The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period , was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period where ice sheets were at their greatest extent 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America , Northern Europe , and Asia and profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing a major expansion of deserts, along with a large drop in sea levels.
93-408: Surfdale is a settlement on Waiheke Island in northern New Zealand . The original name being Okahu, Surfdale beach on Huruhi Bay has tidal mudflats, and is often used for windsurfing or kitesurfing. Shelly beach on Pukiki Bay is sandy and shelly. The area was developed in the mid–1920s. Surfdale covers 2.61 km (1.01 sq mi) and had an estimated population of 2,090 as of June 2024, with
186-545: A Miocene volcano of the Kiwitahi Group, which erupted approximately 15 million years ago. There are locations of interest to geologists: an argillite outcrop in Ōmiha , and a chert stack at the end of Pohutukawa Point, considered "one of the best exposures of folded chert in Auckland City". There are many scenic beaches, including: Waiheke, like Auckland, experiences a subtropical climate according to
279-455: A " genetic engineering free zone", but this is a matter of principle rather than fact, as only national government controls exist over genetically engineered foods and grains. Waiheke has a resident population of 9,140 people (June 2024) with most living close to the western end, or near the isthmus between Huruhi Bay and Oneroa Bay , which at its narrowest is only 600 metres (2,000 feet) wide. The settlements of Oneroa and Blackpool are
372-715: A $ 40 million school rebuild project for Waiheke. This was made up of two project announcements: $ 23 million to Te Huruhi School rebuild project to provide three new blocks with 22 new teaching spaces, a new administration area and library and targeted repairs to the existing school hall; and $ 17m was awarded to the Waiheke High School redevelopment project to build 10 new teaching spaces and improvement to existing facilities. Both rebuild project were started in 2019 with an expected completion date of late 2019 / early 2020. The ferry Baroona, built in Australia in 1904,
465-401: A bachelor's or higher degree, and 921 (12.1%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $ 32,300, compared with $ 31,800 nationally. 1,533 people (20.1%) earned over $ 70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 3,618 (47.4%) people were employed full-time, 1,350 (17.7%) were part-time, and 165 (2.2%) were unemployed. Waiheke is part of
558-520: A cold reversal caused a replacement of much of the arboreal vegetation with Magellanic moorland and Alpine species. On Isla Grande de Chiloé , Magellanic moorland and closed-canopy Nothofagus forests were both present during the LGM, but the former disappeared by the late LGM. Little is known about the extent of glaciers during Last Glacial Maximum north of the Chilean Lake District . To
651-753: A festive atmosphere exists. Waiheke had a population of 9,162 in the 2023 New Zealand census , an increase of 99 people (1.1%) since the 2018 census , and an increase of 822 people (9.9%) since the 2013 census . There were 6,366 dwellings. The median age was 49.1 years (compared with 38.1 years nationally). There were 1,191 people (13.0%) aged under 15 years, 1,194 (13.0%) aged 15 to 29, 4,563 (49.8%) aged 30 to 64, and 2,217 (24.2%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 88.0% European/ Pākehā , 12.3% Māori , 3.6% Pasifika , 4.6% Asian , 5.1% Middle Eastern, Latin American and African New Zealanders, and 1.0% other. People may identify with more than one ethnicity. Waiheke had
744-730: A formal measurement of uncalibrated radiocarbon years , counted from 1950). In New Zealand and neighbouring regions of the Pacific, temperatures may have been further depressed during part of the LGM by the world's most recent supervolcanic eruption , the Oruanui eruption , approximately 25,500 years BP. However, it is estimated that during the LGM, low-to-mid latitude land surfaces at low elevation cooled on average by 5.8 °C relative to their present-day temperatures, based on an analysis of noble gases dissolved in groundwater rather than examinations of species abundances that have been used in
837-491: A helicopter operator based on the island, and other air links. In November 2015, Lonely Planet rated Waiheke Island the fifth-best region in the world to visit in 2016. The island is off the coast of the North Island. It is 19.3 km (12.0 mi) in length from west to east, varies in width from 0.64 to 9.65 km (0.40 to 6.00 mi), and has a surface area of 92 km (36 sq mi). The coastline
930-488: A local glacial maximum in the region. In northeastern Italy , in the region around Lake Fimon , Artemisia -dominated semideserts, steppes, and meadow-steppes replaced open boreal forests at the start of the LGM, specifically during Heinrich Stadial 3. The overall climate of the region became both drier and colder. In the Sar Mountains , the glacial equilibrium-line altitude was about 450 metres lower than in
1023-410: A mixture of grassland and tundra prevailed, and even here, the northern limit of tree growth was at least 20° farther south than today. In the period before the LGM, many areas that became completely barren desert were wetter than they are today, notably in southern Australia, where Aboriginal occupation is believed to coincide with a wet period between 40,000 and 60,000 years Before Present (BP,
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#17327902309761116-657: A number of sports teams and facilities on the island. Rugby union , cricket , rugby league , football and netball are widely played and followed. There are three main sports facilities on the island: Waiheke Island has two primary schools and one secondary school. It is the only island in New Zealand, other than the North and South Islands, with a secondary school. In 2016, the New Zealand Government Education Minister announced
1209-417: A passenger and car "City Service" connecting Kennedy Point with Auckland's Wynyard Quarter . There have been several attempts to provide alternative passenger ferry services from Matiatia. Most recently, New Zealand tour cruise company Explore Group provided a Matiatia to Downtown service from late 2014 until April 2016. The competition was welcomed by Waiheke residents, but ultimately proved unsustainable for
1302-768: A population density of 801 people per km. Surfdale had a population of 2,067 at the 2018 New Zealand census , an increase of 186 people (9.9%) since the 2013 census , and an increase of 369 people (21.7%) since the 2006 census . There were 789 households, comprising 1,023 males and 1,044 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.98 males per female. The median age was 43.2 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 366 people (17.7%) aged under 15 years, 315 (15.2%) aged 15 to 29, 1,023 (49.5%) aged 30 to 64, and 366 (17.7%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 86.2% European/ Pākehā , 11.3% Māori , 3.2% Pacific peoples , 5.2% Asian , and 6.8% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity. The percentage of people born overseas
1395-428: A population of 1.2 million), 737 of which were made by Waihekeans (population 8,500), almost 1/4 of all submissions. This exemplified the level of citizen involvement found on Waiheke. A public meeting of 150 residents on 29 March 2008 found a majority in favour of breaking away from Auckland City. The Royal Commission recommended that Waiheke Island retain its community board with enhanced powers. When Auckland Council
1488-580: A population of 9,063 at the 2018 New Zealand census . There were 3,648 households, comprising 4,461 males and 4,599 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.97 males per female. The percentage of people born overseas was 32.0, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 62.0% had no religion, 23.9% were Christian , 0.8% had Māori religious beliefs , 0.4% were Hindu , 0.1% were Muslim , 1.1% were Buddhist and 3.5% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 2,337 (30.6%) people had
1581-466: A rare event on Waiheke. Rainfall is typically plentiful, though dry spells may occur during the summer months which can be problematic for many of the island residents, the vast majority of whom rely on rainwater harvesting from residential roofs for drinking and household use. During such dry periods (typically 3–4 months between December and March), the island's water-delivery trucks can be seen replenishing residential water tanks that have run dry. It
1674-553: A roll of 386 students. Te Huruhi Primary School is a contributing primary school (Year 1–6) with a roll of 270 students. Both schools are coeducational. Rolls are as of August 2024. Waiheke Island Waiheke Island ( / w aɪ ˈ h ɛ k iː / ; Māori : [ˈwaihɛkɛ] ) is the second-largest island (after Great Barrier Island ) in the Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand . Its ferry terminal in Matiatia Bay at
1767-461: A slow change in vegetation towards a sparsely distributed vegetation dominated by Nothofagus species. Within this parkland vegetation Magellanic moorland alternated with Nothofagus forest, and as warming progressed even warm-climate trees began to grow in the area. It is estimated that the tree line was depressed about 1,000 m relative to present day elevations during the coldest period, but it rose gradually until 19,300 years ago. At that time
1860-432: A small deposit on top of a cost of 8 pence a day and was promoted as a sound investment, however, a level of self sufficiency was required for life on the island as electricity only arrived in 1954. These land offers were not open to Māori. Ostend and Surfdale were joined by additional subdivisions at Palm Beach, Rocky Bay and Oneroa in the 1920s. During World War II , three gun emplacements were built at Stony Batter on
1953-409: A wide range of activities such as kite surfing, kayaking, stand-up-paddle boarding, boating, swimming and other typical beach pursuits. Waiheke has a community-run cinema, a theatre that hosts a number of regular musicians, performances and local productions, and a library that was rebuilt in 2014 at the cost of $ 6 million. There are a large number of art galleries run by private individuals across
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#17327902309762046-465: Is 133.5 km (83.0 mi), including 40 km (25 mi) of beaches. The port of Matiatia at the western end is 17.7 km (11.0 mi) from Auckland and the eastern end is 21.4 km (13.3 mi) from Coromandel . The much smaller Tarahiki Island lies 3 km (1.9 mi) to the east. The island is very hilly with few flat areas, the highest point being Maunganui at 231 m (758 ft). Approximately 17,000 years ago during
2139-516: Is often anecdotally said by locals that Waiheke has a different micro-climate from the Auckland isthmus . Though little data supports this, the following data from a NIWA report suggests Waiheke receives over 100 hours more sunshine a year than other parts of Auckland. The islands of the Hauraki Gulf have been settled since the archaic period of Māori history , and were visited by many of
2232-675: The Baltic Shield , and in Russia in particular, the LGM ice margin of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet was highly lobate. The main LGM lobes of Russia followed the Dvina , Vologda and Rybinsk basins respectively. Lobes originated as result of ice following shallow topographic depressions filled with a soft sediment substrate. The northern Ural region was covered in periglacial steppes. Permafrost covered Europe south of
2325-780: The Barents Sea , the Kara Sea , and Novaya Zemlya , ending at the Taymyr Peninsula in what is now northwestern Siberia. Warming commenced in northern latitudes around 20,000 years ago, but it was limited and considerable warming did not take place until around 14,600 year ago. In northwestern Russia , the Fennoscandian ice sheet reached its LGM extent approximately 17,000 years ago, about five thousand years later than in Denmark, Germany and Western Poland. Outside
2418-614: The Cantabrian Mountains of the northwestern corner of the Iberian Peninsula , which in the present day have no permanent glaciers, the LGM led to a local glacial recession as a result of increased aridity caused by the growth of other ice sheets farther to the east and north, which drastically limited annual snowfall over the mountains of northwestern Spain. The Cantabrian alpine glaciers had previously expanded between approximately 60,000 and 40,000 years ago during
2511-772: The Gulf of Oman . Bathymetric data suggests there were two palaeo-basins in the Persian Gulf. The central basin may have approached an area of 20,000 km , comparable at its fullest extent to lakes such as Lake Malawi in Africa. Between 12,000 and 9,000 years ago much of the Gulf's floor was not covered by water, only being flooded by the sea after 8,000 years ago. It is estimated that annual average temperatures in Southern Africa were 6 °C lower than at present during
2604-617: The Hex River Mountains , in the Western Cape , block streams and terraces found near the summit of Matroosberg evidences past periglacial activity which likely occurred during the LGM. Palaeoclimatological proxies indicate the region around Boomplaas Cave was wetter, with increased winter precipitation. The region of the Zambezi River catchment was colder relative to present and the local drop in mean temperature
2697-476: The Last Glacial Maximum when sea levels were over 100 metres lower than present day levels, Waiheke Island was landlocked to the North Island, surrounded by a vast coastal plain where the Hauraki Gulf / Tīkapa Moana exists today. Sea levels began to rise 7,000 years ago, after which Waiheke became an island separated from the rest of New Zealand. Much of eastern Waiheke island is the remains of
2790-598: The Trewartha climate classification , and an oceanic climate according to the Köppen climate classification . The region lies 13° of latitude south of the Tropic of Capricorn, so tropical plants which are protected for the winter months will flower and fruit in the summer, and cold climate vegetables planted in autumn will mature in early spring. Summers tend to be warm and humid, while winters are relatively mild with frost being
2883-466: The migratory canoes such as Aotea , Tākitimu , and Mātaatua . Only the largest islands such as Aotea / Great Barrier Island and Waiheke sustained permanent settlements. The forests on the western side of Waiheke Island were likely heavily damaged in the 14th century eruptions of Rangitoto Island . During 18th and early 19th centuries, the eastern side of Waiheke was forested by ancient kauri trees, while kānuka and mānuka bushes dominated
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2976-548: The 1850s. By the 1850s, the only Ngāti Pāoa land that remained on the island was a 2,100 acre section at Te Huruhi (near the modern suburb of Blackpool). Through a process of individualisation of land titled, the Māori Land Court split the Te Huruhi block between 65 individuals, and by 1914 most of the block had been sold to private interests. By the end of the 19th century, the island was increasingly deforested, and land
3069-606: The Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming large piedmont glacier lobes . Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake , but not more than 2 to 3 km south of it. Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina was also glaciated by the same time. Over most of the Chiloé Archipelago , glacier advance peaked 26,000 years ago, forming a long north–south moraine system along
3162-563: The City Council represented all the inhabited Hauraki Gulf islands (i.e. Waiheke, Great Barrier and Rakino) plus the downtown area in the central business district. In 1989 Waiheke County Council was amalgamated with Auckland City Council as part of Local Government restructuring of that year. In 1990 the Waiheke Community Board formally requested the right to de-amalgamate from the city. A 'De-amalgamation Committee'
3255-632: The Great Barrier Reef was enhanced due to low atmospheric CO 2 levels. The deep waters of the Indian Ocean were significantly less oxygenated during the LGM compared to the Middle Holocene. The deep South Indian Ocean in particular was an enormous carbon sink, partially explaining the very low p CO 2 of the LGM. The intermediate waters of the southeastern Arabian Sea were poorly ventilated relative to today because of
3348-603: The Holocene. In Greece , steppe vegetation predominated. Megafaunal abundance in Europe peaked around 27,000 and 21,000 BP; this bountifulness was attributable to the cold stadial climate. In Greenland, the difference between LGM temperatures and present temperatures was twice as great during winter as during summer. Greenhouse gas and insolation forcings dominated temperature changes in northern Greenland, whereas Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) variability
3441-678: The LGM except in transient intervals around 23,200 and 22,300 BP. In the western South Atlantic , where Antarctic Intermediate Water forms, sinking particle flux was heightened as a result of increased dust flux during the LGM and sustained export productivity. The increased sinking particle flux removed neodymium from shallow waters, producing an isotopic ratio change. On the Island of Hawaii , geologists have long recognized deposits formed by glaciers on Mauna Kea during recent ice ages. The latest work indicates that deposits of three glacial episodes since 150,000 to 200,000 years ago are preserved on
3534-544: The LGM, 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 125 meters (about 410 feet) lower than it is today. Across most of the globe, the hydrological cycle slowed down, explaining increased aridity in many regions of the world. In Africa and the Middle East, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and the Sahara and other sandy deserts were greatly expanded in extent. The Atlantic deep sea sediment core V22-196, extracted off
3627-702: The Last Glacial Maximum. This temperature drop alone would however not have been enough to generate widespread glaciation or permafrost in the Drakensberg Mountains or the Lesotho Highlands . Seasonal freezing of the ground in the Lesotho Highlands might have reached depths of 2 meters or more below the surface. A few small glaciers did however develop during the LGM, in particular in south-facing slopes. In
3720-688: The Laurentide Ice Sheet reached 3.2 km in height around Keewatin Dome and about 1.7-2.1 km along the Plains divide. In addition to the large Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Canada and Montana , alpine glaciers advanced and (in some locations) ice caps covered much of the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains further south. Latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south of
3813-563: The Local Board. Newly elected were Cath Handley and Bob Upchurch. In 2015–16, the subject of amalgamation remained a hot topic on the island with an application filed with the Local Government Commission from a group called Our Waiheke for a unitary authority. Waiheke's lifestyle is largely influenced by the fact that it is surrounded by water – there are a number of beaches mentioned above, that are popular for
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3906-705: The North Atlantic was reduced, as measured by the increased proportion of radiogenic isotopes in neodymium isotope ratios. There is controversy whether upwelling off the Moroccan coast was stronger during the LGM compared to today. Though coccolith size increases in Calcidiscus leptoporus suggest stronger trade winds during the LGM caused there to be increased coastal upwelling of the northwestern coast of Africa, planktonic foraminiferal δ C records show upwelling and primary productivity were not enhanced during
3999-465: The North Atlantic were better ventilated during the LGM by Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW) relative to its present-day ventilation by upper North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). GNAIW was nutrient poor compared to present day upper NADW. Below GNAIW, southern source bottom water that was very rich in nutrients filled the deep North Atlantic. Due to the presence of immense ice sheets in Europe and North America, continental weathering flux into
4092-649: The Tamaki Strait and the Coromandel coast. Waiheke Island has historically been settled by various tribes, especially the Marutūāhu collective tribes of Ngāti Maru and Ngāti Pāoa . Waiheke Island was the site of many battles between Ngāti Pāoa and Ngāpuhi from the Bay of Islands , up until the late 18th century. In the 1790s, sealing and whaling ships underwent repairs primarily on Waiheke Island. The island
4185-566: The West Antarctica ice sheet occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, consistent with evidence for another abrupt rise in the sea level about 14,500 years ago. Glacier fluctuations around the Strait of Magellan suggest the peak in glacial surface area was constrained to between 25,200 and 23,100 years ago. There are no agreed dates for the beginning and end of the LGM, and researchers select dates depending on their criteria and
4278-416: The atmosphere . The massive sheets of ice locked away water, lowering the sea level, exposing continental shelves , joining land masses together, and creating extensive coastal plains . The ice sheets also changed the atmospheric circulation, causing the northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans to cool and produce more clouds, which amplified the global cooling as the clouds reflected even more sunlight. During
4371-919: The best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah . This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran , where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir . In Australia , shifting sand dunes covered half the continent, while the Chaco and Pampas in South America became similarly dry. Present-day subtropical regions also lost most of their forest cover, notably in eastern Australia, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil , and southern China , where open woodland became dominant due to much drier conditions. In northern China – unglaciated despite its cold climate –
4464-562: The coast of Senegal, shows a major southward expansion of the Sahara. The Persian Gulf averages about 35 metres in depth and the seabed between Abu Dhabi and Qatar is even shallower, being mostly less than 15 metres deep. For thousands of years the Ur-Shatt (a confluence of the Tigris - Euphrates Rivers ) provided fresh water to the Gulf, as it flowed through the Strait of Hormuz into
4557-479: The company. In recent years, there has been significant controversy with many of Waiheke's resident population who rely on the ferries "like buses" – and especially those who commute daily to work in Auckland – complaining of poor parking arrangements at Matiatia, unfair price increases and generally poor ferry services. This led to the launch of a Ferry User's Group (or FUG) and a "Fuller's Watch" group, with
4650-725: The continents: the Indonesian islands as far east as Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass called Sundaland . Palawan was also part of Sundaland, while the rest of the Philippine Islands formed one large island separated from the continent only by the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Strait . The environment along the coast of South China was not very different from that of
4743-627: The data set consulted. Jennifer French, an archeologist specialising in the European Palaeolithic, dates its onset at 27,500 years ago, with ice sheets at their maximum by around 26,000 years ago and deglaciation commencing between 20,000 and 19,000 years ago. The LGM is referred to in Britain as the Dimlington Stadial , dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years ago. The average global temperature about 21,000 years ago
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#17327902309764836-636: The east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact – probably due to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions. Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is the present-day Western United States , where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed,
4929-543: The eastern coast of Chiloé Island (41.5–43° S). By that time the glaciation at the latitude of Chiloé was of ice sheet type contrasting to the valley glaciation found further north in Chile. Despite glacier advances much of the area west of Llanquihue Lake was still ice-free during the Last Glacial Maximum. During the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum vegetation at this location was dominated by Alpine herbs in wide open surfaces. The global warming that followed caused
5022-474: The eastern edge to protect Allied shipping in Waitematā Harbour , in the fear that Japanese ships might reach New Zealand. This mirrored developments at North Head and Rangitoto Island . The guns were never fired in anger . The empty emplacements can be visited seven days a week. The extensive tunnels below them have also opened as a tourist attraction. In 1999 Waiheke's community board voted Waiheke as
5115-408: The emerging industries, helping to supply timber and food for European ships. Ngāti Pāoa established wheat and vegetable plantations on the eastern bays of the island. The shipbuilding industry remained on the island until the 1860s, after which the eastern farming plantations quickly became disused. Ngāti Pāoa at Te Huruhi continued to supply produce to Auckland until the early 20th century. Much of
5208-452: The firewood and building timber supplied to the growing city of Auckland was supplied by Waiheke Island forests, while shingle and sand from Owhanake and Hooks Bay was used for concrete manufacturing, up until the 1920s. The island was also home to manganese mines between 1872 and 1900 (briefly first established in the 1840s). Large private land purchases occurred on Waiheke between 1836 and 1840s, followed by large crown land purchases in
5301-412: The furthest west, followed by Palm Beach , Surfdale , and Ostend . Further east lies Onetangi , on the northern coast of the wide Onetangi Bay . To the south of this on the opposing coast is Whakanewha Regional Park , Whakanewha , and Ōmiha (also called 'Rocky Bay'). Much of the eastern half of the island is privately owned farmland and vineyards. Waiheke is a popular holiday spot, and during
5394-710: The ice sheet down to as far south as present-day Szeged in Southern Hungary. Ice covered the whole of Iceland . In addition, ice covered Ireland along with roughly the northern half of the British Isles with the southern boundary of the ice sheet running approximately from the south of Wales to the north east of England, and then across the now submerged land of Doggerland to Denmark . Central Europe had isolated pockets of relative warmth corresponding to hydrothermally active areas, which served as refugia for taxa not adapted to extremely cold climates. In
5487-421: The ice sheets except at high elevations. Glaciers forced the early human populations who had originally migrated from northeast Siberia into refugia , reshaping their genetic variation by mutation and drift . This phenomenon established the older haplogroups found among Native Americans , and later migrations are responsible for northern North American haplogroups. In southeastern North America, between
5580-584: The island, along with a community art gallery. Waiheke has become internationally known for the biennial exhibition Sculpture on the Gulf , an "outdoor sculpture exhibition set on a spectacular coastal walkway on Waiheke Island in Auckland’s Hauraki Gulf". It takes place towards the end of January until approximately mid-March every second year. It was listed by the New York Times as number 35 in its list of 46 must-see places and events of 2013. The sculpture walk attracts thousands of visitors to Waiheke; in 2013, there were more than 30,000 attendees. Waiheke has
5673-406: The main summer season, especially around Christmas and Easter, its population increases substantially due to the number of holiday homes being rented out, corporate functions and dance parties at vineyards and restaurants, the Wine Festival and the Jazz Festival and weekend trippers from around the country and the world. The population increases significantly, almost all homes and baches are full and
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#17327902309765766-417: The new Local Board. After Roche's resignation after becoming a Member of Parliament for the Green Party of New Zealand in 2011, Paul Walden was elected in a by-election. In 2013 Lee was re-elected. Paul Walden was re-elected to the Local Board, joined by Beatle Treadwell, Becs Ballard, John Meeuwsen and Shirin Brown. In 2016, Lee was re-elected. Paul Walden, Shirin Brown and John Meeuwsen were re-elected to
5859-412: The north, in the dry Andes of Central and the Last Glacial Maximum is associated with increased humidity and the verified advance of at least some mountain glaciers. Montane glaciers in the northern Andes reached their peak extent approximately 27,000 years ago. In northwestern Argentina, pollen deposits record the altitudinal descent of the treeline during the LGM. Amazonia was much drier than in
5952-584: The objective of giving a voice to the island's ferry passengers whilst lobbying local politicians and working with the ferry companies to improve the overall experience. Last Glacial Maximum Based on changes in position of ice sheet margins dated via terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon dating , growth of ice sheets in the southern hemisphere commenced 33,000 years ago and maximum coverage has been estimated to have occurred sometime between 26,500 years ago and 20,000 years ago. After this, deglaciation caused an abrupt rise in sea level. Decline of
6045-428: The past. During the Last Glacial Maximum, much of the world was cold, dry, and inhospitable, with frequent storms and a dust-laden atmosphere. The dustiness of the atmosphere is a prominent feature in ice cores; dust levels were as much as 20 to 25 times greater than they are in the present. This was probably due to a number of factors: reduced vegetation, stronger global winds, and less precipitation to clear dust from
6138-654: The persistence of rainforests in eastern Australia at this time. Rivers maintained their sinuous form in southeastern Australia and there was increased aeolian deposition of sediment in compared to today. The Flinders Ranges likewise experienced humid conditions. In southwestern Western Australia, forests disappeared during the LGM. Between Sahul and Sundaland – a peninsula of South East Asia that comprised present-day Malaysia and western and northern Indonesia – there remained an archipelago of islands known as Wallacea . The water gaps between these islands, Sahul and Sundaland were considerably narrower and fewer in number than in
6231-744: The present day, featuring moist subtropical evergreen forests, despite sea levels in the South China Sea being about 100 metres lower than the present day. The Australian mainland, New Guinea , Tasmania and many smaller islands comprised a single land mass. This continent is now referred to sometimes as Sahul . In the Bonaparte Gulf of northwestern Australia, sea levels were about 125 metres lower than present. Interior Australia saw widespread aridity, evidenced by extensive dune activity and falling lake levels. Eastern Australia experienced two nadirs in temperature. Lacustrine sediments from North Stradbroke Island in coastal Queensland indicated humid conditions. Data from Little Llangothlin Lagoon likewise indicate
6324-507: The present day. The two main islands of New Zealand, along with associated smaller islands, were joined as one landmass. Virtually all of the Southern Alps were under permanent ice cover, with alpine glaciers extending from them into much of the surrounding high country . Northern Europe was largely covered by ice, with the southern boundary of the ice sheets passing through Germany and Poland. This ice extended northward to cover Svalbard and Franz Josef Land and northeastward to occupy
6417-498: The present, with flora diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished, especially in West Africa where a few refugia were surrounded by tropical grasslands . The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna , and the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia probably were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in their place except on
6510-485: The present. δ D values from plant waxes from the LGM are significantly more enriched than those in the present and those dating back to MIS 3, evidencing this increased aridity. Eastern Brazil was also affected; the site of Guanambi in Bahia was much drier than today. AMOC was weaker and more shallow during the LGM. Sea surface temperatures in the western subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic were around 5 °C colder compared to today. Intermediate depth waters of
6603-407: The shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large east–west mountain ranges were secondary factors that prevented the development of continental glaciation in Asia . All over the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel , rainfall could have been diminished by up to 90% compared to
6696-459: The south-eastern bays of the island. In 1915, Aucklanders were offered the chance to buy affordable land at Ostend , the first subdivision of Waiheke. The naming of these new subdivisions reveal the central role of beach life to the identity of the island. The winner of a competition naming the Surfdale subdivision was awarded a parcel of land near the beach. A section of land could be bought for
6789-606: The southern Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean, there was an enclave of unusually warm climate. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the whole southern third of Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. On the western side of the Andes the ice sheet reached sea level as far north as in the 41 degrees south at Chacao Channel . The western coast of Patagonia
6882-777: The territorial authority of Auckland Council . The first local government on the island were the Ostend Road Board and Orapiu Road Board, which both formed in 1921 and were combined in 1947. In 1970, the Waiheke County Council was formed, which administered the local government on Waiheke and the surrounding Hauraki Gulf islands. Since 1989, when the county council merged with the Auckland City Council, there has been an elected community board with limited, mainly representational powers, in line with other neighbourhoods in Auckland. One member on
6975-414: The vegetation of the western side, suggesting relatively recent regeneration. The original Māori name for Waiheke was apparently Te Motu-arai-roa , 'the long sheltering island', but at the time the first European visitors arrived it was known as Motu-Wai-Heke , 'island of trickling waters' — rendered as Motu Wy Hake by James Downie, master of the store ship HMS Coromandel , in his 1820 chart of
7068-569: The volcano. Glacial moraines on the volcano formed about 70,000 years ago and from about 40,000 to 13,000 years ago. If glacial deposits were formed on Mauna Loa , they have long since been buried by younger lava flows. Low sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface salinity (SSS) in the East China Sea during the LGM suggests the Kuroshio Current was reduced in strength relative to the present. Abyssal Pacific overturning
7161-460: The western end is 21.5 km (13.4 mi) from the central-city terminal in Auckland . It is the most populated island in the gulf, with 9,140 permanent residents. Another estimated 3,400 have second homes or holiday homes on the island. It is more densely populated than the North and South Islands . It is the most accessible island in the gulf, with regular passenger and car-ferry services,
7254-479: Was $ 31,700, compared with $ 31,800 nationally. 330 people (19.4%) earned over $ 70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 843 (49.6%) people were employed full-time, 303 (17.8%) were part-time, and 45 (2.6%) were unemployed. Two of the three schools on Waiheke Island are on Donald Bruce Road in the Surfdale area. Waiheke High School is a secondary school (Year 7–13) with
7347-614: Was 15 °C (59 °F) for the 2013–2017 period. As of 2012 about 3.1% of Earth's surface and 10.7% of the land area is covered in year-round ice. Carbon sequestration in the highly stratified and productive Southern Ocean was essential in producing the LGM. The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation ( snow ). Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe , East Asia remained unglaciated except at higher elevations. This difference
7440-447: Was 32.7, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 60.5% had no religion, 23.9% were Christian , 0.7% had Māori religious beliefs , 0.7% were Hindu , 1.5% were Buddhist and 3.9% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 504 (29.6%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 213 (12.5%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income
7533-629: Was a pocket of relative warmth. Following a preceding period of relative retreat from 52,000 to 40,000 years ago, the Laurentide Ice Sheet grew rapidly at the onset of the LGM until it covered essentially all of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains and extended roughly to the Missouri and Ohio Rivers , and eastward to Manhattan , reaching a total maximum volume of around 26.5 to 37 million cubic kilometres. At its peak,
7626-489: Was about 6 °C (11 °F) colder than today. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earth's surface and 25% of the land area during the last glacial maximum. The USGS also states that sea level was about 125 meters (410 ft) lower than in present times (2012). When comparing to the present, the average global temperature
7719-565: Was because the ice sheets in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them. These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan ). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean due to
7812-647: Was briefly depopulated during the Musket Wars , when Ngāti Pāoa and other Tāmaki Māori sought refuge in areas such as the Waikato . When Ngāti Pāoa returned to Tāmaki Makaurau (Auckland), they primarily settled on Waiheke. After the wars, the Ngāti Pāoa community of Waiheke were mostly based at Pūtiki Bay. In 1836, Thomas Maxwell established a shipyard at Man o'War Bay in eastern Waiheke, using local timber to build and repair ships. Ngāti Pāoa quickly engaged with
7905-770: Was created in 2010 by amalgamating seven councils and territorial authorities and Auckland Regional Council , Waiheke was given its own local board. The Waiheke Local Board was elected in the October 2010 Auckland local elections as part of the Auckland Council. The 2010 local elections resulted in Waiheke resident Mike Lee becoming the Councillor for the Waitemata and Gulf ward . Denise Roche , Faye Storer, Jo Holmes, Don McKenzie and Jim Hannan were elected to
7998-729: Was established by Council to facilitate the Board's wish. However, this proved not to be to the liking of most of Auckland's citizens. In 1991, the city responded to a campaign run by a pro-union group, the Waiheke Island Residents & Ratepayers Association (Inc) by holding a democratic referendum. The de-amalgamation proposal sponsored by the Community Board was defeated. In 2008, the Royal Commission on Auckland Governance received 3,080 submissions (from
8091-443: Was increasingly used for cattle pastures. In the late 1800s or early 1900s the island was owned by a man named Frank Bell, which caused the island to be previously known as Bell's Island. When shipping companies began offering occasional trips to the island in the 1880s, Waiheke emerged as a seaside resort. Day trips to Waiheke and Motutapu by steamers became a common recreational excursion, and boarding houses began to flourish at
8184-486: Was largely glaciated, but some authors have pointed out the possible existence of ice-free refugia for some plant species. On the eastern side of the Andes, glacier lobes occupied the depressions of Seno Skyring , Seno Otway , Inútil Bay , and Beagle Channel . On the Straits of Magellan, ice reached as far as Segunda Angostura . During the LGM, valley glaciers in the southern Andes (38–43° S) merged and descended from
8277-793: Was seasonally uniform. On the island of Mauritius in the Mascarenhas Archipelago , open wet forest vegetation dominated, contrasting with the dominantly closed-stratified-tall-forest state of Holocene Mauritian forests. There were ice sheets in modern Tibet (although scientists continue to debate the extent to which the Tibetan Plateau was covered with ice) as well as in Baltistan and Ladakh . In Southeast Asia , many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and permafrost covered Asia as far south as Beijing . Because of lowered sea levels, many of today's islands were joined to
8370-570: Was similar in spatial extent. The outflow of North Pacific Intermediate Water through the Tasman Sea was stronger during the LGM. In the Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Queensland , reef development shifted seaward due to the precipitous drop in sea levels, reaching a maximum distance from the present coastline as sea levels approached their lowest levels around 20,700-20,500 years ago. Microbial carbonate deposition in
8463-505: Was the dominant influence on southern Greenland's climate. Illorsuit Island was exclusively covered by cold-based glaciers. Eastern Beringia was extremely cold and dry. July air temperatures in northern Alaska and Yukon were about 2-3 °C lower compared to today. Equilibrium line altitudes in Alaska suggest summer temperatures were 2-5 °C compared to preindustrial. Sediment core analysis from Lone Spruce Pond in southwestern Alaska show it
8556-784: Was the main way to get to the island from the mainland for much of the twentieth century and was known for being a slow and noisy ferry. In 1987, the first of a fleet of new catamaran ferries began to provide more efficient access to and from the island. The 40 minute journey each way made a daily commute more viable. Scheduled ferry services regularly sail to and from Waiheke. Fullers operate passenger services from Downtown Auckland to Waiheke's Matiatia wharf, with trips taking approximately 40 minutes. Meanwhile, SeaLink provides passenger, car and freight services between Half Moon Bay in East Auckland and Waiheke's Kennedy Point, with trips taking around 50 minutes to an hour. SeaLink also offer
8649-526: Was weaker during the LGM than in the present day, although it was temporarily stronger during some intervals of ice sheet retreat. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was strong during the LGM. Evidence suggests that the Peruvian Oxygen Minimum Zone in the eastern Pacific was weaker than it is in the present day, likely as a result of increased oxygen concentrations in seawater permitted by cooler ocean water temperatures, though it
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