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107-545: Suqian was said to be the site of a military grain store built when the Emperor Yuan of Jin reigned. Thus, the former Xiaxiang county where the store located was renamed Suyu ( 宿預 ; means "prepared" or "usually prepared") in 405. Then the county was annexed by Xuzhou and renamed Suqian in 762 because the homophone "yu ( 豫 )" as the given name of the Emperor Daizong of Tang was deemed to be ineffable . The county

214-503: A royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence. Seemingly lowly domestic functions—such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter , or even relaying messages—could, in theory, give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices. Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to

321-489: A chancellor, while making Li Xilie acting military governor. In summer 779, Emperor Daizong grew ill and soon died. Li Kuo succeeded him as emperor (as Emperor Dezong). Consorts and Issue: Eunuch (court official) A eunuch ( / ˈ juː n ə k / YOO -nək ) is a male who has been castrated . Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from

428-448: A desirable commodity for tributes . Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. Court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ± 1.76 years, which was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status. The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China . Records show that

535-463: A living by going uninvited to large ceremonies such as weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away. The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money, with begging typically accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used

642-546: A means of gaining employment in the imperial service. Certain eunuchs, such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He , gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries . Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal. It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants

749-759: A panic and fled. Hearing the news, An Lushan's son and successor An Qingxu , who had become the emperor of Yan, abandoned Luoyang and fled. Once Huige forces entered Luoyang, they went on a rampage. Li Chu had the people gather up a large cache of silk to bribe the Huige prince, and only thereafter did the rampage end. Upon Li Chu's entry into Luoyang, he initially announced that the Tang officials who had surrendered to Yan would be forgiven. However, soon they were rearrested and delivered to Chang'an. Several were executed, while many others were punished by demotion or exile. In winter 757, Li Chu returned to Chang'an with Guo, and

856-400: A particular lover of fine food having "consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese paté like a Lampsacene eunoukhos. " The earliest surviving etymology of the word is from late antiquity . The 5th century (CE) Etymologicon by Orion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word eunuch: first, to tēn eunēn ekhein , "guarding

963-401: A personal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his argument in a different way, saying that the word "originally signified continent men" to whom the care of women was entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because "among foreigners" that role was performed "by those with mutilated bodies". Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first option. In an influential 1925 essay on

1070-423: A preceding example in the life of Muhammad himself, who used the eunuch Mabur as a servant in the house of his own slave concubine Maria al-Qibtiyya ; both of them slaves from Egypt. Eunuchs were for a long time used in relatively small numbers, exclusively inside harems, but the use of eunuchs expanded significantly when eunuchs started being used also for other offices within service and administration outside of

1177-685: A renegade, and when Pugu's mother, who did not follow him to Lingwu, died, he buried her with honors. Around this time, the official Liu Yan headed a project to reopen Bian River ( 汴河 ), a canal that connected the Yellow River and the Huai River , which had been crucial for shipping food supplies from the Yangtze River -Huai River region to Chang'an and Luoyang prior to the Anshi Rebellion but which had become silted during

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1284-433: A serious imperial response, along with the offended warlords. In summer 775, Emperor Daizong announced a campaign against Tian, with Li Zhengji and Li Zhongchen attacking Weibo from the south, and Zhu Tao, Li Baochen, and Xue Jianxun ( 薛兼訓 ) attacking Weibo from the north. Initially, the imperial forces were scoring victories over Weibo forces, but after Tian flattered Li Zhengji in a humble letter, Li Zhengji withdrew from

1391-440: A surprise attack on him, but was unable to kill Zhu, effectively ending any hopes of the campaign against Tian. By 776, Emperor Daizong was forced to pardon Tian and abandon the campaign. Also in 775, Emperor Daizong's favorite concubine Consort Dugu died. He posthumously honored her empress and, saddened greatly by her death, kept her casket in the palace for almost three years, only finally burying her in 778. In 776, after

1498-458: A title that has been translated as Book of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance and also as Book of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes . In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for the tawashiya [eunuchs]:

1605-591: A wide range of men who were seen to be physically unable to procreate . Hippocrates describes the Scythians as being afflicted with high rates of erectile dysfunction and thus "the most eunuchoid of all nations" (Airs Waters Places 22). In the Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary , the term literally used for impotent males is spado but may also be used for eunuchs. Some men have falsified

1712-524: The Buddhist monk Bukong with great honors, including creating him a duke. The temples at Chang'an became very wealthy, and Emperor Daizong further ordered that monks and nuns not be subject to physical punishments. With the emperor and the chancellors all devout Buddhists, Buddhism became the leading influence in the empire. (Traditional historians, such as the Song dynasty historian Sima Guang , ascribed

1819-627: The Prophet's Tomb , maintaining borders between males and females where needed, and keeping order in the sacred spaces. They were highly respected in their time and remained there throughout the Ottoman Empire's control of the area and afterward. In the present day, it is reported that only a few remain. Eunuchs were an active component in the slave market of the Islamic world until the early 20th-century for service in harem as well as in

1926-581: The Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium BCE. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures: courtiers or equivalent domestics , for espionage or clandestine operations , castrato singers, concubines or sexual partners, religious specialists, soldiers, royal guards, government officials, and guardians of women or harem servants. Eunuchs would usually be servants or slaves who had been castrated to make them less threatening servants of

2033-638: The Three Excellencies ) and Zhongshu Ling ( 中書令 ) – the head of the legislative bureau of government (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng ) and a post considered one for a chancellor. Li Fuguo gave a major part of the command responsibilities to Cheng Yuanzhen. Carrying out further retaliation against Xiao Hua, Li Fuguo had Xiao further demoted. Meanwhile, though, Li Fuguo did not expect that both Emperor Daizong and Cheng, who wanted more power, would turn against him. In summer 762, at Cheng's secret suggestion, Emperor Daizong issued an edict that stripped Li Fuguo of

2140-801: The Trans-Saharan slave trade , the Red Sea slave trade or the Indian Ocean slave trade , who served the concubines and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank. The white eunuchs were slaves from the Balkans or the Caucasus , either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay the jizya tax. They served

2247-545: The zimam watched over women, and the muqaddam al-mamalik over adolescent boys. Edmund Andrews of Northwestern University , in an 1898 article called "Oriental Eunuchs" in The American Journal of Medicine , refers to Coptic priests in "Abou Gerhè in Upper Egypt" castrating slave boys. Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by Peter Charles Remondino , in his book History of Circumcision from

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2354-435: The Anshi Rebellion; Emperor Daizong sent many imperial messengers throughout the realm to search for Consort Shen, but was not able to find her. Meanwhile, also in 764, Pugu Huai'en, then at Hezong (河中, in modern Yuncheng , Shanxi ), formally rose against Tang imperial troops, against his mother's advice. An attack against Yuci (榆次, in modern Jinzhong , Shanxi ), commanded by Pugu Huai'en's son Pugu Yang ( 僕固瑒 ), however,

2461-479: The Biansong prefectures he took, Yun Prefecture (鄆州, in modern Tai'an , Shandong ). In 777, Emperor Daizong, tired of Yuan Zai's and Wang Jin's corruption and hold on power, had them arrested. Yuan was executed and Wang was exiled, and they were replaced by Yang Wan and Chang Gun . Emperor Daizong hoped that Yang could lead a reform of the government, but Yang died later that year, leaving Chang in control of

2568-556: The Byzantine Empire, Imperial China, the Ottoman Empire, and various Middle Eastern cultures. They often held significant power and influence in these societies, particularly in royal courts and harems. Eunuch comes from the Ancient Greek word εὐνοῦχος ( eunoûkhos ), first attested in a fragment of Hipponax , the 6th century BCE comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words. The acerbic poet describes

2675-518: The Earliest Times to the Present , published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan , published by

2782-508: The King's court of advisers. Hijra, a Hindi term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call transvestites or transgender women (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third gender ). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the ancient Kama Sutra , which refers to people of a "third sex" ( tritiya-prakriti ). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but

2889-592: The Prince of Guangwu the Emperor of Tang, although they withdrew within the course of a month due to the Tang people's resistance efforts and counterattacks commanded by Guo Ziyi. Emperor Daizong was able to soon return to Chang'an. Still, much territory had fallen into Tibetan hands and Tang forces were not able to counterattack. As the popular sentiment at the time blamed Cheng for the disaster, he stripped Cheng of his posts and sent him back to his home. Soon thereafter,

2996-520: The Prince of Yan. On May 18, Li Yu ascended the throne (as Emperor Daizong). Li Fuguo effectively took over the control of the imperial government, going as far as telling Emperor Daizong: You, Emperor, just remain in the palace. Let this old servant of yours handle what is outside. Emperor Daizong was secretly displeased, but in order to placate Li Fuguo, gave him the title of Shangfu (尚父, meaning, "like father") and ordered that he not be referred to by name. He also made Li Fuguo Sikong (司空, one of

3103-450: The Tang proposal. In winter 762, the joint Tang and Huige forces recaptured Luoyang, forcing Shi Chaoyi to flee. (Shi Chaoyi would eventually commit suicide in spring 763, ending Yan.) In the aftermaths of Yan's destruction, Emperor Daizong contemplated what to do with several Yan generals who had surrendered to Tang but who still retained substantial holdings— Xue Song , Li Huaixian , Zhang Zhongzhi (on whom Emperor Daizong soon bestowed

3210-487: The Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off. The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into

3317-548: The Yan generals An Shouzhong ( 安守忠 ) and Li Guiren ( 李歸仁 ), Li Chu, pointing out that his own troops were tired, stopped him. (Upon the recapturing of Chang'an, Li Mi resigned and became a hermit, depriving Li Chu of an ally.) Subsequently, Li Chu, Guo Ziyi , and Pugu, along with Huige forces, continued to proceed toward Luoyang. They first attacked Shancheng (陝城, in modern Sanmenxia , Henan ) and initially could not succeed, but when Huige forces engaged, Yan forces were thrown into

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3424-1232: The Zhaoyi officer Pei Zhiqing ( 裴志清 ) rose against Xue E, and Tian subsequently captured Zhaoyi's capital Xiang Prefecture ( 相州 ). Xue E fled to imperial territory, while Tian continued his campaign to capture the rest of Zhaoyi territory despite Emperor Daizong's orders to stop his campaign. With Xue Song's other relatives Xue Xiong ( 薛雄 ) and Xue Jian ( 薛堅 ) still holding Wei (衛州, in modern Xinxiang , Henan ) and Ming (洺州, in modern Handan) Prefectures, Tian attacked them and captured those prefectures, as well as Ci Prefecture (磁州, in modern Handan as well). (The remaining prefectures of Zhaoyi came under imperial control and were eventually merged with Zelu Circuit (澤潞, headquartered in modern Changzhi , Shanxi ), governed by Li Baoyu's cousin Li Baozhen .) These defiant actions by Tian, who had already angered Li Zhengji, then ruling Pinglu Circuit (平盧, then headquartered in modern Weifang , Shandong ), by disrespecting him and Li Baochen, then ruling Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang , Hebei ), by killing Li Baochen's brother Li Baozheng ( 李寶正 ), brought

3531-500: The assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion—they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying. Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the Shemale Foundation Pakistan. The eunuchs of Korea, called Korean : 내시, 內侍 , romanized :  naesi , were officials to

3638-753: The bed", a derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the time as "bedchamber attendants" in the imperial palace, and second, to eu tou nou ekhein , "being good with respect to the mind", which Orion explains based on their "being deprived of intercourse ( esterēmenou tou misgesthai ), the things that the ancients used to call irrational ( anoēta , literally: 'mindless')". Orion's second option reflects well-established idioms in Ancient Greek, as shown by entries for transl.  grc  – transl.  noos , eunoos and ekhein in Liddell and Scott 's Greek-English Lexicon, while

3745-458: The border city of Lingwu . With the army at Lingwu pressuring him to take imperial title, Li Heng declared himself emperor (as Emperor Suzong). After Emperor Suzong assumed imperial title, he considered making Li Tan the supreme commander of the armed forces, but his advisor Li Mi pointed out that Li Chu was older and that naming Li Tan the supreme commander would cause confusion as to who would be his heir. Emperor Suzong agreed and made Li Chu

3852-483: The caliph resulted in his assassination in 1000 CE on the orders of al-Hakim. Since imams during this period ruled over a majority non-Shi'a population, the court eunuchs served an important informal role as ambassadors of the caliph, promoting loyalty and devotion to the Shi'a sect and the imam-caliph himself. The multicultural, multilingual eunuchs were able to connect to the commoners through shared cultural ground. During

3959-549: The campaign, causing other imperial generals south of the Yellow River to hesitate to advance as well. Meanwhile, Li Baochen was offended when an imperial eunuch, Ma Chengqian ( 馬承倩 ), who had visited Li Baochen's army, was so dissatisfied with Li Baochen's gift to him that he threw it on the ground, and Tian was also able to use hoaxes to persuade Li Baochen that if he joined forces with Tian to attack Lulong, he would be successful. Li Baochen thus turned against Zhu, launching

4066-479: The central government's power was thus slowly eroded and diminished. The power of the warlords would not prevent the Tang western territories from being overrun by Tibetan invasions and eventually lost to the Tibetan Empire , which even managed to capture Chang'an in 763 for a short period before being expelled. Emperor Daizong was credited for removing the corrupt eunuch Li Fuguo , who had placed him on

4173-601: The circuit in Cui's hands. Meanwhile, by this point, Emperor Daizong, who had previously favored Taoism , had begun to become a devout Buddhist due to the influences of his chancellors Yuan Zai, Wang Jin , and Du Hongjian. Yuan, in particular, advocated the belief that it was by the blessings of the Buddha that Tang was able to survive the Anshi Rebellion and Pugu's rebellion. As a result, Emperor Daizong's policies began to be heavily influenced by Buddhist principles, and he honored

4280-401: The circuit was thrown into a confusion. Eventually, the situation settled down, but the circuit eventually became effectively independently ruled by Cui, although Cui was more obedient and respectful to the central government than the other warlords. Emperor Daizong tried to have the chancellor Du Hongjian rule the circuit, but Du, unwilling to challenge Cui, soon returned to Chang'an and left

4387-457: The circuit, Zhu Xicai paid him great respect but did not allow him to take actual rein of the circuit, and Wang returned to Chang'an soon thereafter. Emperor Daizong was forced to make Zhu Xicai the military governor later in the year. In 770, Emperor Daizong, tired of Yu Chao'en's hold on power and arrogance, plotted with Yuan and laid a trap for Yu, killing him. Thereafter, however, Yuan's power became unchallenged at court. In 772, Zhu Xicai

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4494-447: The command of Yaoluoge Moyanchuo's son. When Li Chu met the Huige prince, he offered for them to be sworn brothers . The prince was very pleased and honored Li Chu as an older brother. Thereafter, the joint Tang and Huige troops proceeded toward Chang'an and, after defeating Yan forces at Xiangji Temple ( 香積寺 ), near Chang'an, recaptured Chang'an. Emperor Suzong had promised that Huige forces would be allowed to pillage Chang'an, but at

4601-888: The corps of mostly African eunuchs, known as the Aghawat , who guarded the Prophet Muhammad's tomb in Medina and the Kaʿba in Mecca. Most slaves trafficked to Hijaz came there via the Red Sea slave trade . Small African boys were castrated before they were trafficked to the Hijaz, where they were bought at the slave market by the Chief Agha to become eunuch novices. It was noted that boys from Africa were still openly bought to become eunuch novices to serve at Medina in 1895. In Medina there

4708-540: The court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard. In Imperial China, eunuchs managed the imperial household and were involved in state affairs, often wielding significant political power. Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs during the Konbaung dynasty period of Burma (modern Myanmar ) while on a diplomatic mission. In China, castration included removal of

4815-565: The death of Biansong Circuit (汴宋, headquartered in modern Kaifeng , Henan )'s acting military governor Tian Shenyu ( 田神玉 ), its officer Li Lingyao ( 李靈曜 ) seized the circuit. Emperor Daizong commissioned a campaign by the surrounding circuits against Biansong and Li Lingyao, and despite aid from Tian, was quickly defeated, although the imperial government received little benefit as five of Biansong's eight prefectures were taken and merged into Li Zhengji's Pinglu Circuit, and Li Zhengji then moved his headquarters from Qing Prefecture ( 青州 ) to one of

4922-504: The earnest pleas of Li Chu, the Huige prince agreed to wait until capturing Luoyang, which had become the Yan capital, to carry out the pillage. The people of Chang'an, believing that Li Chu had saved them from a deadly Huige rampage, welcomed him in a grand procession and proclaimed, "The Prince of Guangping is truly a leader to be loved by both the Han and the barbarians." Meanwhile, when Pugu Huai'en advocated quick advances to try to capture

5029-594: The entry from Orion, but stands by the first option, while attributing the second option to what "some say". In the late 12th century, Eustathius of Thessalonica ( Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an original derivation of the word from eunis + okheuein , "deprived of mating". In translations of the Bible into modern European languages, such as the Luther Bible or the King James Bible ,

5136-445: The eunuch Liu Qingtan ( 劉清潭 ) to Huige to request aid from its Dengli Khan Yaoluoge Yidijian (a younger brother of the Huige prince that he had previously become sworn brother to ), who had also received an alliance proposal from Shi Chaoyi. Yaoluoge Yidijian thus initially rejected Emperor Daizong's proposal and advanced south to aid Shi Chaoyi, but after further persuasion by Pugu Huai'en, whose daughter he had married, he agreed with

5243-409: The eunuch Luo Fengxian ( 駱奉仙 ) had suspected of plotting rebellion, was angry at the suspicion on him and, after submitting a number of accusatory petitions, began to act independently of the imperial government. Meanwhile, though, Tibet , which had begun to seize Tang western prefectures one by one during the Anshi Rebellion, launched a sudden attack on Chang'an. At that time, with Cheng in power and

5350-549: The first option is not listed as an idiom under eunē in that standard reference work. However, the first option was cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperor Leo VI in his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eunuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustworthy guardians of the marriage bed ( eunē ) and claimed that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of employment. The emperor also goes further than Orion by attributing eunuchs' lack of male–female intercourse specifically to castration, which he said

5457-423: The four major Yan generals, two more military governors who were de facto independent, Li Zhengji and Liang Chongyi . Also in 765, after Yan Wu ( 嚴武 ) the military governor of Jiannan Circuit died, the succeeding military governor Guo Ying'ai ( 郭英乂 ), resentful that the officer Cui Ning had not recommended him to succeed Yan, attacked Cui. Cui counterattacked and defeated Guo, who was killed in flight, and

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5564-519: The general An Lushan rebelled at Fanyang (范陽, in modern Beijing ), and by summer 756, the forces of his new state of Yan were approaching the Tang capital Chang'an , forcing Emperor Xuanzong to flee to Chengdu . When Emperor Xuanzong's train reached Mawei Station (馬嵬驛, in modern Baoji , Shaanxi ), angry soldiers, blaming the rebellion on the chancellor Yang Guozhong (Consort Yang's cousin), killed Yang Guozhong and his family members and forced Emperor Xuanzong to kill Consort Yang. Subsequently,

5671-462: The generals hating him for his previous accusations against the generals Lai Tian ( 來瑱 ) and Li Huairang ( 李懷讓 ) that led to their deaths, when Emperor Daizong sought emergency aid from the provincial generals, none came to his aid, and on November 16, he was forced to abandon Chang'an and flee to Shan Prefecture (i.e., Shancheng). Tibetan forces declared Emperor Suzong's cousin Li Chenghong

5778-443: The government. By 777, it was considered that these warlords were ruling their realms de facto independently: In 779, Tian died, and Emperor Daizong permitted Tian's nephew Tian Yue to succeed him. Meanwhile, Li Zhongchen was expelled from his Huaixi Circuit (淮西, headquartered in modern Zhumadian , Henan ) by his officer Li Xilie . Emperor Daizong, believing Li Zhongchen to have been faithful to him, kept him at Chang'an as

5885-960: The harem, a use which expanded gradually during the Umayyad Caliphate and had its breakthrough during the Abbasid Caliphate . During the Abbasid period, eunuchs became a permanent institution inside the Islamic harems after the model of the Abbasid harem , such as in the Fatimid harem , Safavid harem and the Qajar harem . For several centuries, Muslim Eunuchs were tasked with honored roles in Medina and Mecca . They are thought to have been instituted in their role there by Saladin , but perhaps earlier. Their tasks included caring for

5992-485: The imperial guard headquarters. Imperial guards commanded by Li Fuguo and Cheng then entered the palace and arrested Empress Zhang, Li Xi, and their associates. It was said that with Emperor Suzong resting at Changsheng Hall ( 長生殿 ), the soldiers dragged Empress Zhang and the attending ladies in waiting and eunuchs away from his presence. Emperor Suzong was said to be left alone without attendants. He died on May 16. Li Fuguo executed Empress Zhang, Li Xi, and Li Xian ( 李僩 )

6099-548: The imperial surname of Li and a new personal name, Baochen), and Tian Chengsi . Pugu suggested that he allow them to remain at their posts as military governors ( Jiedushi ) to avoid further resistance, and Emperor Daizong, fearful of further wars, agreed. This would mark the beginning of warlordism that plagued Tang for the rest of the dynasty. In fall 763, Emperor Daizong faced two new additional threats. Pugu, whom two other generals Xin Yunjing ( 辛雲京 ) and Li Baoyu and

6206-579: The institution of slavery in the Fatimid Caliphate . These eunuchs were normally purchased from slave auctions and typically came from a variety of Arab and non-Arab minority ethnic groups. In some cases, they were purchased from various noble families in the empire, which would then connect those families to the caliph. Generally, though, foreign slaves were preferred, described as the "ideal servants". Once enslaved, eunuchs were often placed into positions of significant power in one of four areas:

6313-659: The king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the Goryeo dynasty period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon dynasty , the naesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of Naesi ". The naesi system included two ranks, those of Korean : 상선, 尙膳 , romanized :  Sangseon , lit.   'Chief of Naesi', who held

6420-514: The military, the aristocracy, or a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least). They were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private dynasty. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants. Eunuchs have been documented in several ancient and medieval societies, including

6527-827: The most powerful Chief Eunuchs was Beshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of Hanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools. In the 16th century, an Englishman, Samson Rowlie , was captured and castrated to serve the Ottoman governor in Algiers. In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his book Kitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam ( Arabic : كتاب معيد النعم ومبيد النقم ),

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6634-418: The most powerful figures at court became the chancellor Yuan Zai , who flattered Emperor Daizong, and the eunuch Yu Chao'en , who commanded the imperial guards. In 764, Emperor Daizong created Li Kuo, whom he had earlier signaled to be the likely heir by designating him the supreme commander of the armed forces, crown prince. Li Kuo's mother Consort Shen had been captured by Yan forces and disappeared during

6741-527: The official title of senior second rank, and Korean : 내관, 內官 , romanized :  Naegwan , lit.   'Common official naesi', both of which held rank as officers. A total of 140 naesi served the palace in the Joseon dynasty period. They also took the exam on Confucianism every month. The naesi system was repealed in 1894 following Gabo reform . During the Yuan dynasty , eunuchs became

6848-651: The ones in direct service to the caliph and the royal household as chamberlains, treasurers, governors, and attendants. Their direct proximity to the caliph and his household afforded them a great amount of political sway. One eunuch, Jawdhar , became hujja to Imam-Caliph al-Qa'im , a sacred role in Shia Islam entrusted with the imam's choice of successor upon his death. There were several other eunuchs of high regard in Fatimid history, mainly being Abu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim and Abu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh . Rifq

6955-628: The penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation ). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time. Eunuchs existed in China from about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty . From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty , castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments ) and

7062-490: The people in the Mawei region tried to persuade Emperor Xuanzong not to continue on to Chengdu—believing that Chang'an could be recaptured. Emperor Xuanzong asked Li Heng to try to comfort the people. Once Li Heng left Emperor Xuanzong's presence, however, Li Heng's trusted eunuch Li Fuguo , Li Chu's brother Li Tan the Prince of Jianning, and Li Chu, persuaded Li Heng not to follow Emperor Xuanzong to Chengdu—arguing that with

7169-643: The period of slavery in the Ottoman Empire , eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs. The Ottoman court harem —within the Topkapı Palace (1465–1853) and later the Dolmabahçe Palace (1853–1909) in Istanbul —was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: black eunuchs and white eunuchs. Black eunuchs were slaves from sub-Saharan Africa via

7276-553: The personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy . The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda. The number of eunuchs in imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting , died in December 1996. Eunuchs were frequently employed in imperial palaces by some Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of

7383-416: The physical barriers between Chang'an and Jiannan Circuit (劍南, headquartered in modern Chengdu), that once they had left the region, Chang'an could no longer be captured. Li Heng agreed and had Li Chu report this to Emperor Xuanzong. Emperor Xuanzong agreed with Li Heng's decision, but he himself continued on to Jiannan. Li Heng, escorted by a small number of guard soldiers commanded by Li Tan, then headed to

7490-443: The poor governance and justice system during Emperor Daizong's time to this.) In 768, after Li Huaixian was assassinated by his officers Zhu Xicai , Zhu Ci , and Zhu Ci's brother Zhu Tao , Emperor Daizong made an attempt to take back control of Lulong Circuit (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing), which Li Huaixian had governed. He made Wang Jin the military governor and Zhu Xicai the acting military governor. When Wang arrived at

7597-464: The rebel state of Yan , and the Anshi Rebellion was finally put down early in his own reign, in 763. However, thereafter, the Tang state was plagued by warlords such as Tian Chengsi , Li Baochen , and Liang Chongyi who essentially governed their realms as independent states while only pledging nominal loyalty to the emperor. This would prove disastrous for future generations as subsequent Tang emperors were unable to remove or control these warlords and

7704-648: The recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch ( Kızlar Ağası or Darüssaade Ağası ). In control of both the harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials. One of

7811-581: The royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of them attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was Malik Kafur . Eunuchs in imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch (Urdu: Khwaja Saras ), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of

7918-492: The service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government , Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented

8025-422: The service of the male members of the court; the service of the Fatimid harem , or female members of the court; administrative and clerical positions; and military service. For example, during the Fatimid occupation of Cairo, Egyptian eunuchs controlled military garrisons ( shurta ) and marketplaces ( hisba ), two positions beneath only the city magistrate in power. However, the most influential Fatimid eunuchs were

8132-628: The status of their castration to gain entrance into the palace. Chinese eunuch Lao Ai , for instance, became the lover of the mother of Qin Shi Huang , who bore him two sons, before Lao Ai and his sons were executed after participating in a rebellion against Qin Shi Huang. In Siam (modern Thailand) Indian Muslims from the Coromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court. The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit

8239-434: The supreme commander instead. Subsequently, Li Chu and Li Mi were entrusted with the keys of the makeshift palace, and one would always be on duty to be ready to receive important military reports. In 757, Emperor Suzong considered creating Li Chu crown prince, but Li Mi and Li Chu, pointing out that it would be inappropriate to do so before Chang'an were recaptured, advised him otherwise. Subsequently, Emperor Suzong's court

8346-892: The three biggest manufacturers of baijiu . Besides, several domestic companies followed JD.com to site their call centres in Suqian. G2513 Huai'an–Xuzhou Expressway Yanghe Station, known as Suqian Station on Suqian – Huai'an Railway is located in the south outskirt of Suqian. Suqian College is the single institution in Suqian providing bachelor's degree education. The prefecture-level city of Suqian administers 5 county-level divisions , including 3 counties and 2 districts . These are further divided into 115 township-level divisions , including 111 towns and township , and 4 subdistricts . Emperor Daizong of Tang Emperor Daizong of Tang (11 November 726 – 10 June 779 ), personal name Li Yu (name changed in 758 after being created crown prince), né Li Chu ( Chinese : 李俶 ),

8453-531: The throne using their own power and political influence, later the rest of Emperor Daizong's reign would also see dominance by such individuals as the eunuchs Cheng Yuanzhen and Yu Chao'en , as well as the chancellor Yuan Zai . It is also worth noting that Emperor Daizong became the first Tang emperor to succeed to the throne as a result of maneuvers by eunuchs. Emperor Daizong was himself also said to be overly devout in Buddhism . Daizong's father, Li Jun ,

8560-619: The throne, Emperor Daizong did not want to kill him openly. Instead, on November 12, 762, an assassin got into Li Fuguo's mansion and killed him, taking his head and an arm away as well. Emperor Daizong formally issued an order seeking the arrest of the assassin, and buried Li Fuguo in a grand ceremony, after having a wooden head and wooden arm carved to be buried with the rest of the body. At this point, Emperor Daizong still had to face Yan, now ruled by Shi Chaoyi —the son and successor to Shi Siming , who had killed and succeeded An Qingxu and recaptured Luoyang from Tang in 759. Late in 762, he sent

8667-640: The throne, as it seems to be the case for the Syro-Hittite state of Carchemish . Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achaemenid Empire . Eunuchs (called Imperial Aramaic : סריס , romanized:  səris , an Assyrian loanword) held powerful positions in the Achaemenid court. The eunuch Bagoas (not to be confused with Alexander's Bagoas ) was the vizier of Artaxerxes III and Artaxerxes IV , and

8774-479: The titles of minister of defense and assistant of military affairs to the supreme commander—thus stripping him of military command—giving the latter post to Cheng. He also ordered Li Fuguo to leave the palace and take residence up outside, although he created Li Fuguo the Prince of Bolu. Li Fuguo became apprehensive and offered to retire, and Emperor Daizong declined and sent him away with formal respect. Because Li Fuguo had killed Empress Zhang and had supported him for

8881-541: The urethra to allow urination during healing. Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations. The four-thousand-year-old Egyptian Execration Texts threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women." Castration

8988-528: The vast majority do not. They usually dress in saris or shalwar kameez (traditional garbs worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination. Hijra tend to have few options for earning a wage, with many turning to sex work and others performing ritualistic songs and dances. They are integral to several Hindu ceremonies, such as dance programs at marriage ceremonies. They may also earn

9095-526: The very-ill Emperor Suzong. Empress Zhang then entered into an alliance with Li Yu's younger brother Li Xi ( 李係 ) the Prince of Yue, and they tried to set a trap for Li Fuguo, with 200 strong eunuchs loyal to her and Li Xi ready to act against Li Fuguo. On May 14, 762, she issued an order in Emperor Suzong's name, summoning Li Yu into the palace. However, Cheng received this news and reported this to Li Fuguo and Li Yu, and Cheng then escorted Li Yu to

9202-475: The wars. After the project was completed, Chang'an again had adequate food supplies, allowing the region to begin to recover. Pugu, meanwhile, had allied with Huige and Tibet, and in late 764 and then again in 765 allied with them to attack the Chang'an region. After Pugu died in 765, however, the threat subsided, and his army resubmitted to Emperor Daizong. However, by this point, Emperor was facing, in addition to

9309-572: The word eunuchs as found in the Latin Vulgate is usually rendered as an officer, official or chamberlain, consistent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts of Israel and Judah included castrated men, even though the original translation of the Bible into Greek used the word eunoukhos . The early 17th-century scholar and theologian Gerardus Vossius therefore explains that

9416-496: The word eunuch and related terms, Ernst Maass suggested that Eustathius's derivation "can or must be laid to rest", and he affirmed the derivation from eunē and ekhein ("guardian of the bed"), without mentioning the other derivation from eunoos and ekhein ("having a well-disposed state of mind"). In Latin, the words eunuchus , spado (Greek: σπάδων spadon ), and castratus were used to denote eunuchs. The term eunuch has sometimes figuratively been used for

9523-516: The word originally designated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived from eunē and ekhein (i.e. "bed-keeper"). He says the word came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternative etymologies offered by Eustathius ("deprived of mating") and others ("having the mind in a good state"), calling these analyses "quite subtle". Then, after having previously declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not

9630-594: Was a European eunuch during late Fatimid rule who gained power through his military and political savvy which brought peace between them and the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he squashed revolts in the Libya and the Levant. Given his reputation and power in the court and military he took the reins of the caliphate from his then student al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ; then ruled as the de facto Regent 997 CE. His usurpation of power from

9737-576: Was a part of town named Harat al-Aghawat (Neighborhood of the Aghas). The Red Sea slave trade became gradually more suppressed during the 20th-century, and Slavery in Saudi Arabia was abolished in 1962. In 1979, the last Agha was appointed. In 1990 seventeen eunuchs remained. In the Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE), eunuchs played major roles in the politics of the caliphate's court within

9844-728: Was also itself filled with internal struggles, with Li Fuguo aligned with Emperor Suzong's favorite concubine Consort Zhang , in opposition to Li Chu, Li Tan, and Li Mi. In early 757, after Li Tan repeatedly accused Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang of corruption, Li Fuguo and Empress Zhang in turn falsely accused him of trying to assassinate Li Chu in order to become the heir. Emperor Suzong, in anger, ordered Li Tan to commit suicide, which drew fear from Li Chu and Li Mi. Li Chu considered assassinating Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang, but at Li Mi's urging, stopped his plans to do so. In fall 757, troops from Huige , whose Bayanchur Khan Yaoluoge Moyanchuo had answered Emperor Suzong's request for help, arrived under

9951-533: Was an emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty . Emperor Daizong was the eldest son of Emperor Suzong – the first emperor of the Tang dynasty to succeed as the eldest child. During the Anshi Rebellion (which Emperor Suzong's entire reign was dedicated to fighting), he served as a general of Tang and Huige joint operations that recaptured the capital Chang'an and the eastern capital Luoyang from

10058-524: Was an African eunuch general who served as governor of the Damascus until he led an army of 30,000 men in a campaign to expand Fatimid control northeast to the city of Aleppo, Syria. He was noted for being able to unite a diverse group of Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, and Turks into one coherent fighting force which was able to successfully combat the Mirdasids , Bedouins , and Byzantines. Barjawan

10165-441: Was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious foreign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized servants. Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogue In Defence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word was from eupnoeic and ekhein , "to have, hold", since they were always "well-disposed" toward the master who "held" or owned them. The 12th century Etymologicum Magnum (s.v. eunoukhos ) essentially repeats

10272-904: Was in turn assassinated by his subordinate Li Huaiyuan ( 李懷瑗 ), and Zhu Ci replaced him. Zhu Ci took a more respectful stand toward the imperial government, and thereafter, while the central government did not take back actual control of Lulong, Lulong soldiers often participated in campaigns commissioned by the imperial government. (Eventually, indeed, Zhu Ci himself would arrive at Chang'an and thereafter remain an imperial general near Chang'an and not return to Lulong, leaving Lulong in Zhu Tao's hands.) In 773, Xue Song died, and Emperor Daizong agreed to let his brother Xue E succeed him in ruling Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Anyang , Henan ). However, Tian Chengsi, who ruled nearby Weibo Circuit (魏博, headquartered in modern Handan , Hebei ), had other designs. In spring 775, under his encouragement,

10379-535: Was performed with the intention "that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to do with desire for the female sex". The 11th century Byzantine monk Nikon of the Black Mountain , opting instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the word came from eunoein ( eu "good" + nous "mind"), thus meaning "to be well-minded, well-inclined, well-disposed or favorable", but unlike Orion he argued that this

10486-732: Was put under the jurisdiction of Huaiyang military prefecture during the Song dynasty, then was transferred to Pizhou after Jurchen's Jin took it. The county was administered by Huai'an military prefecture during 1272–75, but restored as a part of Pizhou afterwards. It was annexed by Xuzhou again in 1733. The area was rife with banditry during the early years of the Republic of China. In Autumn 1917, six persons were executed as bandits in Suqian. "They cut off their arms, broke their legs, cut off their ears, punched out their eyes, skinned them, then cut off their heads, and finally cut out their hearts." Suqian

10593-490: Was put under the jurisdiction of Huaiyin in 1934. The county was converted as a county-level city in 1987, later was elevated to prefecture status in 1996. Suqian possesses the majority of Luoma Lake , which is a major lake in the Huai River basin. As of the 2020 Chinese census , Suqian had a recorded population of about 4,986,192 whom 1,622,912 lived in the built-up ( or metro ) area made of Sucheng and Suyu urban districts. Local Yanghe along with Moutai and Wuliangye, are

10700-419: Was repelled by Tang forces, and Pugu Yang's own soldiers killed him. Pugu, believing he was facing defeat, took his troops, largely from Shuofang Circuit (朔方, headquartered in modern Yinchuan , Ningxia ), back to its headquarters at Lingwu and dug in there; he thereafter remained a threat to the Tang imperial government, although Emperor Daizong, still hoping that he would resubmit, never formally declared him

10807-759: Was said that Empress Zhang did not give up the idea of having Li Shao become crown prince and was looking for ways to undermine Li Yu. Li Yu tried to react with meekness and humility. After Li Shao died in 759, because Empress Zhang's other son, Li Tong ( 李侗 ) the Prince of Ding was still young, Li Yu's position was no longer threatened. In 762, Emperor Suzong had become seriously ill. After Emperor Xuanzong died in summer 762, Emperor Suzong, in mourning, grew worse. He had Li Yu assume regent powers. By this point, Empress Zhang and Li Fuguo were no longer allies, and Empress Zhang summoned Li Yu, wanting an alliance with him to kill Li Fuguo and his subordinate Cheng Yuanzhen . Li Yu refused, pointing out that this would cause alarm to

10914-531: Was said to be kind, meek, and filially pious, and was studious, particularly in the Classic of Rites and the I Ching . He was much favored by his grandfather. Emperor Xuanzong chose for him, as his wife and princess, Lady Cui the daughter of the Lady of Han, a sister of Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine Consort Yang Yuhuan ; however, his oldest son Li Kuo was born of a concubine, Consort Shen . In 755,

11021-688: Was sometimes punitive; under Assyrian law , homosexual acts were punishable by castration. Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Neo-Assyrian Empire ( Akkadian : ša rēš šarri izuzzū "the one who stands by the head of the king", often abbreviated as ša rēš ; c.  850 until 622 BCE) and in the court of the Egyptian pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra VII , 30 BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used as regents for underage heirs to

11128-559: Was subsequently created the greater title of Prince of Chu. In spring 758, his title was changed to Prince of Cheng. Emperor Suzong wanted to further create him crown prince, but hesitated because Consort Zhang, who had since been created empress, had a son named Li Shao ( 李佋 ), carrying the title of Prince of Zhao, whom she wanted to be crown prince. When he consulted the chancellor Li Kui , Li Kui advocated for Li Chu, and Emperor Suzong agreed, creating Li Chu crown prince on June 29, 758. He also changed Li Chu's name to Li Yu. However, it

11235-429: Was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials. As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs." The tension between eunuchs in

11342-399: Was the Prince of Zhong under his father Emperor Xuanzong when Daizong was born. His mother was Li Jun's concubine Consort Wu. He was the oldest of Emperor Xuanzong's over 100 grandsons. In 740, by which time Li Jun (whose name had been changed to Li Heng by that point) was crown prince , Li Chu was created the Prince of Guangping. That year, his mother Consort Wu died. In his youth, he

11449-408: Was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns until he was killed by Darius III . Marmon (1995) writes " Mamluk biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such as jamil (beautiful), wasim (handsome), and ahsan (the best, most beautiful) or akmal (the most perfect)." The custom of using eunuchs as servants for women inside the Islamic harems had

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