensation. A law on 'new economic regulations'

2400-556: Is a French politician who served as Prime Minister of France from 1997 to 2002. Jospin was First Secretary of the Socialist Party from 1995 to 1997 and the party's candidate for President of France in the 1995 and 2002 elections . In 1995, he was narrowly defeated in the second round by Jacques Chirac . In 2002, he was eliminated in the first round after finishing behind both Chirac and Jean-Marie Le Pen , prompting him to announce his retirement from politics. In 2015, he

2500-473: Is achieved by Lauingen Energy Park located in Bavaria , near the 49th parallel. With a nameplate capacity of 25.7 MW and an actual average annual production of 26.98 GWh/year it has a capacity factor of 12.0%. There are several reasons why a plant would have a capacity factor lower than 100%. These include technical constraints, such as availability of the plant, economic reasons, and availability of

2600-705: Is generally the availability of the energy source. The plant may be capable of producing electricity, but its "fuel" ( wind , sunlight or water ) may not be available. A hydroelectric plant's production may also be affected by requirements to keep the water level from getting too high or low and to provide water for fish downstream. However, solar, wind and hydroelectric plants do have high availability factors , so when they have fuel available, they are almost always able to produce electricity. When hydroelectric plants have water available, they are also useful for load following, because of their high dispatchability . A typical hydroelectric plant's operators can bring it from

2700-504: Is innocent until proved guilty. The linking of benefit payments to the cost of living was introduced, together with a one billion franc emergency package for the unemployed. In 1998 a FRF 500 million budget was established to partly fund the training benefit payable to the unemployed. Improvements in the handicapped employment service COTOREP were carried out, while measures were introduced to upgrade handicapped access to public transport together with all types of buildings used by members of

2800-407: Is often computed over a timescale of a year, averaging out most temporal fluctuations. However, it can also be computed for a month to gain insight into seasonal fluctuations. Alternatively, it can be computed over the lifetime of the power source, both while operational and after decommissioning. A capacity factor can also be expressed and converted to full load hours . Nuclear power plants are at

2900-592: Is refueled every 18 months, with one refueling every spring and fall. In 2014, a refueling was completed in a record 28 days, compared to the 35 days of downtime that the 2010 capacity factor corresponds to. In 2019, Prairie Island 1 was the US unit with the highest factor and actually reached 104.4%. The Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 2 has a nameplate capacity of 209.3 MW. As of January 2017 it has produced 6416 GWh since its commissioning 7 years ago, i.e. an average annual production of 875 GWh/year and

3000-410: Is the photovoltaic power station , which supplies power to the electricity grid from a large-scale photovoltaic system (PV system). An inherent limit to its capacity factor comes from its requirement of daylight , preferably with a sun unobstructed by clouds, smoke or smog , shade from trees and building structures. Since the amount of sunlight varies both with the time of the day and the seasons of

3100-415: Is the unitless ratio of actual electrical energy output over a given period of time to the theoretical maximum electrical energy output over that period. The theoretical maximum energy output of a given installation is defined as that due to its continuous operation at full nameplate capacity over the relevant period. The capacity factor can be calculated for any electricity producing installation, such as

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3200-513: The 35-hour workweek , provided additional health insurance for those on the lowest incomes through the creation of Couverture maladie universelle (which made health care in France a universal right, and was regarded by Jospin and Martine Aubry as one of the "beacons" of their incumbency ), promoted the representation of women in politics, expanded the social security system, and created the PACS –

3300-471: The Direction de la sûreté des installations nucléaires approved it in 1992. The plant was connected to EDF grid on 14 January 1986 and produced 4,300 GWh of electricity, worth about a billion 1995 Franc, during 10 months of operation, up until 1994. In 1996 it produced 3,400 GWh, worth about 850 million Francs, during 8 months of operation. In September 1998, the plant was closed. Two incidents earlier in

3400-577: The MEDEF employers' union. Representative of a generation of left-wingers who criticized the old SFIO Socialist Party, he joined a Trotskyist group, the Internationalist Communist Organization (OCI) in the 1960s, before entering the renewed Socialist Party (PS) in 1971. Joining François Mitterrand 's circle, he became the second highest-ranking member of the party in 1979, then its First Secretary when Mitterrand

3500-458: The Masurca facility starting in 1966, and design of a larger power-producing facility was already well underway. During the 1960s, interest in nuclear power was reaching a crescendo. For France, with little uranium supply of its own, large-scale nuclear generation would be subject to supply constraints, especially given that nuclear power was experiencing a boom in construction that suggested

3600-560: The Rennes Congress (1990). The party's mitterrandist faction split because Jospin's followers allied with the other factions to prevent Fabius's election as First Secretary. This damaged Jospin's relationship with Mitterrand and, after the Socialist Party's failure in the March 1992 local elections, Jospin was not included in the new government formed by Pierre Bérégovoy . As a member of the National Assembly, Jospin served first as

3700-549: The availability factor , or uptime during the period. Uptime can be reduced due to, for example, reliability issues and maintenance, scheduled or unscheduled. Other factors include the design of the installation, its location, the type of electricity production and with it either the fuel being used or, for renewable energy, the local weather conditions. Additionally, the capacity factor can be subject to regulatory constraints and market forces , potentially affecting both its fuel purchase and its electricity sale. The capacity factor

3800-457: The south-western United States , although in some locations solar PV does not reduce the need for generation of network upgrades given that air conditioner peak demand often occurs in the late afternoon or early evening when solar output is reduced. SolarPACES states that by using thermal energy storage systems the operating periods of solar thermal power (CSP) stations can be extended to become dispatchable (load following). Geothermal has

3900-530: The " Plural Left " won a parliamentary majority and Jospin became prime minister. Jospin is a Member of the Club of Madrid . Jospin served as prime minister during France's third " cohabitation " government under President Chirac from 1997 to 2002. Despite his previous image as a rigid socialist, Jospin sold state-owned enterprises and lowered the VAT , income tax and company tax rates. His government also introduced

4000-473: The 'lock-in' period for employee savings from 5 to 10 years. The Jospin Government also established (within the framework of a policy to improve coverage for industrial diseases) of a compensation fund for asbestos victims, and extended the right to asylum. A conditional amnesty for illegal immigrants was carried out, with some 75,000 obtaining legal residence as a result. Measures aimed at reintegrating

4100-515: The 1970s and 1980s, but between 1989 and 1990 experienced 4 power transients which triggered automatic SCRAM . A 1991 report did not clearly identify the cause. In 1993 renovation and life extension works started. The reactor was restarted in 2003 with a reduced power of 130 MWe. In 1971 and 1972, France, Germany and Italy signed agreements for the joint construction of full-scale breeders, one in France and one in Germany. The 1973 oil crisis made

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4200-599: The PS leadership, and, though Mitterrand considered naming him prime minister, he was nominated for minister of education . Under Jospin's tenure as education minister, teacher training was consolidated, the lycees and universities were reformed, teachers' salaries improved, and technical and vocational education were reformed, which the socialists saw as a means of improving economic performance, tackling youth unemployment, and attaining social justice. Jospin's rivalry with Fabius intensified and caused an internal crisis, notably during

4300-819: The United Kingdom during the five year period from 2011 to 2019 the annual capacity factor for wind was over 30%. Solar energy is variable because of the daily rotation of the earth, seasonal changes, and because of cloud cover. For example, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District observed a 15% capacity factor in 2005. However, according to the SolarPACES programme of the International Energy Agency (IEA), solar power plants designed for solar-only generation are well matched to summer noon peak loads in areas with significant cooling demands, such as Spain or

4400-404: The abandonment of the graphite-gas designs. The fast breeder design was chosen in the face of fears of disruption to the supply of other fuels; the " plutonium economy" seemed viable if oil prices stayed high and uranium supplies dwindled. Construction was approved in 1972 and lasted from 1974 to 1981, but power production did not begin until 1985. Costs rose rapidly during construction. The plant

4500-500: The annual average in Finland is 29.5%, the high demand for heating energy correlates with the higher capacity factor during the winter. Certain onshore wind farms can reach capacity factors of over 60%, for example the 44 MW Eolo plant in Nicaragua had a net generation of 232.132 GWh in 2015, equivalent to a capacity factor of 60.2%, while United States annual capacity factors from 2013 through 2016 range from 32.2% to 34.7%. Since

4600-424: The available supply would be limited even on a worldwide basis. In France's plans, breeders would serve the twin purposes of producing fuel for its conventional light water reactor fleet, as well as producing that fuel from the waste fuel from those reactors, thereby reducing the amount of nuclear waste it would have to dispose of. Only a small number of breeders, estimated to be around 20, would be required to fuel

4700-529: The blanket can be used. Plans for a French fast reactor date as far back as 1958's Rapsodie , and followed up in 1964 for a larger design with a power output of 1 GWe. Construction of the Rapsodie facility started in 1962 and went critical on 28 January 1967. It did not have power producing systems, but its 22 MW of thermal output (MWth) would translate to perhaps 8 MW of electrical output (MWe). Experiments on core configurations were carried out in

4800-514: The bonus paid to parents at the start of the school year from 420 to 1,600 francs for households with a monthly income of less than 11,600 francs. Reductions were made in employee's health-insurance contributions, with employee premiums reduced from 6.75 to 0.75%. To compensate for lost revenues, the CSG was raised from 3.5% to 7.5%, while income from rent and capital was taxed more. This almost complete shift of employee's health-insurance contributions to

4900-403: The buildout, warning that delays would have "catastrophic consequences on the uranium savings that are expected." In spite of opposition, Superphénix construction pushed ahead in 1976, although this was not made official until the next year, when initial construction was already underway. Design work began in 1968, the same year as construction began for the smaller-scale LMFBR Phénix , following

5000-457: The capacity factor of a wind turbine measures actual production relative to possible production, it is unrelated to Betz's coefficient of 16/27 ≈ {\displaystyle \approx } 59.3%, which limits production vs. energy available in the wind. As of 2017 Three Gorges Dam in China is, with its nameplate capacity of 22,500 MW, the largest power generating station in

5100-402: The current power need, conserving its stored water for later usage. Other reasons that a power plant may not have a capacity factor of 100% include restrictions or limitations on air permits and limitations on transmission that force the plant to curtail output. For renewable energy sources such as solar power , wind power and hydroelectricity , the main reason for reduced capacity factor

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5200-524: The different types of disabilities in the organization of physical and sports education programs within educational and vocational training centers or special facilities. As a result of the legislation, sports specialists and teachers were required to receive an initial special training and continuing education to better facilitate the access of disabled persons to physical and sports activities. Laws were also passed in November 2001 and March 2002 that added to

5300-686: The election, gaining small percentages of the vote in the first ballot that reduced Jospin's support. As a result, Jospin finished in third place, behind Chirac and narrowly behind the Front National leader Jean-Marie Le Pen . He thus was not a candidate in the second round of voting. Following his defeat in April 2002, Jospin immediately declared he would leave politics and stepped down as prime minister. He has since sporadically commented on current political affairs; for instance, he declared his opposition to same-sex marriage . In 2005, he returned to

5400-433: The electricity is not needed or because the price of electricity is too low to make production economical. This accounts for most of the unused capacity of peaking power plants and load following power plants . Peaking plants may operate for only a few hours per year or up to several hours per day. Many other power plants operate only at certain times of the day or year because of variation in loads and electricity prices. If

5500-687: The energy resource. A plant can be out of service or operating at reduced output for part of the time due to equipment failures or routine maintenance. This accounts for most of the unused capacity of base load power plants . Base load plants usually have low costs per unit of electricity because they are designed for maximum efficiency and are operated continuously at high output. Geothermal power plants , nuclear power plants , coal-fired plants and bioenergy plants that burn solid material are almost always operated as base load plants, as they can be difficult to adjust to suit demand. A plant can also have its output curtailed or intentionally left idle because

5600-468: The establishment of a national home-tutoring programme, and the introduction of local education and citizenship education contracts. A wide range of child-centred policies were also implemented. These included the introduction of mandatory civics instruction in secondary schools, the introduction of financial support for child illness care together with parental time-off obligations, the introduction of special education support (parents d'enfants handicaps),

5700-490: The fleet of about 200 light water reactors. France began construction of the Phénix demonstration plant in November 1968, only a year after Rapsodie went critical. It was fueled with 931 kg of reactor grade plutonium with around 77% Pu-239 (weapons grade is at least 93%). The fuel load is capable of running for about 90 days maximum, but in practice it normally ran for two month periods. Due to its design, refueling required

5800-469: The general public. The government established the right of an employee to take time off work if a child of the family was seriously ill. This was supported by a grant which replaced lost income to some extent and provided financial support to parents returning to work after a child's illness. A law was passed against discrimination (on sexual, racial, physical grounds, etc.) to bring French law into line with new EU anti-discrimination legislation. A campaign

5900-403: The high end of the range of capacity factors, ideally reduced only by the availability factor , i.e. maintenance and refueling. The largest nuclear plant in the US, Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station has between its three reactors a nameplate capacity of 3,942 MW. In 2010 its annual generation was 31,200,000 MWh, leading to a capacity factor of: Each of Palo Verde’s three reactors

6000-611: The impoverished, such as by paying off outstanding bills. (4) Increased housing allowances and subsidized housing "concomitant with the introduction of a tax on unused apartments". (5) Direct levels of assistance to groups with special problems in the labour market (including low-skilled persons, older unemployed persons, young people, and the long-term unemployed) through integration, internship, and continuing education programs, personal guidance and mentoring, and wage subsidies. Continuous improvements were made in social benefits during Jospin's time in office, together with increases in

6100-533: The issue of fuel security of significant importance. As part of the Messmer Plan , France began to plan for a future in which the vast majority of their electrical power would come from nuclear sources. New priority was given to a follow-on breeder design with the goal of continual operation, high CF, and economic operation even as a stand-alone reactor. This became the Superphénix design. A public enquiry

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6200-484: The list of grounds of discrimination physical appearance, sexual orientation, age, and genetic characteristics. A law was passed in 1999 which provided legal access to and development of palliative care, "allowing legal leave to support a family member in the last stage of a terminal illness." The Solidarity and Urban Renewal Law (2000) required that at least 20% of the housing stock in all urban municipalities over 3,500 inhabitants should consist of social housing. while

6300-460: The minimum wage. A 3% increase was carried out in the RMI and two similar minimum income guarantees in 1998, backdated a year, while expenditure on healthcare and education was increased. A parity law was introduced that obliged every party to field an equal number of female and male candidates in national elections. A decree was issued immediately after the start of Jospin's time in office that boosted

6400-499: The national political scene by campaigning forcefully in favor of the proposed European Constitution . In 2006, Jospin made it known that he was available to be the Socialist candidate for the 2007 presidential election , but when Ségolène Royal became ascendant in the polls, he declined to enter the 2006 primary in order not to "divide the party". On 14 July 2012, President François Hollande announced that Jospin would lead

6500-446: The natural uranium fuel is replaced with fuel sensitive to fast neutrons , typically highly enriched uranium or plutonium , the reaction can run without the use of a moderator. While this design eliminates the need for a moderator, the core still needs to be cooled. Ideally the coolant would be both highly efficient, allowing the core size to be reduced, as well as being largely transparent to neutrons. The most studied example of such

6600-487: The number of hours in a year, while the actual production is the amount of electricity delivered annually to the grid. For example, Agua Caliente Solar Project , located in Arizona near the 33rd parallel and awarded for its excellence in renewable energy has a nameplate capacity of 290 MW and an actual average annual production of 740 GWh/year. Its capacity factor is thus: A significantly lower capacity factor

6700-406: The plant open at least up to 2001. The total expenditure on the reactor was estimated at 60 billion francs (9.1 billion euro ). A 1998 "Inquiry commission on Superphenix and fast neutrons reactor sector" reported that "decision to close Superphénix was included in Jospin's program ... in the agreement between Socialist Party and Green Party". Also the same report says "despite many difficulties,

6800-417: The problem of "breeding" plutonium fuel, which can then be separated from the original uranium fuel with chemical processing. It had long been known that another solution to the breeder reactor design was to replace the graphite with liquid sodium metal. The graphite is used as a moderator, slowing the neutrons released in the nuclear reactions to a speed that makes other uranium atoms receptive to them. If

6900-403: The reactor to be shut down. As a result, it had a low capacity factor (CF), on the order of 65%. As a prototype plant, a high CF was not a design goal, although any practical design would have to improve this. Phénix demonstrated a breeding ratio of 1.16, meaning it produced 16% more fuel than it consumed, while also producing 233 MWe in normal operation. Phénix ran without problems through

7000-715: The reinforced concrete outer shell, missing the reactor's empty core . Initially there were no claims of responsibility. On May 8, 2003, Chaïm Nissim , who in 1985 was elected to the Geneva cantonal legislature for the Swiss Green Party , admitted carrying out the attack. He claimed that the weapons were obtained from Carlos the Jackal via the Belgian terrorist organisation Cellules Communistes Combattantes (Communist Combatant Cells). Designed electrical power output

7100-542: The rights of users of social and social/medical facilities. A wide range of new social benefits were introduced, including the Allocation Specifique d'attente (ASA), an additional benefit for unemployed persons under the age of 60 who had contributed or at least 40 years to the pension insurance, l'allocation spécifique d'attente (APA), a home care allowance for the over-60's which made it possible for beneficiaries to spend their old age at home rather than in

7200-555: The share of contributions. Other measures included an increase in revenues from the wealth tax, a reduction in the lower marginal tax rate from 10.5% to 7%, a rise in taxation on profits from stock options from 40% to 50%, a 1997 increase in the exemption for the lowest tax bracket, a reduction in taxes on apartment sales, housing, and other fees, and the abolition of taxes on cars and roadways. In addition, income tax cuts were introduced in March and September 2000 that disproportionately favoured low and non-earners. An "employment premium"

7300-434: The sole beneficiaries of lowered welfare contributions. Welfare benefits were raised, while income tax progression was increased, with tax cuts benefiting lower-income groups more strongly than higher-groups. Lower-income sections of the population received targeted support, and almost all tax measures introduced by the Jospin Government sought to stimulate demand and reduce inequality. Between 1997 and 2002, purchasing power as

7400-400: The supervisory boards of companies, and advocating better provisions for older people and the disabled. As noted by one observer, Jospin's manifesto sought to balance its emphasis on 'inequalities in income' with 'equality of opportunity,' eliminating poverty with special regard to housing whilst promoting social investment through (particularly) education. Many left-wing candidates contested

7500-410: The technical results are meaningful". In the explanation of vote at the end of the report, commission members says "give up on Superphenix has been a big error" and "Superphenix has to die because is a symbol". The last of the 650 fuel rods was removed from the reactor on March 18, 2003. They are now stored in spent fuel pools . A public inquiry was launched in April 2004 to consider plans to set up

7600-426: The time. This can apply to fossil generating stations with restricted fuels supplies, but most notably applies to intermittent renewable resources. Solar PV and wind turbines have a capacity factor limited by the availability of their "fuel", sunshine and wind respectively. A hydroelectricity plant may have a capacity factor lower than 100% due to restriction or scarcity of water, or its output may be regulated to match

7700-522: The universal CMU health scheme was carried out, through the abolition of the spending ceiling for dentistry and the extension of the 'direct settlement' system for former benefit recipients whose income now exceeded the statutory ceiling. Paid paternity leave was introduced, and a law was passed to reform employee savings schemes The main purpose of this legislation was to increase the duration and scope of employee savings schemes, by extending them to employees of small and medium-sized businesses and increasing

7800-414: The very long-term unemployed into the workforce were strengthened in 1998, and emergency groups were set up that same year in each département coordinated by the senior local representatives of the government at département level (préfets), with the objective of examining individual payments to those most in need. An overhaul of housing assistance scales was carried out, and a law on gender equality at work

7900-425: The welfare tax CGT resulted in the purchasing power of employees rising by about 1%. Various measures were also taken to make the tax system more progressive. The Jospin government began taxing capital assets by introducing a tax on savings, particularly life insurance. A major reform of the welfare tax CSG was carried out, which doubled the welfare state's percentage share of taxes and resulted in an almost 10% fall in

8000-430: The world by installed capacity. In 2015 it generated 87 TWh, for a capacity factor of: Hoover Dam has a nameplate capacity of 2080 MW and an annual generation averaging 4.2 TW·h. (The annual generation has varied between a high of 10.348 TW·h in 1984, and a low of 2.648 TW·h in 1956. ). Taking the average figure for annual generation gives a capacity factor of: At the low range of capacity factors

8100-506: The year had culminated in a third, which triggered an automatic shutdown. During 11 years, the plant had 53 months of normal operations (mostly at low power), 25 months of outages due to fixing technical problems of the prototype, and 66 months spent on halt due to political and administrative issues. Superphénix had been a focus point of many groups opposed to nuclear power, including the green party Les Verts , since its planning and construction. A national network called Sortir du nucléaire

8200-412: The year, the capacity factor is typically computed on an annual basis. The amount of available sunlight is mostly determined by the latitude of the installation and the local cloud cover. The actual production is also influenced by local factors such as dust and ambient temperature, which ideally should be low. As for any power station, the maximum possible power production is the nameplate capacity times

8300-493: Was 1.20 GW , though year to year its availability was from zero to 33%. As time passed, problems developed from another source: the liquid sodium cooling system suffered from corrosion and leaks. These problems were eventually fixed and in December 1996 the power reached 90% of the nominal power. In December 1990 structural damage occurred to the turbine hall , following heavy snowfall . Power production did not resume until

8400-813: Was active in the UNEF students' union, protesting against the war in Algeria (1954–1962). He completed his military service as an officer in charge of armoured training in Trier, Germany. Throughout his career his public image was, "dour, grumpy, rather cold, prone to temper and exasperation ('austere')." After his graduation from the ENA in 1965, Jospin entered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as secretary of Foreign Affairs. He became in charge of economic cooperation there, and worked with Ernest-Antoine Seillière , future leader of

8500-610: Was appointed to the Constitutional Council by National Assembly President Claude Bartolone . Lionel Robert Jospin was born to a Protestant family in Meudon , Seine (nowadays Hauts-de-Seine ), a suburb of Paris, and is the son of Mireille Dandieu Aliette and Robert Jospin. He attended the Lycée Janson-de-Sailly before studying at Sciences Po and the École nationale d'administration (ÉNA). He

8600-601: Was carried out over an "excessively short" period from 9 October to 8 November 1974. This led to almost immediate opposition. In November, a group of 80 physicists from the Lyon Physics Institute wrote an open letter about the risks of breeder technology, and in February 1975, about 400 scientists signed their name to an expanded letter. On the other side of the argument, Andre Giraud, head of French Nuclear Commission (CEA), stated that they should carry on with

8700-531: Was carried out, together with a number of progressive educational reforms. These included the re-launching of the Educational Priority Zones, the establishment of the "Tourism And The Handicapped" ("Tourisme et handicap") programme, the implementation of language instruction as a priority in primary schools, the establishment of the "Plan Handiscole" for the education of disabled children and adolescents and their integration into life at school,

8800-481: Was elected president of France in 1981. When President Mitterrand decided, in 1982–83, to change his economic policy to give priority to the struggle against inflation and for a hard currency, Jospin justified his choice. After Laurent Fabius was chosen as prime minister in 1984, a rivalry between these two political heirs of Mitterrand broke out when they competed for the leadership of the 1986 legislative campaign . In 1988, after Mitterrand's reelection , Jospin left

8900-405: Was established, which created marginal capital coverage and was designed to protect pension levels from financial-market risks. Spending on education increased by 19% from 1997 to 2002, while spending on labour increased by 13% over that period. Social contributions for low-income workers were reduced, and a 5% increase in the RMI was carried out. A reform of women's rights and anonymous childbirth

9000-402: Was forbidden to do so. Technical problems were solved over time and, by 1996, the plant had reached an availability of 95%. The plant was powered down in December 1996 for maintenance, and while it was closed it was subject to court challenges that prevented its restart. In June 1997, the newly appointed Prime Minister, Lionel Jospin , announced that Superphénix would be closed permanently; this

9100-459: Was formed, bringing together hundreds of organisations: local committees, ecological associations, citizen movements and parties. Power production was halted in December 1996 for maintenance. However, following a court case led by opponents of the reactor, on February 28, 1997, the Conseil d'État (Supreme State Administrative Court) ruled that a 1994 decree, authorizing the restart of Superphénix,

9200-526: Was introduced in 2002, similar to tax credits in the UK and US, providing a state subsidy to low-wage earners. Within a few years, eight million people had benefited from this scheme. Funds were provided for the renovation of public housing, while company pension savings plans were extended to cover small and medium enterprises. The Jospin government also made it possible for SMEs to jointly establish this kind of fund. A state-supervised reserve fund for old-age insurance

9300-630: Was introduced. This legislation removed the ban on night work for women, and introduced new regulations for this type of work, with covered all employees. A social security funding law for 2002 was passed which, amongst other measures, provided a general rise in pensions and increased paternity leave (from 3 to 11 days). Some structural barriers to employment were removed by making it easier to combine income from work with income from social transfers. Capital incomes were taxed more heavily, while various measures were introduced which benefited lower social strata and improved their purchasing power. Employees were

9400-493: Was invalid. In June 1997, one of the first actions of Lionel Jospin on becoming prime minister was to announce the closure of the plant because of its excessive costs. A 1996 report by the French Accounting Office (Cour des Comptes) acknowledge low availability factors (below 10%) but also noticed improvements in 1996 and evaluated that availability above 46% would have made economically convenient to keep

9500-432: Was launched against violence and racketeering, accompanied by the implementation of an "SOS Violence" telephone number. Various programmes for transportation were introduced, both mass and individual. An improved housing allowance was introduced, together with longer fixed contracts. A law passed in July 2000 on the organization and promotion of physical and sports activities emphasised the obligation to take into account

9600-401: Was made official by ministerial decree in December 1998. France had considered the problem of plutonium production just after the end of World War II . At the time, the conventional solution to this problem was to use a graphite moderated air or water cooled reactor fueled with natural uranium . Such designs have little economic value in terms of power production, but are simple solutions to

9700-423: Was not appointed to any embassy. In 1995, Jospin claimed a necessity to "take stock" of the mitterrandist inheritance so as to restore the credibility of the Socialist Party. He was selected as the Socialist candidate for president against the PS leader Henri Emmanuelli . In the run-up to the election, Jospin made various policy proposals, such as a programme for the environment, an extension of social services,

9800-493: Was passed in November that same year which safeguarded employees from all forms of discrimination affecting training, such as access to recruitment procedures or in-company training. The 'social modernisation' bill included work-related provisions such as measures to combat 'moral harassment' (bullying) at work, measures to combat precarious employment (through restrictions on fixed-term contracts), and improved accreditation of vocational skills and experience. The law also contained

9900-484: Was passed which aimed at adding an 'ethical' aspect to financial practices, "clarifying competition rules, improving social dialogue and enforcing the rights of consumers." In terms of industrial relations, the new law strengthened (to some extent) the powers of works councils in takeovers, mergers and proposed share exchanges. The Social and Medical Action Act, introduced in January 2002, provided additional protection for

10000-539: Was run by the consortium NERSA , 51% owned by EDF , 33% by ENEL and 16% by SBK (Schnell Brüter Kernkraftwerksgesellschaft). The construction evoked much public protest. For example, a march by 60,000 protestors, which included the Anarchist group Fédération Anarchiste , resulted in the protestors' use of molotov cocktails . This July 1977 protest was finally broken up by the CRS with the death of Vital Michalon and over

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