A subscript or superscript is a character (such as a number or letter) that is set slightly below or above the normal line of type, respectively. It is usually smaller than the rest of the text. Subscripts appear at or below the baseline , while superscripts are above. Subscripts and superscripts are perhaps most often used in formulas , mathematical expressions , and specifications of chemical compounds and isotopes , but have many other uses as well.
135-608: In professional typography , subscript and superscript characters are not simply ordinary characters reduced in size; to keep them visually consistent with the rest of the font, typeface designers make them slightly heavier (i.e. medium or bold typography) than a reduced-size character would be. The vertical distance that sub- or superscripted text is moved from the original baseline varies by typeface and by use. In typesetting, such types are traditionally called "superior" and "inferior" letters, figures, etc., or just "superiors" and "inferiors". In English, most nontechnical use of superiors
270-515: A complex fraction , either the numerator, or the denominator, or both, is a fraction or a mixed number, corresponding to division of fractions. For example, 1 / 2 1 / 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1/2}{1/3}}} and ( 12 3 4 ) / 26 {\displaystyle {\bigl (}12{\tfrac {3}{4}}{\bigr )}{\big /}26} are complex fractions. To interpret nested fractions written "stacked" with
405-404: A decimal separator , the appearance of which (e.g., a period, an interpunct (·), a comma) depends on the locale (for examples, see Decimal separator ). Thus, for 0.75 the numerator is 75 and the implied denominator is 10 to the second power, namely, 100, because there are two digits to the right of the decimal separator. In decimal numbers greater than 1 (such as 3.75), the fractional part of
540-487: A subatomic particle . Thus electron, muon, and tau neutrinos are denoted ν e ν μ and ν τ . A particle may be distinguished by multiple subscripts, such as Ω bbb for the triple bottom omega particle. Similarly, subscripts are also used frequently in mathematics to define different versions of the same variable : for example, in an equation x 0 and x f might indicate
675-453: A type designer to create customized typefaces for their exclusive use. Different periodicals design their publications, including their typography, to achieve a particular tone or style. For example, USA Today uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style through their use of a variety of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, and the newspaper's name is placed on a colored background. In contrast, The New York Times uses
810-470: A basic example, two entire cakes and three quarters of another cake might be written as 2 3 4 {\displaystyle 2{\tfrac {3}{4}}} cakes or 2 3 / 4 {\displaystyle 2\ \,3/4} cakes, with the numeral 2 {\displaystyle 2} representing the whole cakes and the fraction 3 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{4}}} representing
945-415: A body of text can instantaneously reveal the mood the author intends to convey to its readers. The message that a body of text conveys has a direct relationship with the typeface that is chosen. Therefore, when a person focuses on typography and setting type, they must pay very close attention to the typeface they choose. Choosing the correct typeface for a body of text can only be done after thoroughly reading
1080-430: A cake into four pieces; two of the pieces together ( 2 / 4 ) make up half the cake ( 1 / 2 ). Dividing the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same non-zero number yields an equivalent fraction: if the numerator and the denominator of a fraction are both divisible by a number (called a factor) greater than 1, then the fraction can be reduced to an equivalent fraction with
1215-480: A common fraction. In Unicode, precomposed fraction characters are in the Number Forms block. Common fractions can be classified as either proper or improper. When the numerator and the denominator are both positive, the fraction is called proper if the numerator is less than the denominator, and improper otherwise. The concept of an "improper fraction" is a late development, with the terminology deriving from
1350-677: A full set of letters, numerals, and punctuation. They can be available via activating subs or sups feature tag. These feature tags can be turned on if software environment support optional features. In addition, some other typefaces placed them in a Unicode Private Use Area . Typography This is an accepted version of this page Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible , readable and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces , point sizes , line lengths , line spacing , letter spacing , and spaces between pairs of letters . The term typography
1485-778: A full set of superscript and subscript digits. Owing to the popularity of using these characters to make fractions, most modern fonts render most or all of these as cap height superscripts and baseline subscripts. The same font may align letters and numbers in different ways. Other than numbers, the set of super- and subscript letters and other symbols is incomplete and somewhat random, and many fonts do not contain them. Because of these inconsistencies, these glyphs may not be suitable for some purposes (see Uses , above). Several advanced features of OpenType typefaces are supported for professionally designed subscript and superscript glyphs. Exactly which glyphs are included varies by typeface; some have only basic support for numerals, while others contain
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#17327986578591620-841: A horizontal fraction bars, treat shorter bars as nested inside longer bars. Complex fractions can be simplified using multiplication by the reciprocal, as described below at § Division . For example: A complex fraction should never be written without an obvious marker showing which fraction is nested inside the other, as such expressions are ambiguous. For example, the expression 5 / 10 / 20 {\displaystyle 5/10/20} could be plausibly interpreted as either 5 10 / 20 = 1 40 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {5}{10}}{\big /}20={\tfrac {1}{40}}} or as 5 / 10 20 = 10. {\displaystyle 5{\big /}{\tfrac {10}{20}}=10.} The meaning can be made explicit by writing
1755-405: A key difference. Much of the legibility research literature is atheoretical—various factors were tested individually or in combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests lacked a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall word shape ( Bouma ) is essential in readability and that the theory of parallel letter recognition
1890-427: A line (or before a slash like 1 ⁄ 2 ), and a non-zero integer denominator , displayed below (or after) that line. If these integers are positive, then the numerator represents a number of equal parts, and the denominator indicates how many of those parts make up a unit or a whole. For example, in the fraction 3 / 4 , the numerator 3 indicates that the fraction represents 3 equal parts, and
2025-451: A minimum of distractions and anomalies, aims to produce clarity and transparency. Choice of typefaces is the primary aspect of text typography— prose fiction , non-fiction , editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual, and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and requirements of appropriate typefaces (and their fonts or styles). For historic material, established text typefaces frequently are chosen according to
2160-410: A more traditional approach, with fewer colors, less typeface variation, and more columns . Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines often are set in larger display typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead . Typography utilized to characterize text: Typography is intended to reveal the character of the text. Through the use of typography,
2295-418: A number of "fifths".) Exceptions include the denominator 2, which is always read "half" or "halves", the denominator 4, which may be alternatively expressed as "quarter"/"quarters" or as "fourth"/"fourths", and the denominator 100, which may be alternatively expressed as "hundredth"/"hundredths" or " percent ". When the denominator is 1, it may be expressed in terms of "wholes" but is more commonly ignored, with
2430-405: A person randomly chose one car on the lot, then there is a one in three chance or probability that it would be yellow. A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator is not given explicitly, but is understood to be an integer power of ten. Decimal fractions are commonly expressed using decimal notation in which the implied denominator is determined by the number of digits to the right of
2565-409: A piece of type bearing a complete fraction (e.g. 1 / 2 ) was known as a "case fraction", while those representing only part of fraction were called "piece fractions". The denominators of English fractions are generally expressed as ordinal numbers , in the plural if the numerator is not 1. (For example, 2 / 5 and 3 / 5 are both read as
2700-412: A product. Legibility describes how easily individual characters can be distinguished from one another. It is described by Walter Tracy as "the quality of being decipherable and recognisable". For instance, if a b and an h , or a 3 and an 8 , are difficult to distinguish at small sizes, this is a problem of legibility. Typographers are concerned with legibility insofar as it is their job to select
2835-423: A scheme of historical genre acquired by a long process of accretion, with considerable overlap among historical periods. Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art "text romans" or "book romans" typefaces with serifs and design values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based on traditional models such as those of Nicolas Jenson , Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created
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#17327986578592970-656: A similar convention, such as 1 or 2 in French, or 4ª and 4º in Galician and Italian, or 4.ª and 4.º in Portuguese and Spanish. In medieval manuscripts, many superscript as well as subscript signs were used to abbreviate text. From these developed modern diacritical marks ( glyphs , or "accents" placed above or below the letter). Also, in early Middle High German , umlauts and other modifications to pronunciation would be indicated by superscript letters placed directly above
3105-436: A smaller numerator and a smaller denominator. For example, if both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction a b {\displaystyle {\tfrac {a}{b}}} are divisible by c {\displaystyle c} , then they can be written as a = c d {\displaystyle a=cd} , b = c e {\displaystyle b=ce} , and
3240-534: A sum of unit fractions in infinitely many ways. Two ways to write 13 17 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {13}{17}}} are 1 2 + 1 4 + 1 68 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}+{\tfrac {1}{4}}+{\tfrac {1}{68}}} and 1 3 + 1 4 + 1 6 + 1 68 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{3}}+{\tfrac {1}{4}}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}+{\tfrac {1}{68}}} . In
3375-416: A wide variety of situations, including: Since digitization, typographical uses have spread to a wider range of applications, appearing on web pages, LCDs mobile phone screens, and hand-held video games. Traditionally, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying block of type that works invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset material, with
3510-432: Is in lowest terms—the only positive integer that goes into both 3 and 8 evenly is 1. Using these rules, we can show that 5 / 10 = 1 / 2 = 10 / 20 = 50 / 100 , for example. As another example, since the greatest common divisor of 63 and 462 is 21, the fraction 63 / 462 can be reduced to lowest terms by dividing
3645-402: Is 1, hence the reciprocal is the multiplicative inverse of a fraction. The reciprocal of a proper fraction is improper, and the reciprocal of an improper fraction not equal to 1 (that is, numerator and denominator are not equal) is a proper fraction. When the numerator and denominator of a fraction are equal (for example, 7 / 7 ), its value is 1, and the fraction therefore
3780-403: Is 4 to 2 and may be expressed as 4:2 or 2:1. A ratio is often converted to a fraction when it is expressed as a ratio to the whole. In the above example, the ratio of yellow cars to all the cars on the lot is 4:12 or 1:3. We can convert these ratios to a fraction, and say that 4 / 12 of the cars or 1 / 3 of the cars in the lot are yellow. Therefore, if
3915-407: Is 75/1,000,000. Whether common fractions or decimal fractions are used is often a matter of taste and context. Common fractions are used most often when the denominator is relatively small. By mental calculation , it is easier to multiply 16 by 3/16 than to do the same calculation using the fraction's decimal equivalent (0.1875). And it is more accurate to multiply 15 by 1/3, for example, than it
4050-485: Is a negatively charged chlorine atom, Pb is an atom of lead with a positive charge of four, e is an electron , e is a positron , and μ is an antimuon . Atomic isotopes are written using superscripts. In symbolic form, the number of nucleons is denoted as a superscripted prefix to the chemical symbol (for example He , C , C , I , and U ). The letters m or f may follow
4185-436: Is a relationship between two or more numbers that can be sometimes expressed as a fraction. Typically, a number of items are grouped and compared in a ratio, specifying numerically the relationship between each group. Ratios are expressed as "group 1 to group 2 ... to group n ". For example, if a car lot had 12 vehicles, of which then the ratio of red to white to yellow cars is 6 to 2 to 4. The ratio of yellow cars to white cars
Subscript and superscript - Misplaced Pages Continue
4320-439: Is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography; most typographers do not design typefaces, and some type designers do not consider themselves typographers. Typography also may be used as an ornamental and decorative device, unrelated to the communication of information. Typography
4455-528: Is also the work of graphic designers , art directors , manga artists , comic book artists , and, now, anyone who arranges words, letters, numbers, and symbols for publication, display, or distribution, from clerical workers and newsletter writers to anyone self-publishing materials. Until the Digital Age , typography was a specialized occupation. Personal computers opened up typography to new generations of previously unrelated designers and lay users. As
4590-486: Is archaic. Superior and inferior figures on the baseline are used for fractions and most other purposes, while lowered inferior figures are needed for chemical and mathematical subscripts. A single typeface may contain sub- and superscript glyphs at different positions for different uses. The four most common positions are listed here. Because each position is used in different contexts, not all alphanumerics may be available in all positions. For example, subscript letters on
4725-456: Is customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not. In typesetting, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the typeface, but also by the word spacing, leading , and depth of the margins. Text layout, tone, or color of the set text, and the interplay of text with the white space of
4860-453: Is dependent on the design of the font. Subscripts are used in chemical formulas . For example, the chemical formula for glucose is C 6 H 12 O 6 (meaning that it is a molecule with 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms). The chemical formula of the water molecule, H 2 O, indicates that it contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A subscript is also used to distinguish between different versions of
4995-443: Is improper. Its reciprocal is identical and hence also equal to 1 and improper. Any integer can be written as a fraction with the number one as denominator. For example, 17 can be written as 17 / 1 , where 1 is sometimes referred to as the invisible denominator . Therefore, every fraction or integer, except for zero, has a reciprocal. For example, the reciprocal of 17 is 1 / 17 . A ratio
5130-450: Is more legible, although strong opinions exist. Other topics, such as justified vs. unjustified type, use of hyphens, and proper typefaces for people with reading difficulties such as dyslexia , continue to be debated. Legibility is usually measured through the speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for effectiveness (that is, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker , who published numerous studies from
5265-419: Is not built-in, but requires the fixltx2e package). As in other systems, when using UTF-8 encoding, the masculine º and feminine ª ordinal indicators can be used as characters, with no need to use a command. In line with its origin as a superscript circle, the degree symbol (°) is composed by a superscript circle operator (∘). ^{\circ} . Superscripts and subscripts of arbitrary height can be done with
5400-475: Is of the type named "fifth". In terms of division , the numerator corresponds to the dividend , and the denominator corresponds to the divisor . Informally, the numerator and denominator may be distinguished by placement alone, but in formal contexts they are usually separated by a fraction bar . The fraction bar may be horizontal (as in 1 / 3 ), oblique (as in 2/5), or diagonal (as in 4 ⁄ 9 ). These marks are respectively known as
5535-428: Is often omitted by renderers is the control of the direction of movement for superscripts and subscripts, when they do not lie on the baseline. Ideally this should allow for the font, e.g. italics are slanting; most renderers adjust the position only vertically and do not also shift it horizontally. This may create a collision with surrounding letters in the same italic font size. One can see an example of such collision on
Subscript and superscript - Misplaced Pages Continue
5670-407: Is often used to draw attention to a particular advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes, and images. In the early twenty-first century, typography in advertising often reflects a company's brand . A brand may use typography to express its theme, personality, and message. Just by looking at the typeface, viewers can get an idea about the message and personality of the brand, which
5805-465: Is the fraction 2 / 5 and "two fifths" is the same fraction understood as 2 instances of 1 / 5 .) Fractions should always be hyphenated when used as adjectives. Alternatively, a fraction may be described by reading it out as the numerator "over" the denominator, with the denominator expressed as a cardinal number . (For example, 3 / 1 may also be expressed as "three over one".) The term "over"
5940-461: Is the same as multiplying by one, and any number multiplied by one has the same value as the original number. By way of an example, start with the fraction 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} . When the numerator and denominator are both multiplied by 2, the result is 2 / 4 , which has the same value (0.5) as 1 / 2 . To picture this visually, imagine cutting
6075-506: Is to find a common denominator. To compare a b {\displaystyle {\tfrac {a}{b}}} and c d {\displaystyle {\tfrac {c}{d}}} , these are converted to a ⋅ d b ⋅ d {\displaystyle {\tfrac {a\cdot d}{b\cdot d}}} and b ⋅ c b ⋅ d {\displaystyle {\tfrac {b\cdot c}{b\cdot d}}} (where
6210-446: Is to multiply 15 by any decimal approximation of one third. Monetary values are commonly expressed as decimal fractions with denominator 100, i.e., with two decimals, for example $ 3.75. However, as noted above, in pre-decimal British currency, shillings and pence were often given the form (but not the meaning) of a fraction, as, for example, "3/6" (read "three and six") meaning 3 shillings and 6 pence, and having no relationship to
6345-633: Is used as a synonym for the other. (For example, the compound fraction 3 4 × 5 7 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{4}}\times {\tfrac {5}{7}}} is equivalent to the complex fraction 3 / 4 7 / 5 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3/4}{7/5}}} .) Nevertheless, "complex fraction" and "compound fraction" may both be considered outdated and now used in no well-defined manner, partly even taken synonymously for each other or for mixed numerals. They have lost their meaning as technical terms and
6480-426: Is used even in the case of solidus fractions, where the numbers are placed left and right of a slash mark . (For example, 1/2 may be read "one-half", "one half", or "one over two".) Fractions with large denominators that are not powers of ten are often rendered in this fashion (e.g., 1 / 117 as "one over one hundred seventeen"), while those with denominators divisible by ten are typically read in
6615-441: Is wrong, less important, or not the entire picture. Word shape differs by outline, influenced by ascending and descending elements of lowercase letters and enables reading the entire word without having to parse out each letter. Readability also may be compromised by letter-spacing , word spacing, or leading that is too tight or too loose. It may be improved when generous vertical space separates text lines, making it easier for
6750-399: The \raisebox{<dimen>}{<text>} command: the first argument is the amount to raise, and the second is the text; a negative first argument will lower the text. In this case the text is not resized automatically, so a sizing command can be included, e.g. go\raisebox{1ex}{\large home} . Unicode defines subscript and superscript characters in several areas; in particular, it has
6885-793: The Mesopotamian cities of Uruk and Larsa , dating from the second millennium B.C. , may be evidence of type, wherein the reuse of identical characters was applied to create cuneiform text. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay. Typography was also implemented in the Phaistos Disc , an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete , which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B.C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, but German typographer Herbert Brekle recently dismissed this view. The essential criterion of type identity
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#17327986578597020-468: The rational fraction 1 x {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {1}{x}}} ). In a fraction, the number of equal parts being described is the numerator (from Latin : numerātor , "counter" or "numberer"), and the type or variety of the parts is the denominator (from Latin : dēnōminātor , "thing that names or designates"). As an example, the fraction 8 / 5 amounts to eight parts, each of which
7155-508: The underscore , while superscripts are made with the caret . Thus $ X_{ab}$ produces X a b {\displaystyle X_{ab}} , and $ X^{ab}$ produces X a b {\displaystyle X^{ab}} . In LaTeX text mode the math method above is inappropriate, as letters will be in math italic, so the command n\textsuperscript{th} will give n and A\textsubscript{base} will give A base (textual sub scripts are rare, so \textsubscript
7290-488: The 1930s to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants to spot incongruous words as an effectiveness filter. The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe and Linda Reynolds did important work in this area. It was one of the centers that revealed the importance of the saccadic rhythm of eye movement for readability—in particular,
7425-468: The 1990s. His work caused an uproar in the design community due to his abandonment of standard practices in typeface selection, layout, and design. Experimental typography is said to place emphasis on expressing emotion, rather than having a concern for legibility while communicating ideas, hence considered bordering on being art. There are many facets to the expressive use of typography, and with those come many different techniques to help with visual aid and
7560-407: The ability to take in (i.e., recognise the meaning of groups of) about three words at once and the physiognomy of the eye, which means the eye tires if the line required more than three or four of these saccadic jumps. More than this is found to introduce strain and errors in reading (e.g., doubling). The use of all-caps renders words indistinguishable as groups, all letters presenting a uniform line to
7695-431: The absolute value of the fraction is greater than or equal to 1. Examples of proper fractions are 2/3, −3/4, and 4/9, whereas examples of improper fractions are 9/4, −4/3, and 3/3. The reciprocal of a fraction is another fraction with the numerator and denominator exchanged. The reciprocal of 3 / 7 , for instance, is 7 / 3 . The product of a non-zero fraction and its reciprocal
7830-744: The additional partial cake juxtaposed; this is more concise than the more explicit notation 2 + 3 4 {\displaystyle 2+{\tfrac {3}{4}}} cakes. The mixed number 2 + 3 / 4 is pronounced "two and three quarters", with the integer and fraction portions connected by the word and . Subtraction or negation is applied to the entire mixed numeral, so − 2 3 4 {\displaystyle -2{\tfrac {3}{4}}} means − ( 2 + 3 4 ) . {\displaystyle -{\bigl (}2+{\tfrac {3}{4}}{\bigr )}.} Any mixed number can be converted to an improper fraction by applying
7965-428: The attributes "complex" and "compound" tend to be used in their every day meaning of "consisting of parts". Like whole numbers, fractions obey the commutative , associative , and distributive laws, and the rule against division by zero . Mixed-number arithmetic can be performed either by converting each mixed number to an improper fraction, or by treating each as a sum of integer and fractional parts. Multiplying
8100-406: The baseline are also used for the denominators of stacked fractions , like this: 67 / 68 . The only common use of these subscripts is for the denominators of diagonal fractions, like ½ or the signs for percent %, permille ‰, and basis point ‱. Certain standard abbreviations are also composed as diagonal fractions, such as ℅ (care of), ℀ (account of), ℁ (addressed to
8235-429: The baseline are quite rare, and many typefaces provide only a limited number of superscripted letters. Despite these differences, all reduced-size glyphs go by the same generic terms subscript and superscript , which are synonymous with the terms inferior letter (or number ) and superior letter (or number ), respectively. Most fonts that contain superscript/subscript will have predetermined size and orientation that
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#17327986578598370-548: The basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that have been condensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted. However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through poor setting and placement, just as a less legible typeface can be made more readable through good design. Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range of factors including type size and type design, comparing serif vs. sans-serif type, roman type vs. oblique type and italic type , line length , line spacing, color contrast,
8505-448: The brands are fully aware of and are tapping into the power of good typography. Typefaces used in advertisements convey different messages to the reader: classical ones are for a strong personality, while more modern ones may convey clean, neutral look. Bold typefaces are used for making statements and attracting attention. In any design, a balance has to be achieved between the visual impact and communication aspects. Digital technology in
8640-455: The bulk of a title has a more unfamiliar or unusual font, simpler sans-serif fonts will help complement the title while attracting more attention to the piece as a whole. In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography include a broad range, covering all aspects of letter design and application, both mechanical ( typesetting , type design , and typefaces) and manual ( handwriting and calligraphy ). Typographical elements may appear in
8775-522: The capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. The word typography in English derives from the Greek roots týpos 'type' + -graphía 'writing'. Although typically applied to printed, published, broadcast, and reproduced materials in contemporary times, all words, letters, symbols, and numbers written alongside
8910-477: The computer industry, leading to common misuse by the public of the term font when typeface is the proper term. "Experimental typography" is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to typeface selection. Francis Picabia was a Dada pioneer of this practice in the early twentieth century. David Carson is often associated with this movement, particularly for his work in Ray Gun magazine in
9045-1037: The convention that juxtaposition in algebraic expressions means multiplication. An Egyptian fraction is the sum of distinct positive unit fractions, for example 1 2 + 1 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}+{\tfrac {1}{3}}} . This definition derives from the fact that the ancient Egyptians expressed all fractions except 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} , 2 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{3}}} and 3 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{4}}} in this manner. Every positive rational number can be expanded as an Egyptian fraction. For example, 5 7 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {5}{7}}} can be written as 1 2 + 1 6 + 1 21 . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}+{\tfrac {1}{21}}.} Any positive rational number can be written as
9180-744: The correct font to use. Brush script is an example of a font containing many characters that might be difficult to distinguish. The selection of cases influences the legibility of typography because using only uppercase letters (all-caps) reduces legibility. Readability refers to how easy it is to read the text as a whole, as opposed to the individual character recognition described by legibility. Use of margins, word and line spacing, and clear document structure all impact readability. Some fonts or font styles, for instance sans-serif fonts, are considered to have low readability and so are unsuited for large quantities of prose. Legibility "refers to perception" (being able to see as determined by physical limitations of
9315-415: The decimal point 7 places to the left. Decimal fractions with infinitely many digits to the right of the decimal separator represent an infinite series . For example, 1 / 3 = 0.333... represents the infinite series 3/10 + 3/100 + 3/1000 + .... Another kind of fraction is the percentage (from Latin : per centum , meaning "per hundred", represented by the symbol %), in which
9450-525: The decimalized metric system . However, scientific measurements typically use the metric system, which is based on decimal fractions, and starting from the secondary school level, mathematics pedagogy treats every fraction uniformly as a rational number , the quotient p / q of integers, leaving behind the concepts of "improper fraction" and "mixed number". College students with years of mathematical training are sometimes confused when re-encountering mixed numbers because they are used to
9585-555: The denominator ( b ) cannot be zero. Examples include 1 / 2 , − 8 / 5 , −8 / 5 , and 8 / −5 . The term was originally used to distinguish this type of fraction from the sexagesimal fraction used in astronomy. Common fractions can be positive or negative, and they can be proper or improper (see below). Compound fractions, complex fractions, mixed numerals, and decimals (see below) are not common fractions ; though, unless irrational, they can be evaluated to
9720-427: The denominator 4 indicates that 4 parts make up a whole. The picture to the right illustrates 3 / 4 of a cake. Fractions can be used to represent ratios and division . Thus the fraction 3 / 4 can be used to represent the ratio 3:4 (the ratio of the part to the whole), and the division 3 ÷ 4 (three divided by four). We can also write negative fractions, which represent
9855-626: The design of right-hand edge (for example, justification , straight right hand edge) vs. ragged right, and whether text is hyphenated . Justified copy must be adjusted tightly during typesetting to prevent loss of readability, something beyond the capabilities of typical personal computers. Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there often are commonalities and agreement on many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and variation of opinion. For example, Alex Poole asserts that no one has conclusively answered which typeface style, serif or sans serif,
9990-431: The details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its emotional effect in conveying the tone and nature of subject matter. Display typography encompasses: Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising . Designers often use typefaces to set a theme and mood in an advertisement (for example, using bold, large text to convey a particular message to the reader). Choice of typeface
10125-497: The development of typesetting systems. Although typography has evolved significantly from its origins, it is a largely conservative art that tends to cleave closely to tradition. This is because legibility is paramount, and so the typefaces that are the most readable usually are retained. In addition, the evolution of typography is inextricably intertwined with lettering by hand and related art forms, especially formal styles, which thrived for centuries preceding typography, and so
10260-850: The direction of slanting, so there is no general solution except when the renderer takes into account the font metrics properties that specifies the angle of slanting, However the same problem occurs more generally between spans of normal glyphs (non-superscript and non-subscript) when slanting styles are mixed. Many text editing and word processing programs have automatic subscripting and superscripting features, although these programs usually simply use ordinary characters reduced in size and moved up or down – rather than separately designed subscript or superscript glyphs. Professional typesetting programs such as QuarkXPress or Adobe InDesign also have similar features for automatically converting regular type to subscript or superscript. These programs, however, may also offer native OpenType support for
10395-621: The dot signifies multiplication and is an alternative symbol to ×). Then bd is a common denominator and the numerators ad and bc can be compared. It is not necessary to determine the value of the common denominator to compare fractions – one can just compare ad and bc , without evaluating bd , e.g., comparing 2 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{3}}} ? 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} gives 4 6 > 3 6 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {4}{6}}>{\tfrac {3}{6}}} . For
10530-408: The earliest naturalistic drawings by humans may be called typography. The word, typography , is derived from the Greek words τύπος typos 'form' or "impression" and γράφειν graphein 'to write', traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to make seals and currency in ancient times , which ties the concept to printing. The uneven spacing of the impressions on brick stamps found in
10665-491: The end of the twentieth century was to pair a sans-serif typeface for headings with a high-performance serif typeface of matching style for the text of an article. Typesetting conventions are modulated by orthography and linguistics , word structures, word frequencies, morphology , phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax . Typesetting conventions also are subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in French it
10800-428: The evolution of typography must be discussed with reference to this relationship. In the nascent stages of European printing , the typeface ( blackletter , or Gothic) was designed in imitation of the popular hand-lettering styles of scribes . Initially, this typeface was difficult to read, because each letter was set in place individually and made to fit tightly into the allocated space. The art of manuscript writing,
10935-464: The eye to distinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly designed typefaces and those that are too tightly or loosely fitted also may be less legible. Underlining also may reduce readability by eliminating the recognition effect contributed by the descending elements of letters. Periodical publications, especially newspapers and magazines, use typographical elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers in navigating
11070-435: The eye), and readability "refers to comprehension" (understanding the meaning). Good typographers and graphic designers aim to achieve excellence in both. "The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read without effort. Sometimes legibility is simply a matter of type size; more often, however, it is a matter of typeface design. Case selection always influences legibility. In general, typefaces that are true to
11205-425: The eye, requiring special effort for separation and understanding. Currently , legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues or the testing of specific design solutions (for example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues include typefaces for people with visual impairment , typefaces and case selection for highway and street signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make
11340-434: The fact that "fraction" means "a piece", so a proper fraction must be less than 1. This was explained in the 17th century textbook The Ground of Arts . In general, a common fraction is said to be a proper fraction , if the absolute value of the fraction is strictly less than one—that is, if the fraction is greater than −1 and less than 1. It is said to be an improper fraction , or sometimes top-heavy fraction , if
11475-408: The fraction 3/6. A mixed number (also called a mixed fraction or mixed numeral ) is the sum of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction, conventionally written by juxtaposition (or concatenation ) of the two parts, without the use of an intermediate plus (+) or minus (−) sign. When the fraction is written horizontally, a space is added between the integer and fraction to separate them. As
11610-399: The fraction becomes cd / ce , which can be reduced by dividing both the numerator and denominator by c to give the reduced fraction d / e . If one takes for c the greatest common divisor of the numerator and the denominator, one gets the equivalent fraction whose numerator and denominator have the lowest absolute values . One says that
11745-504: The fraction has been reduced to its lowest terms . If the numerator and the denominator do not share any factor greater than 1, the fraction is already reduced to its lowest terms, and it is said to be irreducible , reduced , or in simplest terms . For example, 3 9 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{9}}} is not in lowest terms because both 3 and 9 can be exactly divided by 3. In contrast, 3 8 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{8}}}
11880-405: The fractions using distinct separators or by adding explicit parentheses, in this instance ( 5 / 10 ) / 20 {\displaystyle (5/10){\big /}20} or 5 / ( 10 / 20 ) . {\displaystyle 5{\big /}(10/20).} A compound fraction is a fraction of a fraction, or any number of fractions connected with
12015-486: The graphic design. Spacing and kerning, size-specific spacing, x-height and vertical proportions, character variation, width, weight, and contrast, are several techniques that are necessary to be taken into consideration when thinking about the appropriateness of specific typefaces or creating them. When placing two or more differing and/or contrasting fonts together, these techniques come into play for organizational strategies and demanding attractive qualities. For example, if
12150-445: The horizontal bar; the virgule, slash ( US ), or stroke ( UK ); and the fraction bar, solidus, or fraction slash . In typography , fractions stacked vertically are also known as " en " or " nut fractions", and diagonal ones as " em " or "mutton fractions", based on whether a fraction with a single-digit numerator and denominator occupies the proportion of a narrow en square, or a wider em square. In traditional typefounding ,
12285-400: The implied denominator is always 100. Thus, 51% means 51/100. Percentages greater than 100 or less than zero are treated in the same way, e.g. 311% equals 311/100, and −27% equals −27/100. The related concept of permille or parts per thousand (ppt) has an implied denominator of 1000, while the more general parts-per notation , as in 75 parts per million (ppm), means that the proportion
12420-412: The initial and final value of x , while v rocket and v observer would stand for the velocities of a rocket and an observer. Commonly, variables with a zero in the subscript are referred to as the variable name followed by " nought " (e.g. v 0 would be read, "v-nought"). Subscripts are often used to refer to members of a mathematical sequence or set or elements of a vector. For example, in
12555-557: The letter they modified. Thus the modern umlaut ü was written as uͤ. Both vowels and consonants were used in this way, as in ſheͨzze and boͮsen. In modern typefaces, these letters are usually smaller than other superscripts, and their baseline is slightly above the base font's midline, making them extend no higher than a typical ordinal indicator. Superscripts are used for the standard abbreviations for service mark (℠) and trademark (™). The signs for copyright © and registered trademark ® are also sometimes superscripted, depending on
12690-458: The model for Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond . With their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly fitted styles of text typefaces with serifs specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability, legibility, and efficient use of page space. Sans serif text typefaces (without serifs) often are used for introductory paragraphs, incidental text, and whole short articles. A fashion at
12825-502: The more commonly used Gothic (blackletter). Roman typeface also was based on hand-lettering styles. The development of Roman typeface can be traced back to Greek lapidary letters. Greek lapidary letters were carved into stone and "one of the first formal uses of Western letterforms "; after that, Roman lapidary letterforms evolved into the monumental capitals, which laid the foundation for Western typographical design, especially serif typefaces. There are two styles of Roman typefaces:
12960-616: The more laborious question 5 18 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {5}{18}}} ? 4 17 , {\displaystyle {\tfrac {4}{17}},} multiply top and bottom of each fraction by the denominator of the other fraction, to get a common denominator, yielding 5 × 17 18 × 17 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {5\times 17}{18\times 17}}} ? 18 × 4 18 × 17 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {18\times 4}{18\times 17}}} . It
13095-452: The normal ordinal fashion (e.g., 6 / 1000000 as "six-millionths", "six millionths", or "six one-millionths"). A simple fraction (also known as a common fraction or vulgar fraction , where vulgar is Latin for "common") is a rational number written as a / b or a b {\displaystyle {\tfrac {a}{b}}} , where a and b are both integers . As with other fractions,
13230-440: The number is expressed by the digits to the right of the decimal (with a value of 0.75 in this case). 3.75 can be written either as an improper fraction, 375/100, or as a mixed number, 3 + 75 / 100 . Decimal fractions can also be expressed using scientific notation with negative exponents, such as 6.023 × 10 , which represents 0.0000006023. The 10 represents a denominator of 10 . Dividing by 10 moves
13365-740: The number to indicate metastable or fission isomers , as in Co or Pu . Subscripts and superscripts can also be used together to give more specific information about nuclides . For example, 92 U denotes an atom of uranium with 235 nucleons, 92 of which are protons . A chemical symbol can be completely surrounded: 6 C 2 is a divalent cation of carbon with 14 nucleons, of which six are protons and 8 are neutrons , and there are two atoms in this chemical compound. The numerators of stacked fractions (such as 34 / 35 ) usually use high-set superscripts, although some specially designed glyphs keep
13500-402: The numerator and denominator by 21: The Euclidean algorithm gives a method for finding the greatest common divisor of any two integers. Comparing fractions with the same positive denominator yields the same result as comparing the numerators: If the equal denominators are negative, then the opposite result of comparing the numerators holds for the fractions: If two positive fractions have
13635-427: The numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same (non-zero) number results in a fraction that is equivalent to the original fraction. This is true because for any non-zero number n {\displaystyle n} , the fraction n n {\displaystyle {\tfrac {n}{n}}} equals 1. Therefore, multiplying by n n {\displaystyle {\tfrac {n}{n}}}
13770-425: The numerator read out as a whole number. For example, 3 / 1 may be described as "three wholes", or simply as "three". When the numerator is 1, it may be omitted (as in "a tenth" or "each quarter"). The entire fraction may be expressed as a single composition, in which case it is hyphenated, or as a number of fractions with a numerator of one, in which case they are not. (For example, "two-fifths"
13905-411: The old style, and the modern. The former is characterized by its similarly weighted lines, while the latter is distinguished by its contrast of light and heavy lines. Often, these styles are combined. In relation to the international graphics of the 1920s - 1930s, the term "International Typographic Style" is used. In the 1950s - 1960s, such a phenomenon as "Swiss style" was formed in typography. By
14040-410: The opposite of a positive fraction. For example, if 1 / 2 represents a half-dollar profit, then − 1 / 2 represents a half-dollar loss. Because of the rules of division of signed numbers (which states in part that negative divided by positive is negative), − 1 / 2 , −1 / 2 and 1 / −2 all represent
14175-592: The origin of which was during Hellenistic and Roman bookmaking, reached its zenith in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Metal typefaces notably altered the style, making it "crisp and uncompromising", and also brought about "new standards of composition". During the Renaissance period in France, Claude Garamond was partially responsible for the adoption of Roman typeface that eventually supplanted
14310-573: The page in combination with other graphic elements impart a "feel" or "resonance" to the subject matter. With printed media, typographers also are concerned with binding margins, paper selection, and printing methods when determining the correct color of the page. Three fundamental aspects of typography are legibility , readability , and aesthetics . Although in a non-technical sense "legible" and "readable" are often used synonymously, typographically they are separate but related concepts. Legibility and readability tend to support aesthetic aspects of
14445-430: The practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, and for more specific functions. The cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses. The change has been called the "democratization of type" and has given new designers more opportunities to enter the field. The design of typefaces has developed alongside
14580-501: The publication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By formulating a style guide , a publication or periodical standardizes with a relatively small collection of typefaces, each used for specific elements within the publication, and makes consistent use of typefaces, case, type sizes, italic, boldface, colors, and other typographic features such as combining large and small capital letters together. Some publications, such as The Guardian and The Economist , go so far as to commission
14715-591: The remainder divided by the divisor. For example, since 4 goes into 11 twice, with 3 left over, 11 4 = 2 + 3 4 . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {11}{4}}=2+{\tfrac {3}{4}}.} In primary school, teachers often insist that every fractional result should be expressed as a mixed number. Outside school, mixed numbers are commonly used for describing measurements, for instance 2 + 1 / 2 hours or 5 3/16 inches , and remain widespread in daily life and in trades, especially in regions that do not use
14850-589: The right side when rendered in HTML (see the figure on the right). To avoid this, it is often desirable to insert a small positive horizontal margin (or a thin space) (on the left side of the first superscript character), or a negative margin (or a tiny backspace) before a subscript. It is more critical with glyphs from fonts in Oblique styles that are more slanted than those from fonts in Italic style, and some fonts reverse
14985-419: The rules of adding unlike quantities . For example, 2 + 3 4 = 8 4 + 3 4 = 11 4 . {\displaystyle 2+{\tfrac {3}{4}}={\tfrac {8}{4}}+{\tfrac {3}{4}}={\tfrac {11}{4}}.} Conversely, an improper fraction can be converted to a mixed number using division with remainder , with the proper fraction consisting of
15120-425: The same fraction – negative one-half. And because a negative divided by a negative produces a positive, −1 / −2 represents positive one-half. In mathematics a rational number is a number that can be represented by a fraction of the form a / b , where a and b are integers and b is not zero; the set of all rational numbers is commonly represented by
15255-458: The same numerator, then the fraction with the smaller denominator is the larger number. When a whole is divided into equal pieces, if fewer equal pieces are needed to make up the whole, then each piece must be larger. When two positive fractions have the same numerator, they represent the same number of parts, but in the fraction with the smaller denominator, the parts are larger. One way to compare fractions with different numerators and denominators
15390-495: The same period Letraset introduced dry transfer technology that allowed designers to transfer types instantly. The famous Lorem Ipsum gained popularity due to its usage in Letraset . During the mid-1980s personal computers allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software such as Fontographer . Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as
15525-442: The sequence O = (45, −2, 800), O 3 refers to the third member of sequence O , which is 800. Also in mathematics and computing, a subscript can be used to represent the radix , or base, of a written number, especially where multiple bases are used alongside each other. For example, comparing values in hexadecimal , denary , and octal one might write C hex = 12 dec = 14 oct . Subscripted numbers dropped below
15660-620: The special subscript and superscript glyphs included in many professional typeface packages (such as those shown in the image above). In HTML and Wiki syntax , subscript text is produced by putting it inside the tags <sub> and </sub> . Similarly, superscripts are produced with <sup> and </sup> . The exact size and position of the resulting characters will vary by font and browser, but are usually reduced to around 75% original size. In TeX 's mathematics mode (as used in MediaWiki ), subscripts are typeset with
15795-514: The subject), or in Spanish ℆ (cada uno/una, "each one"). These superscripts typically share a baseline with numerator digits, the top of which are aligned with the top of the full-height numerals of the base font; lowercase ascenders may extend above. Ordinal indicators are sometimes written as superscripts (1, 2, 3, 4, rather than 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th), although many English-language style guides recommend against this use. Romance languages use
15930-444: The symbol Q or Q {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } , which stands for quotient . The term fraction and the notation a / b can also be used for mathematical expressions that do not represent a rational number (for example 2 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\sqrt {2}}{2}}} ), and even do not represent any number (for example
16065-669: The text from conveying its message to readers. A study from 2020 found that the participating subjects felt music sounded "more pleasant" when the CD cover featured round typeface. Type may be combined with negative space and images, forming relationships and dialog between the words and images for special effects. Display designs are a potent element in graphic design . Some sign designers exhibit less concern for readability, sacrificing it for an artistic manner. Color and size of type elements may be much more prevalent than in solely text designs. Most display items exploit type at larger sizes, where
16200-423: The text, understanding its context, and understanding what the text is wishing to convey. Once the typographer has an understanding of the text, then they have the responsibility of using the appropriate typeface to honor the writing done by the author of the text. Knowledge required to choose the correct typeface comes with understanding the historical background of typefaces and understanding the reason that typeface
16335-697: The text. In mathematics , high superscripts are used for exponentiation to indicate that one number or variable is raised to the power of another number or variable. Thus y is y raised to the fourth power, 2 is 2 raised to the power of x , and the equation E = mc includes a term for the speed of light squared . This led over time to an " abuse of notation " whereby superscripts indicate iterative function composition , including derivatives . In an unrelated use, superscripts also indicate contravariant tensors in Ricci calculus . The charges of ions and subatomic particles are also denoted by superscripts. Cl
16470-589: The text. Although typography can potentially attract the reader's attention and create a beautiful/attractive piece of text, the craft of typography is not limited to the aesthetic appeal of the text. On the contrary, the object of typography is to make the reading experience practical and useful. Bold colors, multiple typefaces, and colorful backgrounds in a typographic design may be eye-catching; however, it may not be appropriate for all bodies of text and could potentially make text illegible. Overuse of design elements such as colors and typefaces can be unsettling, preventing
16605-407: The title to convey its importance, which directly informs the reader of the structure in which the text is intended to be read, and increases readability from varying distances. Typography utilized to make reading practical: Typography not only must honor the tone of the text but also share the responsibility of making the audience commence reading and sustaining the audience's attention throughout
16740-550: The top of the numerator aligned with the top of the full-height numerals. [REDACTED] This image shows the four common locations for subscripts and superscripts, according to their typical uses. The typeface is Minion Pro, set in Adobe Illustrator. Note that the default superscripting algorithms of most word processors would set the "th" and "lle" too high, and the weight of all the subscript and superscript glyphs would be too light. Another minor adjustment that
16875-719: The twentieth and twenty-first centuries has enabled the creation of typefaces for advertising that are more experimental than traditional typefaces. Numerator A fraction (from Latin : fractus , "broken") represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example, one-half, eight-fifths, three-quarters. A common , vulgar , or simple fraction (examples: 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}} and 17 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {17}{3}}} ) consists of an integer numerator , displayed above
17010-423: The twentieth century, computers turned typeface design into a rather simplified process. This has allowed the number of typefaces and styles to proliferate exponentially, as there now are thousands available. Confusion between typeface and font (the various styles of a single typeface) occurred in 1984 when Steve Jobs mislabeled typefaces as fonts for Apple computers and his error has been perpetuated throughout
17145-418: The typeface or house style. On handwritten documents and signs, a monetary amount may be written with the cents value superscripted, as in $ 8⁰⁰ or 8€⁵⁰. Often the superscripted numbers are underlined: $ 8 ⁰⁰ , 8€ ⁵⁰ . The currency symbol itself may also be superscripted, as in 80 or 6.There is no ruling whether or not these characters need to be supercript, or made smaller than the numbers, or aligned to any of
17280-495: The various guide lines. That of course is decided by the preference of the typographer. Both low and high superscripts can be used to indicate the presence of a footnote in a document, like this or this. Any combination of characters can be used for this purpose; in technical writing footnotes are sometimes composed of letters and numbers together, like this. The choice of low or high alignment depends on taste, but high-set footnotes tend to be more common, as they stand out more from
17415-647: The vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts. This technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible . Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the latter twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as those introduced by IBM (see: IBM Selectric typewriter ). During
17550-661: The word of , corresponding to multiplication of fractions. To reduce a compound fraction to a simple fraction, just carry out the multiplication (see § Multiplication ). For example, 3 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{4}}} of 5 7 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {5}{7}}} is a compound fraction, corresponding to 3 4 × 5 7 = 15 28 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{4}}\times {\tfrac {5}{7}}={\tfrac {15}{28}}} . The terms compound fraction and complex fraction are closely related and sometimes one
17685-529: The words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, which were reasonably widespread in medieval Northern Europe. Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng (990–1051). His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing dynasty . Wang Zhen
17820-452: Was created. For example, if the text is titled "Commercial Real Estate Transactions" and elaborates on the real estate market throughout the body, then the appropriate typeface is a serif typeface, because the author intends to inform his audience on a serious topic and not entertain his audience with an anecdote; a serif typeface would convey a sense of seriousness to the audience instantaneously. The typographer would also employ larger type for
17955-465: Was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the mechanical printing press , is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from a lead -based alloy , suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in
18090-611: Was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II (1195–1204) in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches. Apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries . Other early examples include individual letter tiles where
18225-560: Was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type . Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down and the types could be replaced only by carving new pieces. Metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty , approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD. The diffusion of both movable-type systems
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