112-461: Sushi ( すし, 寿司, 鮨, 鮓 , pronounced [sɯɕiꜜ] or [sɯꜜɕi] ) is a traditional Japanese dish made with vinegared rice ( 鮨飯 , sushi-meshi ) , typically seasoned with sugar and salt , and combined with a variety of ingredients ( ねた , neta ) , such as seafood , vegetables , or meat: seafood is the most common, and may be served raw, cooked, or marinated. While sushi comes in numerous styles and presentation,
224-531: A butane torch to sear the sushi, which may contain ingredients such as mayonnaise , various sauces, jalapeños , and avocado in addition to typical sushi ingredients such as salmon and mackerel. The variety has since spread to other cities, such as Toronto. The increasing popularity of sushi worldwide has resulted in variations typically found in the Western world but rarely in Japan. A notable exception to this
336-416: A sustainable way. Many varieties of rice have been bred to improve crop quality and productivity. Biotechnology has created Green Revolution rice able to produce high yields when supplied with nitrogen fertiliser and managed intensively. Other products are rice able to express human proteins for medicinal use; flood-tolerant or deepwater rice ; and drought-tolerant and salt-tolerant varieties. Rice
448-403: A branched inflorescence which arises from the last internode on the stem. There can be up to 350 spikelets in a panicle, each containing male and female flower parts ( anthers and ovule ). A fertilised ovule develops into the edible grain or caryopsis . Rice is a cereal belonging to the family Poaceae . As a tropical crop, it can be grown during the two distinct seasons (dry and wet) of
560-532: A chef typically presses between the palms of the hands to form an oval-shaped ball and a topping (the neta ) draped over the ball. It is usually served with a bit of wasabi ; toppings are typically fish such as salmon, tuna, or other seafood. Certain toppings are typically bound to the rice with a thin strip of nori, most commonly octopus ( tako ), freshwater eel ( unagi ), sea eel ( anago ), squid ( ika ), and sweet egg ( tamago ). Gunkanmaki [ ja ] ( 軍艦巻 , "warship roll")
672-479: A disciple of Ikeda, discovered in 1913 that dried bonito flakes (a type of tuna) contained another umami substance. This was the ribonucleotide IMP . In 1957, Akira Kuninaka realized that the ribonucleotide GMP present in shiitake mushrooms also conferred the umami taste. One of Kuninaka's most important discoveries was the synergistic effect between ribonucleotides and glutamate. When foods rich in glutamate are combined with ingredients that have ribonucleotides,
784-478: A favorite and specialty of Osaka . A block-shaped piece is formed using a wooden mold, called an oshibako . The chef lines the bottom of the oshibako with the toppings, covers them with sushi rice, and then presses the mold's lid to create a compact, rectilinear block. The block is removed from the mold and then cut into bite-sized pieces. Particularly famous is battera ( バッテラ , pressed mackerel sushi) or saba zushi ( 鯖寿司 ) . In oshizushi , all
896-697: A long history in cooking. Fermented fish sauces ( garum ), which are rich in glutamate, were used widely in ancient Rome, fermented barley sauces ( murri ) rich in glutamate were used in medieval Byzantine and Arab cuisine, and fermented fish sauces and soy sauces have histories going back to the third century in China. Cheese varieties are rich in glutamate and umami flavor. In the late 1800s, chef Auguste Escoffier , who opened restaurants in Paris and London, created meals that combined umami with salty , sour , sweet , and bitter tastes. However, he did not know
1008-440: A method originally meant to hide the nori. Uramaki differs from other makimono because the rice is on the outside and the nori inside. The filling is surrounded by nori, then a layer of rice, and optionally an outer coating of some other ingredients such as roe or toasted sesame seeds . It can be made with different fillings, such as tuna, crab meat, avocado, mayonnaise, cucumber, or carrots. Examples of variations include
1120-462: A more popular type of sushi within the United States and come in variations that take their names from their places of origin. Other rolls may include a variety of ingredients, including chopped scallops , spicy tuna , beef or chicken teriyaki roll, okra , and assorted vegetables such as cucumber and avocado, and the tempura roll, where shrimp tempura is inside the roll or the entire roll
1232-406: A perceptible umami taste. Sweet and umami tastes both utilize the taste receptor subunit TAS1R3 , with salt taste blockers reducing discrimination between monosodium glutamate and sucrose in rodents. If umami doesn't have perceptual independence, it could be classified with other tastes like fat, carbohydrate, metallic, and calcium, which can be perceived at high concentrations but may not offer
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#17327905912481344-508: A prominent taste experience. Most taste buds on the tongue and other regions of the mouth can detect umami taste, irrespective of their location. (The tongue map in which different tastes are distributed in different regions of the tongue is a common misconception.) Biochemical studies have identified the taste receptors responsible for the sense of umami as modified forms of mGluR4 , mGluR1 , and taste receptor type 1 ( TAS1R1 + TAS1R3 ), all of which have been found in all regions of
1456-411: A role in various religions and traditions, such as in weddings . The rice plant can grow to over 1 m (3 ft) tall; if in deep water, it can reach a length of 5 m (16 ft). A single plant may have several leafy stems or tillers . The upright stem is jointed with nodes along its length; a long slender leaf arises from each node. The self-fertile flowers are produced in a panicle ,
1568-462: A single domestication event for O. sativa . Both indica and japonica forms of Asian rice sprang from a single domestication event in China from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon . Despite this evidence, it appears that indica rice arose when japonica arrived in India about 4,500 years ago and hybridised with another rice, whether an undomesticated proto- indica or wild O. nivara . Rice
1680-505: A slice of fish draped over it, became popular in Edo (contemporary Tokyo) in the 1820s or 1830s. One common story of the origin of nigirizushi is of the chef Hanaya Yohei (1799–1858), who invented or perfected the technique in 1824 at his shop in Ryōgoku . The nigirizushi of this period was somewhat different from modern nigirizushi . The sushi rice of this period was about three times
1792-562: A source of umami could reduce the need for salt by 10–25% to flavor such foods as chicken broth , tomato sauce , or coconut curry while maintaining overall taste intensity. Some population groups, such as the elderly, may benefit from umami taste because their taste and smell sensitivity may be impaired by age and medication. The loss of taste and smell can contribute to poor nutrition, increasing their risk of disease. Some evidence exists to show umami not only stimulates appetite, but also may contribute to satiety . Many foods are rich in
1904-514: A study commissioned by the FDA was only able to identify transient, mild symptoms in a few of the subjects, and only when the MSG was consumed in unrealistically large quantities. There is also no apparent difference in sensitivity to umami when comparing Japanese and Americans. The five basic tastes (saltiness, sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and savoriness) are detected by specialized taste receptors on
2016-411: A taste receptor subunit, with salty taste blockers reducing discrimination between monosodium glutamate and sucrose; and some people cannot distinguish umami from a salty taste. Monosodium L-aspartate has an umami taste about four times less intense than MSG, whereas ibotenic acid and tricholomic acid (likely as their salts or with salt) are claimed to be many times more intense. Glutamate has
2128-444: A type of haya-zushi . Each region utilizes local flavors to produce a variety of sushi that has been passed down for many generations. A 1689 cookbook describes haya-zushi , and a 1728 cookbook describes pouring vinegar over hako-zushi ( 箱ずし , "box sushi") (square sushi made by filling a wooden frame with rice). Today's style of nigirizushi ( 握り寿司 , "hand-pressed sushi") , consisting of an oblong mound of rice with
2240-449: A variation, sliced pieces of makizushi may be lightly fried with egg coating. Below are some common types of makizushi , but many other kinds exist. Narezushi ( 熟れ寿司 , "matured sushi") is a traditional form of fermented sushi. Skinned and gutted fish are stuffed with salt, placed in a wooden barrel, doused with salt again, then weighed down with a heavy tsukemonoishi (pickling stone). As days pass, water seeps out and
2352-440: A wide variety of pests including insects, nematodes, rodents such as rats, snails, and birds. Major rice insect pests include armyworms, rice bugs , black bugs , cutworms, field crickets, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, and planthoppers. High rates of nitrogen fertiliser application may worsen aphid outbreaks. Weather conditions can contribute to pest outbreaks: rice gall midge outbreaks are worsened by high rainfall in
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#17327905912482464-436: Is rainfed like wheat or maize. Across Asia, unmilled rice or "paddy" (Indonesian and Malay padi ), was traditionally the product of smallholder agriculture, with manual harvesting . Larger farms make use of machines such as combine harvesters to reduce the input of labour. The grain is ready to harvest when the moisture content is 20–25%. Harvesting involves reaping , stacking the cut stalks, threshing to separate
2576-678: Is 69% water, 29% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference serving of 100 grams (3.5 oz), cooked white rice provides 130 calories of food energy , and contains moderate levels of manganese (18% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (all less than 10% of the Daily Value ). In 2018, the World Health Organization strongly recommended fortifying rice with iron , and conditionally recommended fortifying it with vitamin A and with folic acid . Golden rice
2688-434: Is a cylindrical piece formed with the help of a mat known as a makisu ( 巻き簾 ) . Makizushi is generally wrapped in nori (seaweed) but is occasionally wrapped in a thin omelette , soy paper, cucumber, or shiso (perilla) leaves. Makizushi is often cut into six or eight pieces, constituting a single roll order. Short-grain white rice is usually used, although short-grain brown rice, like olive oil on nori,
2800-627: Is a major food staple in Asia, Latin America, and some parts of Africa, feeding over half the world's population. However, a substantial part of the crop can be lost post-harvest through inefficient transportation, storage, and milling. A quarter of the crop in Nigeria is lost after harvest. Storage losses include damage by mould fungi if the rice is not dried sufficiently. In China, losses in modern metal silos were just 0.2%, compared to 7–13% when rice
2912-403: Is a special type of nigirizushi : an oval, hand-formed clump of sushi rice that has a strip of nori wrapped around its perimeter to form a vessel that is filled with some soft, loose or fine-chopped ingredient that requires the confinement of nori such as roe , nattō , oysters, uni ( sea urchin roe), sweetcorn with mayonnaise, scallops, and quail eggs. Gunkan-maki was invented at
3024-498: Is a variant of inarizushi originating in Hawaii that may include green beans , carrots , gobo , or poke along with rice, wrapped in a triangular abura-age piece. It is often sold in okazu-ya (Japanese delis ) and as a component of bento boxes. Makizushi ( 巻き寿司 , "rolled sushi") , norimaki ( 海苔巻き , " nori roll", used generically for other dishes as well) or makimono ( 巻物 , "variety of rolls")
3136-504: Is a variety produced through genetic engineering to synthesize beta-carotene , a precursor of vitamin A, in the endosperm of the rice grain. It is intended to be grown and eaten in parts of the world where Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent. Golden rice has been opposed by activists, such as in the Philippines . In 2016 more than 100 Nobel laureates encouraged the use of genetically modified organisms , such as golden rice, for
3248-473: Is another variant of uramakizushi filled with tamago (omelette), imitation crab and cucumber, rolled with shiso leaf and nori , topped with slices of Norwegian salmon, garnished with lemon and mayonnaise. Uramaki ( 裏巻 , "inside-out roll") is a medium-sized cylindrical style of sushi with two or more fillings and was developed as a result of the creation of the California roll, as
3360-581: Is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance, landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social. Farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary. Pesticides may actually induce resurgence of populations of rice pests such as the brown planthopper , both by destroying beneficial insects and by enhancing the pest's reproduction. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. Farmers in China, Indonesia and
3472-559: Is battered and fried tempura-style. In the Southern United States, many sushi restaurants prepare rolls using crawfish . Sometimes, rolls are made with brown rice or black rice , known as forbidden rice, which appear in Japanese cuisine as well. Per Food and Drug Administration regulations, raw fish served in the United States must be frozen before serving to kill parasites. Since rolls are often made to order, it
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3584-536: Is common to foods that contain high levels of L-glutamate , IMP and GMP , most notably in fish , shellfish , cured meats , meat extracts , mushrooms , vegetables (e.g., ripe tomatoes , Chinese cabbage , spinach , celery , etc.), green tea , hydrolyzed vegetable protein , and fermented and aged products involving bacterial or yeast cultures, such as cheeses , shrimp pastes , fish sauce , soy sauce , natto , nutritional yeast , and yeast extracts such as Vegemite and Marmite . Studies have shown that
3696-508: Is from Asia. The average world yield for rice was 4.7 metric tons per hectare (2.1 short tons per acre), in 2022. Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 1999 at 17.1 metric tons per hectare (7.6 short tons per acre) on a demonstration plot. This employed specially developed hybrid rice and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an innovation in rice farming. Rice
3808-404: Is not unusual for the customer to specify the exact ingredients desired (e.g., salmon roll, cucumber roll, avocado roll, tuna roll, shrimp or tuna tempura roll, etc.). Though the menu names of dishes often vary by restaurant, some examples include the following: Australian sushi is a thick hand roll made from half a standard sheet of nori. It is similar to futomaki thick rolls, however, it
3920-466: Is now becoming more widespread among the health-conscious. Rarely, sweet rice is mixed in makizushi rice. Nowadays, the rice in makizushi can be many kinds of black rice, boiled rice, and cereals. Besides the common ingredients listed above, some varieties may include cheese, spicy cooked squid , yakiniku , kamaboko , lunch meat , sausage, bacon or spicy tuna . The nori may be brushed with sesame oil or sprinkled with sesame seeds. In
4032-495: Is now used in conveyor belt sushi restaurants today. When the patent for conveyor belt sushi restaurants expired, a chain of conveyor belt sushi restaurants was established, spreading conveyor belt sushi throughout Japan and further popularizing and lowering the price of sushi. By 2021, the conveyor belt sushi market had grown to 700 billion yen and spread outside Japan. The earliest written mention of sushi in English described in
4144-469: Is often served uncut as a on-the-go snack. Typical fillings in Australian sushi include teriyaki chicken, salmon and avocado, tuna, prawn, etc. Australian California rolls in are very different from American California rolls, with the nori wraps the rice and fillings always on the outside, and has no tobiko nor cream cheese. Contrary to sushi in Japan and other countries being a high-end food, it
4256-495: Is pleasant only within a relatively narrow concentration range. The optimum umami taste depends also on the amount of salt, and at the same time, low-salt foods can maintain a satisfactory taste with the appropriate amount of umami. One study showed that ratings of pleasantness, taste intensity, and ideal saltiness of low-salt soups were greater when the soup contained umami, whereas low-salt soups without umami were less pleasant. Another study demonstrated that using fish sauce as
4368-583: Is popular because it is filling, fast, and easy to make. It is eaten annually on Hinamatsuri in March and Kodomonohi in May. Inarizushi ( 稲荷寿司 ) is a pouch of fried tofu typically filled with sushi rice alone. According to Shinto lore, inarizushi is named after the god Inari . Foxes, messengers of Inari, are believed to have a fondness for fried tofu and in some regions an Inari-zushi roll has pointed corners that resemble fox ears, thus reinforcing
4480-542: Is possible that it referred to narezushi . Until the early 19th century, sushi slowly changed with Japanese cuisine. The Japanese started eating three meals a day, rice was boiled instead of steamed, and of large importance was the development of rice vinegar . During the Muromachi period (1336–1573), the Japanese invented a style of sushi called namanare or namanari ( 生成、なまなれ、なまなり ), which means "partially fermented". The fermentation period of namanare
4592-550: Is removed. After six months, this sushi can be eaten, remaining edible for another six months or more. The most famous variety of narezushi are the ones offered as a specialty dish of Shiga Prefecture , particularly the funa-zushi made from fish of the crucian carp genus , the authentic version of which calls for the use of nigorobuna , a particular locally differentiated variety of wild goldfish endemic to Lake Biwa . Nigirizushi ( 握り寿司 , "hand-pressed sushi") consists of an oblong mound of sushi rice that
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4704-812: Is sister to the bamboos, Bambusoideae , and the cereal subfamily Pooideae . The rice genus Oryza is one of eleven in the Oryzeae; it is sister to the Phyllorachideae . The edible rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima are among some 300 species or subspecies in the genus. other grasses (inc. the C4 grasses , maize , sorghum ) Streptogyneae Ehrharteae Phyllorachideae Wild rices inc. Zizania other rice species and subspecies O. sativa (Asian rice) O. glaberrima (African rice) Bambusoideae (bamboos) Pooideae (grasses and cereals inc. wheat , barley ) Oryza sativa rice
4816-638: Is stickier, and is used for sweet dishes, and in Italy for risotto ; and sticky short-grain rice is used in Japanese sushi as it keeps its shape when cooked. White rice when cooked contains 29% carbohydrate and 2% protein, with some manganese . Golden rice is a variety produced by genetic engineering to contain vitamin A . Production of rice is estimated to have caused over 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2022. Predictions of how rice yields will be affected by climate change vary across geographies and socioeconomic contexts. In human culture, rice plays
4928-438: Is subjected to a steaming process before it is milled. This makes the grain harder, and moves some of the grain's vitamins and minerals into the white part of the rice so these are retained after milling. Rice does not contain gluten , so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet . Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein as it does not contain all of
5040-714: Is the founder of Mizkan , a company that still develops and sells vinegar and other seasonings today. The dish was originally termed Edomae zushi as it used freshly caught fish from the Edo-mae (Edo or Tokyo Bay ); the term Edomae nigirizushi is still used today as a by-word for quality sushi, regardless of its ingredients' origins. In 1958, Yoshiaki Shiraishi opened the first conveyor belt sushi restaurant ( 回転寿司 , kaiten-zushi ) named " Genroku Zushi" in Higashi-Osaka . In conveyor belt sushi restaurants, conveyor belts installed along tables and counters in
5152-581: Is the most popular cuisine in Australia with sushi as the third overall most popular food item, after hot dogs and pizza. Australian sushi has grown in popularity in recent years, with its influence extending beyond Australia into the United Kingdom and United States , which has sparked an online controversy after the opening of Sushi Counter in West Village , New York City . People accused
5264-404: Is the use of salmon. The Japanese have eaten salmon since prehistory; however, caught salmon in nature often contains parasites and must be cooked or cured for its lean meat to be edible. On the other side of the world, in the 1960s and 1970s, Norwegian entrepreneurs started experimenting with aquaculture farming. The big breakthrough was when they figured out how to raise salmon in net pens in
5376-406: Is to flood the field to a depth of 5 cm (2 in), then to let the water level drop to 15 cm (6 in) below surface level, as measured by looking into a perforated field water tube sunk into the soil, and then repeating the cycle. Deepwater rice varieties tolerate flooding to a depth of over 50 centimetres for at least a month. Upland rice is grown without flooding, in hilly or mountainous regions; it
5488-590: Is topped with cheese curds and gravy and contains duck confit , more cheese curds, and sweet potato tempura. Sushi cake is made of crab meat, avocado, shiitake mushroom, salmon, spicy tuna, and tobiko and served on sushi rice, then torched with spicy mayonnaise, barbecue sauce, and balsamic reduction, and dotted with caper and garlic chips. Sushi pizza is deep-fried rice or crab/imitation crab cake topped with mayonnaise and various sushi ingredients. Sinaloan sushi originated in Sinaloa, Mexico and has been available in
5600-516: Is traditionally eaten by hand in Japan, the outer layer of rice can be quite difficult to handle with fingers. In Brazil uramaki and other sushi pieces commonly include cream cheese in their recipe. Although unheard of in Japanese sushi, this is the most common sushi ingredient used in Brazil. Temaki also often contains a large amount of cream cheese and is extremely popular in restaurants. Multiple-filling rolls inspired by futomaki are
5712-471: Is used as a model organism in biology. Dry rice grain is milled to remove the outer layers; depending on how much is removed, products range from brown rice to rice with germ and white rice. Some is parboiled to make it easy to cook. Rice contains no gluten ; it provides protein but not all the essential amino acids needed for good health. Rice of different types is eaten around the world. Long-grain rice tends to stay intact on cooking; medium-grain rice
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#17327905912485824-419: Is vinegared sushi rice. Fillings, toppings, condiments, and preparation vary widely. Due to rendaku consonant mutation , sushi is pronounced with zu instead of su when a prefix is attached, as in nigirizushi . Chirashizushi ( ちらし寿司 , "scattered sushi", also referred to as barazushi ) serves the rice in a bowl and tops it with a variety of raw fish and vegetable garnishes. It
5936-516: Is widely available in affordable takeaway joints in Australia. Sushi in Japanese restaurants has existed in Australia since the 1950s, but the first Australian-style sushi only appeared in 1995, in a stall called Sushi-Jin in the Target Centre food court at 246 Bourke Street , Melbourne. The owner, Toshihiro Shindo, started selling takeaway sushi rolls which he adapted to Australian tastes. The store closed in 2008. Till this day, Japanese cuisine
6048-620: The Oxford English Dictionary is in an 1893 book, A Japanese Interior , where it mentions sushi as "a roll of cold rice with fish, sea-weed, or some other flavoring". There is an earlier mention of sushi in James Hepburn 's Japanese–English dictionary from 1873, and an 1879 article on Japanese cookery in the journal Notes and Queries . Despite common misconception among English speakers, sushi does not mean "raw seafood." The common ingredient in all types of sushi
6160-541: The chōnin class in the Edo period. Sushi is traditionally made with medium-grain white rice , although it can also be prepared with brown rice or short-grain rice. It is commonly prepared with seafood, such as squid , eel , yellowtail , salmon , tuna or imitation crab meat . Certain types of sushi are vegetarian. It is often served with pickled ginger ( gari ) , wasabi , and soy sauce . Daikon radish or pickled daikon ( takuan ) are popular garnishes for
6272-529: The Ginza Kyubey restaurant in 1941; its invention significantly expanded the repertoire of soft toppings used in sushi. Temarizushi ( 手まり寿司 , "ball sushi") is a style of sushi made by pressing rice and fish into a ball-shaped form by hand using a plastic wrap. Oshizushi ( 押し寿司 , "pressed sushi") , also known as hako-zushi ( 箱寿司 , "box sushi") , is a pressed sushi from the Kansai region ,
6384-532: The Irrawaddy River basin, which is now Myanmar . The first mention of a narezushi -like food is in a Chinese dictionary thought to be from the 4th century, in this instance referring to salted fish that had been placed in cooked or steamed rice, which caused it to undergo a fermentation process via lactic acid . Fermentation methods following similar logic in other Asian rice cultures include burong isda , balao-balao , and tinapayan of
6496-476: The Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese on a variety of different dishes. Umami has a mild but lasting aftertaste associated with salivation and a sensation of furriness on the tongue, stimulating the throat, the roof and the back of the mouth. By itself, umami is not palatable , but it makes a great variety of foods pleasant, especially in the presence of a matching aroma. Like other basic tastes, umami
6608-452: The Philippines ; pekasam of Indonesia and Malaysia , pla ra ( ปลาร้า ) of Thailand; sikhae ( 식해 ) of Korea ; and Mắm bò hóc or cá chua of Vietnam. The lacto-fermentation of the rice prevents the fish from spoiling. When wet-field rice cultivation was introduced during the Yayoi period , lakes and rivers would flood during the rainy season and fish would get caught in
6720-478: The adjectival verb sui ( 酸い , "to be sour") , resulting in the term sushi ( 酸し ) . Narezushi still exists as a regional specialty, notably as funa-zushi from Shiga Prefecture . In the Yōrō Code ( 養老律令 , Yōrō-ritsuryō ) of 718, the characters for "鮨" and "鮓" are written as a tribute to the Japanese imperial court, and although there are various theories as to what exactly this food was, it
6832-440: The essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health. World trade figures are much smaller than those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. China, an exporter of rice in the early 2000s, had become the world's largest importer of rice by 2013. Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade; by 2012, India was the largest exporter of rice, with Thailand and Vietnam
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#17327905912486944-405: The rainbow roll (an inside-out topped with thinly sliced maguro, hamachi, ebi, sake and avocado) and the caterpillar roll (an inside-out topped with thinly sliced avocado). Also commonly found is the "rock and roll" (an inside-out roll with barbecued freshwater eel and avocado with toasted sesame seeds on the outside). In Japan, uramaki is an uncommon type of makimono ; because sushi
7056-405: The salts of glutamic acid , known as glutamates , give the characteristic umami taste due to their ionized state. GMP and IMP amplify the taste intensity of glutamate. Adding salt to the free acids also enhances the umami taste. It is disputed whether umami is truly an independent taste because standalone glutamate without table salt ions(Na+) is perceived as sour; sweet and umami tastes share
7168-478: The 21st century as people in Asia and elsewhere ate less grain and more meat. An exception is Sub-Saharan Africa, where both per capita consumption of rice and population are increasing. Rice is a commonly-eaten food around the world. The varieties of rice are typically classified as short-, medium-, and long-grained. Oryza sativa indica varieties are usually long-grained; Oryza sativa japonica varieties are usually short- or medium-grained. Short-grain rice, with
7280-704: The Americas by the Spanish. In British North America by the time of the start of the American War of Independence , rice had become the fourth most valuable export commodity behind only tobacco, wheat, and fish. In 2021, world production of rice was 787 million tonnes , led by China and India with a combined 52% of the total. This placed rice fourth in the list of crops by production, after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Other major producers were Bangladesh , Indonesia and Vietnam . 90% of world production
7392-420: The Edo period (1603–1867), a third type of sushi, haya-zushi ( 早寿司、早ずし , "fast sushi") , was developed. Haya-zushi differed from earlier sushi in that instead of lactic fermentation of rice, vinegar, a fermented food, was mixed with rice to give it a sour taste so that it could be eaten at the same time as the fish. Previously, sushi had evolved with a focus on shortening the fermentation period, but with
7504-521: The Japanese food supplier Nichirei . Other sushi creations to suit the Western palate were initially fueled by the invention of the California roll , a norimaki which presently almost always uses imitation crab (the original recipe calls for real cooked crab), along with avocado and cucumber. A wide variety of popular rolls ( norimaki and uramaki ) have evolved since. 'Norway roll'
7616-466: The Philippines have traditionally managed weeds and pests by the polycultural practice of raising ducks and sometimes fish in their rice paddies. These produce valuable additional crops, eat small pest animals, manure the rice, and in the case of ducks also control weeds. Rice plants produce their own chemical defences to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as
7728-606: The Western United States since 2013. Rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population , particularly in Asia and Africa . Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice)—or, much less commonly, Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago; African rice
7840-538: The amino acids and nucleotides imparting umami. Naturally occurring glutamate can be found in meats and vegetables. Inosine ( IMP ) comes primarily from meats and guanosine ( GMP ) from vegetables. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake , are rich sources of umami flavor from guanylate. Smoked or fermented fish are high in inosinate, and shellfish in adenylate . Protein in food is tasteless, however processes such as fermentation, curing, or heat treatment release glutamate and other amino acids. Generally, umami taste
7952-579: The amino acids in breast milk are often the first encounter humans have with umami. Glutamic acid makes up half of the free amino acids in breast milk. Since all umami taste compounds are sodium salts, the perceptual differentiation of salty and umami tastes has been difficult in taste tests and studies have found as much as 27% of certain populations may be umami "hypotasters". Furthermore single glutamate (glutamic acid) with no table salt ions (Na+) elicits sour taste and in psychophysical tests, sodium or potassium salt cations seem to be required to produce
8064-450: The association.The shape of Inarizushi varies by region. Inarizushi usually has a rectangular shape in Kantō region and a triangle shape in Kansai region . Regional variations include pouches made of a thin omelette ( 帛紗寿司 , fukusa-zushi , or 茶巾寿司 , chakin-zushi ) instead of tofu. It should not be confused with inari maki , a roll filled with flavored fried tofu. Cone sushi
8176-465: The benefits these could bring. In 2022, greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions. Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from croplands , some 30% of agricultural methane emissions , and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions. Methane is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits
8288-492: The chemical source of this unique quality. Umami was first scientifically identified in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda , a professor of the Tokyo Imperial University . He found that glutamate was responsible for the palatability of the broth from kombu seaweed. He noticed that the taste of kombu dashi was distinct from sweet, sour, bitter, and salty and named it umami . Professor Shintaro Kodama,
8400-410: The consequent release of ATP and secretion of neurotransmitters including serotonin . Cells responding to umami taste stimuli do not possess typical synapses , but ATP conveys taste signals to gustatory nerves and in turn to the brain that interprets and identifies the taste quality via the gut-brain axis . Umami has become popular as a flavor with food manufacturers trying to improve
8512-511: The crop would be lost under these conditions. In the Po Valley in Italy, the arborio and carnaroli risotto rice varieties have suffered poor harvests through drought in the 21st century. The Ente Nazionale Risi [ it ] is developing drought-resistant varieties; its nuovo prometeo variety has deep roots that enable it to tolerate drought, but is not suitable for risotto. Rice yield can be reduced by weed growth, and
8624-408: The defining component is the vinegared rice, also know as shari ( しゃり ) , or sumeshi ( 酢飯 ) . The modern form of sushi is believed to have been created by Hanaya Yohei , who invented nigiri-zushi, the most commonly recognized type today, in which seafood is placed on hand-pressed vinegared rice. This innovation occurred around 1824 in the Edo period (1603–1867). It was the fast food of
8736-444: The dish. Sushi is sometimes confused with sashimi , a dish that consists of thinly sliced raw fish or occasionally meat , without sushi rice . A dish known as narezushi ( 馴れ寿司, 熟寿司 , "matured fish") , stored in fermented rice for possibly months at a time, has been cited as one of the early influences for the Japanese practice of applying rice on raw fish. The fish was fermented with rice vinegar, salt, and rice, after which
8848-425: The exception of Spanish Bomba, is usually sticky when cooked, and is suitable for puddings. Thai Jasmine rice is aromatic, and unusually for a long-grain rice has some stickiness, with a soft texture. Indian Basmati rice is very long-grained and aromatic. Italian Arborio rice , used for risotto , is of medium length, oval, and quite sticky. Japanese sushi rice is a sticky short-grain variety. Cooked white rice
8960-425: The field where they will grow, or seedlings can be grown in a seedbed and transplanted into the field. Direct seeding needs some 60 to 80 kg of grain per hectare, while transplanting needs less, around 40 kg per hectare, but requires far more labour. Most rice in Asia is transplanted by hand. Mechanical transplanting takes less time but requires a carefully-prepared field and seedlings raised on mats or in trays to fit
9072-802: The form of monosodium glutamate (MSG), and nucleotides are commonly added in the form of disodium guanylate , inosine monophosphate (IMP) or guanosine monophosphate (GMP). Since umami has its own receptors rather than arising out of a combination of the traditionally recognized taste receptors, scientists now consider umami to be a distinct taste. Foods that have a strong umami flavor include meats, shellfish , fish (including fish sauce and preserved fish such as Maldives fish , katsuobushi , sardines , and anchovies ), dashi , tomatoes , mushrooms , hydrolyzed vegetable protein , meat extract , yeast extract , kimchi , cheeses , and soy sauce . A loanword from Japanese ( うま味 ) , umami can be translated as "pleasant savory taste". This neologism
9184-511: The grain, and cleaning by winnowing or screening . The rice grain is dried as soon as possible to bring the moisture content down to a level that is safe from mould fungi. Traditional drying relies on the heat of the sun, with the grain spread out on mats or on pavements. The edible rice species are members of the BOP clade within the grass family, the Poaceae . The rice subfamily, Oryzoideae ,
9296-626: The great diversity and continuous evolution of pests. Resistance genes are being sought from wild species of rice, and genetic engineering techniques are being applied. Umami Umami ( / uː ˈ m ɑː m i / from Japanese : うま味 Japanese pronunciation: [ɯmami] ), or savoriness , is one of the five basic tastes . It is characteristic of broths and cooked meats. People taste umami through taste receptors that typically respond to glutamates and nucleotides , which are widely present in meat broths and fermented products. Glutamates are commonly added to some foods in
9408-575: The herbicide 2,4-D , cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests. Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid , appear to induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that make the plant more susceptible to certain pests. Plant breeders have created rice cultivars incorporating resistance to various insect pests . Conventional plant breeding of resistant varieties has been limited by challenges such as rearing insect pests for testing, and
9520-536: The ingredients are either cooked or cured, and raw fish is never used. The name battera means "small boat" in Portuguese (bateira), as the sushi molds resembled small boats. Oshizushi wrapped in persimmon leaves, a specialty of Nara , is known as kakinohazushi ( 柿の葉寿司 ) . Seared oshizushi , or aburi oshizushi ( 炙り押し寿司 ) , is a popular variety invented in Vancouver, BC in 2008. This involves using
9632-441: The invention of haya-zushi , which is simply mixed with vinegar, the fermentation process was eliminated and sushi became a fast food. Many types of sushi known in the world today, such as chirashizushi ( 散らし寿司 , "scattered sushi") , inarizushi ( 稲荷寿司 , " Inari sushi") , makizushi ( 巻寿司 , "rolled sushi") , and nigirizushi ( 握り寿司 , "hand-pressed sushi") , were invented during this period, and they are
9744-410: The later years of the 20th century decreased rice yield by between 10% and 20% across 200 farms in seven Asian countries. This may have been caused by increased night-time respiration. IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35 °C or more for over one hour, so
9856-417: The machine. Rice does not thrive if continuously submerged. Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. The usual arrangement is for lowland fields to be surrounded by bunds and flooded to a depth of a few centimetres until around a week before harvest time; this requires a large amount of water. The "alternate wetting and drying" technique uses less water. One form of this
9968-428: The other largest exporters. As of 2016, the countries that consumed the most rice were China (29% of total), India, and Indonesia. By 2020, Bangladesh had taken third place from Indonesia. On an annual average from 2020-23, China consumed 154 million tonnes of rice, India consumed 109 million tonnes, and Bangladesh and Indonesia consumed about 36 million tonnes each. Across the world, rice consumption per capita fell in
10080-491: The owner of cultural appropriation and left negative reviews, prompting to Google to remove all spam ratings from the restaurant location. Many of the styles seen in the United States are also seen in Canada and their own. Doshi (a portmanteau of donut and sushi ) is a donut-shaped rice ball on a deep-fried crab or imitation crab cake topped with sushi ingredients. Maki poutine is similar to makizushi in style except it
10192-489: The restaurant transport plates of sushi to customers. Generally, the bill is based on the number of plates, with different colored plates representing the price of the sushi. When Genroku Sushi opened a restaurant at the Japan World Exposition, Osaka, 1970 , it won an award at the expo, and conveyor belt sushi restaurants became known throughout Japan. In 1973, an automatic tea dispenser was developed, which
10304-485: The resulting taste intensity is higher than would be expected from merely adding the intensity of the individual ingredients. This synergy of umami may help explain various classical food pairings: the Japanese make dashi with kombu seaweed and dried bonito flakes; the Chinese add Chinese leek and Chinese cabbage to chicken soup, as do Scots in the similar Scottish dish of cock-a-leekie soup ; and Italians grate
10416-418: The rice paddy fields. Pickling was a way to preserve the excess fish and guarantee food for the following months, and narezushi became an important source of protein for Japanese consumers. The term sushi literally means "sour-tasting", as the overall dish has a sour and umami or savory taste. The term comes from an antiquated し shi terminal-form conjugation, no longer used in other contexts, of
10528-574: The rice was discarded. Narezushi is also called honnare , meaning "fully fermented", as opposed to namanare , meaning "partially fermented", a type of sushi that appeared in the Muromachi period . Fermented fish using rice, such as narezushi , originated in Southeast Asia where it was made to preserve freshwater fish , possibly in the Mekong River basin, which is now Laos , Cambodia , Thailand , and Vietnam , and in
10640-591: The sea. Being farm-raised, the Atlantic salmon reportedly showed advantages over the Pacific salmon , such as no parasites, easy animal capture, and could be grown with higher fat content. With government subsidies and improved techniques, they were so successful in raising fatty and parasite-free salmon they ended up with a surplus. Norway has a small population and limited market; therefore, they looked to other countries to export their salmon. The first Norwegian salmon
10752-428: The size of today's nigirizushi . The amount of vinegar used was half that of today's sushi, and the type of vinegar developed during this period, called aka-su ( 赤酢 , "red vinegar") , was made by fermenting sake lees. They also used slightly more salt than in modern times instead of sugar. Seafood served over rice was prepared in a variety of ways. This red vinegar was developed by Nakano Matazaemon (中野 又佐衛門), who
10864-1011: The soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw. It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a sequence of wetting and drying . This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields. Predictions of climate change's effects on rice cultivation vary. Global rice yield has been projected to decrease by around 3.2% with each 1°C increase in global average temperature while another study predicts global rice cultivation will increase initially, plateauing at about 3°C warming (2091–2100 relative to 1850–1900). The impacts of climate change on rice cultivation vary across geographic location and socioeconomic context. For example, rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during
10976-472: The synergism already described by Akira Kuninaka in 1957. However, the specific role of each type of receptor in taste bud cells remains unclear. They are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) with similar signaling molecules that include G proteins beta-gamma , PLCB2 and PI3 -mediated release of calcium (Ca ) from intracellular stores. Calcium activates a so-called transient-receptor-potential cation channel TRPM5 that leads to membrane depolarization and
11088-408: The taste of low sodium offerings. Chefs create "umami bombs", which are dishes made of several umami ingredients like fish sauce . Umami may account for the long-term formulation and popularity of ketchup . The United States Food and Drug Administration has designated the umami enhancer monosodium glutamate (MSG) as a safe ingredient. While some people identify themselves as sensitive to MSG ,
11200-506: The term umami was recognized as the scientific term to describe the taste of glutamates and nucleotides at the first Umami International Symposium in Hawaii. Umami represents the taste of the amino acid L-glutamate and 5'- ribonucleotides such as guanosine monophosphate (GMP) and inosine monophosphate (IMP). It can be described as a pleasant " brothy " or " meaty " taste with a long-lasting, mouthwatering and coating sensation over
11312-635: The tongue bearing taste buds. These receptors are also found in some regions of the duodenum . A 2009 review corroborated the acceptance of these receptors, stating, "Recent molecular biological studies have now identified strong candidates for umami receptors, including the heterodimer TAS1R1/TAS1R3, and truncated type 1 and 4 metabotropic glutamate receptors missing most of the N-terminal extracellular domain (taste-mGluR4 and truncated-mGluR1) and brain-mGluR4." Receptors mGluR1 and mGluR4 are specific to glutamate whereas TAS1R1 + TAS1R3 are responsible for
11424-459: The tongue. The sensation of umami is due to the detection of the carboxylate anion of glutamate in specialized receptor cells present on human and other animal tongues . Some 52 peptides may be responsible for detecting umami taste. Its effect is to balance taste and round out the overall flavor of a dish. Umami enhances the palatability of a wide variety of foods. Glutamate in acid form (glutamic acid) imparts little umami taste, whereas
11536-701: The voyage to the rest of the Pacific. It reached Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai -speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China by 5000 years ago. Rice spread around the rest of the world through cultivation, migration and trade, eventually to the Americas as part of the Columbian exchange after 1492. The now less common Oryza glaberrima (African rice) was independently domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago, and introduced to
11648-785: The wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought. Rice blast , caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea , is the most serious disease of growing rice. It and bacterial leaf streak (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae ) are perennially the two worst rice diseases worldwide; they are both among the ten most important diseases of all crop plants. Other major rice diseases include sheath blight (caused by Rhizoctonia solani ), false smut ( Ustilaginoidea virens ), and bacterial panicle blight ( Burkholderia glumae ). Viral diseases include rice bunchy stunt, rice dwarf, rice tungro , and rice yellow mottle. Crop protection scientists are developing sustainable techniques for managing rice pests. Sustainable pest management
11760-539: The year provided that sufficient water is made available. It is normally an annual, but in the tropics it can survive as a perennial , producing a ratoon crop. Like all crops, rice depends for its growth on both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. The principal biotic factors are crop variety, pests , and plant diseases . Abiotic factors include the soil type, whether lowland or upland, amount of rain or irrigation water, temperature, day length , and intensity of sunlight. Rice grains can be planted directly into
11872-466: Was coined in 1908 by Japanese chemist Kikunae Ikeda from a nominalization of umai ( うまい ) "delicious". The compound 旨味 (with mi ( 味 ) "taste") is used for a more general sense of a food as delicious. There is no English equivalent to umami ; however, some close descriptions are "meaty", "savory", and "broth-like". Scientists have debated whether umami was a basic taste since Kikunae Ikeda first proposed its existence in 1908. In 1985,
11984-736: Was domesticated in Africa about 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2021, 787 million tons were produced, placing it fourth after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Only some 8% of rice is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of the rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects , rodents , and birds , as well as by weeds , and by diseases such as rice blast . Traditional rice polycultures such as rice-duck farming , and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in
12096-469: Was first domesticated in China 9,000 years ago, by people of Neolithic cultures in the Upper and Lower Yangtze , associated with Hmong-Mien -speakers and pre-Austronesians , respectively. The functional allele for nonshattering , the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other single-nucleotide polymorphisms , is identical in both indica and japonica . This implies
12208-528: Was imported into Japan in 1980, accepted conventionally, for grilling, not for sushi. Salmon had already been consumed in North America as an ingredient in sushi as early as the 1970s. Salmon sushi did not become widely accepted in Japan until a successful marketing partnership in the late 1980s between Bjorn Eirik Olsen, a Norwegian businessman tasked with helping the Norwegian salmon industry glut, and
12320-574: Was introduced early into Sino-Tibetan cultures in northern China by around 6000 to 5600 years ago, and to the Korean peninsula and Japan by around 5500 to 3200 years ago. It was also carried into Taiwan by the Dapenkeng culture by 5500 to 4000 years ago, before spreading southwards via the Austronesian migrations to Island Southeast Asia , Madagascar , and Guam , but did not survive
12432-407: Was shorter than that of the earlier narezushi , and the rice used for fermentation was also eaten with the fish. In other words, with the invention of namanare , sushi changed from a preserved fish food to a food where fish and rice are eaten together. After the appearance of namanare , sake and sake lees were used to shorten fermentation, and vinegar was used in the Edo period . During
12544-439: Was stored by rural households. The dry grain is milled to remove the outer layers, namely the husk and bran . These can be removed in a single step, in two steps, or as in commercial milling in a multi-step process of cleaning, dehusking, separation, polishing, grading, and weighing. Brown rice only has the inedible husk removed. Further milling removes bran and the germ to create successively whiter products. Parboiled rice
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