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70-615: The Swinging Sixties was a youth-driven cultural revolution that took place in the United Kingdom during the mid-to-late 1960s, emphasising modernity and fun-loving hedonism , with Swinging London denoted as its centre. It saw a flourishing in art, music and fashion, and was symbolised by the city's "pop and fashion exports", such as the Beatles , as the multimedia leaders of the British Invasion of musical acts;

140-618: A wireless license issued by the British General Post Office (GPO). However, under terms of that wireless license, it was an offence under the Wireless Telegraphy Act to listen to unauthorised broadcasts, which possibly included those transmitted by Radio Luxembourg. Therefore, as far as the British authorities were concerned, Radio Luxembourg was a "pirate radio station" and British listeners to

210-494: A 1940 British comedy about an unauthorized TV broadcaster, Band Waggon , uses the phrase "pirate station" several times. A good example of this kind of activity was Radio Luxembourg located in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg . The English language evening broadcasts from Radio Luxembourg were beamed by Luxembourg-licensed transmitters. The audience in the United Kingdom originally listened to their radio sets by permission of

280-620: A demonstration. The United States Navy began using radio for time signals and weather reports on the east coast of the United States in the 1890s. Before the advent of vacuum tube technology, early radio enthusiasts used (electronically) noisy spark-gap transmitters . The Navy soon began complaining to a sympathetic press that amateurs were disrupting naval transmissions. The May 25, 1907, edition of Electrical World',' in an article called "Wireless and Lawless," reported authorities were unable to prevent an amateur from interfering with

350-527: A difference in social structures and the ways that adults and teens experience social reality. This difference indicates cultural differences between adolescents and adults, which supports the presence of separate youth culture. Throughout the twentieth century, youth have had a strong influence on both lifestyle and culture. The flappers and the Mods are two examples of the impact of youth culture on society. The flappers were young women that were confident about

420-465: A label she shared with, among others, Cathy McGowan , the host of the television rock show Ready Steady Go! from 1964 to 1966. The British flag, the Union Jack , became a symbol, assisted by events such as England's home victory in the 1966 World Cup . The Jaguar E-Type sports car was a British icon of the 1960s. In late 1965, photographer David Bailey sought to define Swinging London in

490-466: A lack of hope in ones [ sic ] future". Teen culture may also have benefits for adolescents. Peer influence can have a positive effect on adolescents' well-being; for example, most teens report that peer pressure stops them from using drugs or engaging in sexual activity. Young people can make changes in society, such as through youth-led revolutions. Organizations of young people, which were often based on student identity, were crucial to

560-414: A means of finding identity when one's path in life is not always clear. Erik Erikson theorized that the vital psychological conflict of adolescence is identity versus role confusion . The goal of this stage of life is to answer the question, "Who am I?" In many societies, adolescents are expected to behave like children and take on adult roles. Some psychologists have theorized that forming youth culture

630-626: A new ship, a converted fishing trawler named MV Norderney . In the 1960s in the UK, the term referred to not only a perceived unauthorized use of the state-run spectrum by the unlicensed broadcasters but also the risk-taking nature of offshore radio stations that actually operated on anchored ships or marine platforms. The term had been used previously in Britain and the US to describe unlicensed land-based broadcasters and even border blasters . For example,

700-593: A prosperous future after World War I . This liveliness showed in their new attitudes in life in which they openly drank, smoked, and, in some cases, socialized with gangster-type men. The fashionable dress at the time also reflected the flapper's new lifestyle. Mods emerged during a time of war and political and social troubles, and stemmed from a group called the modernists . They were young men and women who came from all classes who believed that their fashion choices "gave them entrée everywhere" and empowered them. The Mods' style and embrace of modern technology spread from

770-582: A reflection of Swinging London. Ian MacDonald said, with the album the Stones were chronicling the phenomenon, while Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon called it "the soundtrack of Swinging London, a gift to hip young people". During the Swinging Sixties, fashion and photography were featured in Queen magazine, which drew attention to fashion designer Mary Quant . Mod-related fashions such as

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840-449: A reflection of different morals held by younger generations. Multiple studies have found that most adolescents hold views that are similar to their parents. One study challenged the theory that adolescent cohorts had distanced themselves from their parents by finding that between 1976 and 1982, their problems increased, and they became less peer-oriented. A second study's findings that adolescents' values were more similar to their parents in

910-590: A result of the AT&;T interpretation, a landmark case was heard in court, which even prompted comments from Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover when he took a public stand in the station's defense. Although AT&T won its case, the furor created was such that those restrictive provisions of the transmitter license were never enforced. In 1926, WJAZ in Chicago changed its frequency to one previously reserved for Canadian stations without getting permission to make

980-454: A series of large photographic prints. Compiled into a set titled Box of Pin-Ups , they were published on 21 November that year. His subjects included actors Michael Caine and Terence Stamp ; musicians John Lennon , Paul McCartney , Mick Jagger and five other pop stars; Brian Epstein , as one of four individuals representing music management; hairdresser Vidal Sassoon , ballet dancer Rudolf Nureyev , Ad Lib club manager Brian Morris, and

1050-478: A variety of other factors. There is a debate surrounding the presence, existence, and origins of youth culture. Some researchers argue that youth culture is not a separate culture, as their values and morals are not distinct from those of their parents. Additionally, peer influence varies greatly among contexts, gender, age, and social status , making a single "youth culture" difficult to define. which differ from those of their parent's culture. Janssen et al. used

1120-581: A vessel in international waters without permission from the authorities in the country to which it broadcast (Denmark in this case). The station was named Radio Mercur and began transmission on August 2, 1958. In the Danish newspapers it was soon called a "pirate radio". In the Netherlands in 1964, Radio Noordzee and TV Noordzee began broadcasting from the REM Island and Radio Veronica acquired

1190-485: Is a culture. Schwartz and Merten used adolescent language to argue that youth culture is distinct from the rest of society. Schwartz argued that high school students used their vocabulary to create meanings that are distinct to adolescents. Specifically, the adolescent status terminology (the words that adolescents use to describe hierarchical social statuses) contains qualities and attributes that are not present in adult status judgments. According to Schwartz, this reflects

1260-431: Is a step to adopt an identity that reconciles these two conflicting expectations. For example, Talcott Parsons posited that adolescence is when young people transition from reliance on parents to autonomy. In this transitory state, dependence on the peer group serves as a stand-in for parents. Burlingame restated this hypothesis in 1970. He wrote that adolescents replace parents with the peer group and that this reliance on

1330-444: Is considered an aspect of youth culture) to schedule, coordinate, and publicize events. Pirate radio Pirate radio is a radio station that broadcasts without a valid license. In some cases, radio stations are considered legal where the signal is transmitted, but illegal where the signals are received—especially when the signals cross a national boundary. In other cases, a broadcast may be considered "pirate" due to

1400-974: Is debatable. More than 70 percent of American high school students report having drunk alcohol. Similarly, about two-thirds of teenagers have engaged in sexual intercourse by the time they leave high school. As drinking and having sex may be common in adolescence, many researchers include them as aspects of youth culture. While engaging in these activities can have harmful consequences, the majority of adolescents who engage in these risky behaviors do not suffer long-term consequences. The possibilities of addiction, pregnancy, incarceration, and other negative outcomes are some potentially negative effects of participation in youth culture. Research demonstrates that many factors may influence youth to engage in high-risk behaviors, including "a lack of stable role models, heightened family stresses, lowered levels of family investment, weakened emotional bonds between parents and their children, lowered levels of social capital and social control, and

1470-775: The Empire Pool (which became Wembley Arena) . This sort of music was heard in the United Kingdom on TV shows such as the BBC's Top of the Pops (where the Rolling Stones were the first band to perform with " I Wanna Be Your Man "), and ITV 's Ready Steady Go! (which would feature Manfred Mann 's " 5-4-3-2-1 " as its theme tune), on commercial radio stations such as Radio Luxembourg , Radio Caroline and Radio London , and from 1967 on BBC Radio One . The Rolling Stones' 1966 album Aftermath has been cited by music scholars as

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1540-473: The Kray twins ; as well as leading figures in interior decoration, pop art , photography, fashion modelling, photographic design and creative advertising. Bailey's photographs reflected the rise of working-class artists, entertainers and entrepreneurs that characterised London during this period. Writing in his 1967 book The Young Meteors , journalist Jonathan Aitken described Box of Pin-Ups as "a Debrett of

1610-802: The Vietnam War were also student-driven. Many college campuses opposed the war with sit-ins and demonstrations. Organizations such as the Young Americans for Freedom , the Student Libertarian Movement, and the Student Peace Union were based on youth status and contributed to anti-war activities. Some scholars have claimed that the activism during the Vietnam War was symbolic of a youth culture whose values were against mainstream American culture. In

1680-458: The miniskirt stimulated fashionable London shopping areas such as Carnaby Street and King's Road , Chelsea . Vidal Sassoon created the bob cut hairstyle. The model Jean Shrimpton was another icon and one of the world's first supermodels. She was the world's highest paid and most photographed model during this time. Shrimpton was called "The Face of the '60s", in which she has been considered by many as "the symbol of Swinging London" and

1750-496: The mod and psychedelic subcultures; Mary Quant 's miniskirt designs; popular fashion models such as Twiggy and Jean Shrimpton ; the iconic status of popular shopping areas such as London's King's Road , Kensington and Carnaby Street ; the political activism of the anti-nuclear movement ; and the sexual liberation movement. Music was an essential part of the revolution, with "the London sound" being regarded as including

1820-436: The postwar economic boom . Following the abolition of the national service for men in 1960, these young people enjoyed greater freedom and fewer responsibilities than their parents' generation, and "[fanned] changes to social and sexual politics". Shaping the popular consciousness of aspirational Britain in the 1960s, the period was a West End –centred phenomenon regarded as happening among young, middle class people, and

1890-442: The terror management theory (TMT) to argue for the existence of youth culture. They tested the following hypothesis: "If youth culture serves to help adolescents deal with problems of vulnerability and finiteness, then reminders of mortality should lead to increased allegiance to cultural practices and beliefs of the youth." The results supported the hypothesis and the outcome of previous studies, and suggest that youth culture

1960-593: The "embodiment of the 1960s". Like Pattie Boyd , the wife of Beatles guitarist George Harrison , Shrimpton gained international fame for her embodiment of the "British female 'look' – mini-skirt, long, straight hair and wide-eyed loveliness", characteristics that defined Western fashion following the arrival of the Beatles and other British Invasion acts in 1964. Other popular models of the era included Veruschka , Peggy Moffitt and Penelope Tree . The model Twiggy has been called "the face of 1966" and "the Queen of Mod ",

2030-653: The 1980s than in the 1960s and '70s echoes Sebald's finding . Another study did find differences between adolescents' and parents' attitudes but found that the differences were in the degree of belief, not in the behavior itself. There may also be pluralistic ignorance on the part of youth when comparing their attitudes to peers and parents. A study by Lerner et al. asked college students to compare their attitudes on several issues to their peers and parents. Most students rated their attitudes as falling somewhere between their parents' more conservative attitudes and their peers' more liberal attitudes. The authors suggested that

2100-804: The American civil rights movement , which included organizations like the Southern Student Organizing Committee , Students for a Democratic Society , and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee . The Freedom Summer campaign relied heavily on college students; hundreds of students engaged in registering African Americans to vote, teaching in "Freedom Schools", and organizing the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party . The American protests in

2170-771: The Beatles, the Rolling Stones , the Who , the Kinks and the Small Faces , bands that were additionally the mainstay of pirate radio stations like Radio Caroline , Wonderful Radio London and Swinging Radio England . Swinging London also reached British cinema , which according to the British Film Institute "saw a surge in formal experimentation, freedom of expression, colour, and comedy", with films that explored countercultural and satirical themes. During this period, "creative types of all kinds gravitated to

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2240-542: The Grass', the magazine pronounced London the global hub of youthful creativity, hedonism and excitement: "In a decade dominated by youth, London has burst into bloom. It swings; it is the scene", and celebrated in the name of the pirate radio station, Swinging Radio England , that began shortly afterwards. The term "swinging" in the sense of hip or fashionable had been used since the early 1960s, including by Norman Vaughan in his "swinging/dodgy" patter on Sunday Night at

2310-691: The Junction (1968), Joanna (1968), Otley (1968), The Strange Affair (1968), Baby Love (1968), The Magic Christian (1969), The Touchables (1968), Les Bicyclettes de Belsize (1969), Two Gentlemen Sharing (1969), Performance (1970), and Deep End (1970). The comedy films Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997) and Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999), written by and starring Mike Myers , resurrected

2380-577: The London Palladium . In 1965, Diana Vreeland , editor of Vogue magazine, said that "London is the most swinging city in the world at the moment." Later that year, the American singer Roger Miller had a hit record with " England Swings ", although the lyrics mostly relate to traditional notions of Britain. Already heralded by Colin MacInnes ' 1959 novel Absolute Beginners which captured London's emerging youth culture, Swinging London

2450-641: The TV transmissions of TV Martí , which are directed at Cuba (the Cuban government jams the signals). Military broadcasting aircraft have been flown over Vietnam , Iraq , and many other nations by the United States Air Force . Illegal use of licensed radio spectrum (also known as bootlegging in CB circles) is fairly common and takes several forms. The films The Boat That Rocked (2009), Pump Up

2520-410: The UK overseas to North America and other countries. The presence of youth culture is a relatively recent historical phenomenon. There are several dominant theories about the emergence of youth culture in the 20th century, which include hypotheses about the historical, economic, and psychological influences on the presence of youth culture. One historical theory credits the emergence of youth culture to

2590-467: The US, but there were doubts they had the authority to issue such an order even in war time. The ban on radio was lifted in the US in late 1919. In 1924, New York City station WHN was accused by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) of being an "outlaw station" for violating trade licenses which permitted only AT&T stations to sell airtime on their transmitters. As

2660-615: The US, the 1912 "Act to Regulate Radio Communication" assigned amateurs and experimenters their own frequency spectrum, and introduced licensing and call-signs . A federal agency, the Federal Radio Commission , was formed in 1927 and succeeded in 1934 by the Federal Communications Commission . These agencies would enforce rules on call-signs, assigned frequencies, licensing, and acceptable content for broadcast. The Radio Act of 1912 gave

2730-671: The Volume (1990), and On the Air Live with Captain Midnight (1979), as well as the TV series People Just Do Nothing (2014-2018), are set in the world of pirate radio, while Born in Flames (1983) features pirate radio stations as being part of an underground political movement. Pirate radio is also a central plot point of the video game Jet Set Radio and its sequel Jet Set Radio Future . The video game Reverse: 1999 features

2800-445: The adult world". Common concerns about youth culture include a perceived lack of interest in education, involvement in risky behaviors like substance use and sexual activity, and engaging extensively in leisure activities. These perceptions have led many adults to believe that adolescents hold different values than older generations and to perceive youth culture as an attack on the morals of current society. These worries have prompted

2870-439: The advent of regulations of the airwaves at the dawn of the age of radio . Initially, radio, or wireless as it was more commonly called at the time, was an open field of hobbyists and early inventors and experimenters. The degree of state control varied by country. For example, in the UK, Marconi 's work was supported by the post office, but in an era of weak regulation, a music hall magician Nevil Maskelyne deliberately hijacked

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2940-462: The beginning of compulsory schooling . James Coleman argues that age segregation is the root of separate youth culture. Before mandatory education, many children and adolescents interacted primarily with adults. In contrast, modern children associate extensively with others their age. These interactions allow adolescents to develop shared experiences and meanings, which are the root of youth culture. Another theory posits that some cultures facilitate

3010-404: The capital, from artists and writers to magazine publishers, photographers, advertisers, film-makers and product designers". During the 1960s, London underwent a "metamorphosis from a gloomy, grimy post-war capital into a bright, shining epicentre of style ". The phenomenon has been agreed to have been caused by the large number of young people in the city—due to the baby boom of the 1950s —and

3080-520: The change, and was charged by the federal government with "wave piracy". The resulting legal battle found that the Radio Act of 1912 did not allow the US government to require stations to operate on specific frequencies, and the result was the passage of the Radio Act of 1927 to strengthen the government's regulatory authority. While Mexico issued radio station XERF with a license to broadcast,

3150-729: The commercial station Radio North Sea International , which was based aboard the motor vessel (MV) Mebo II anchored off southeast England in the North Sea . Other examples of this type of unusual broadcasting include the USCGC Courier (WAGR-410) , a United States Coast Guard cutter which both originated and relayed broadcasts of the Voice of America from an anchorage at the Greek island of Rhodes to Soviet bloc countries. Balloons have been flown above Key West, Florida , to support

3220-456: The communicated norms. Therefore, many societies use age grouping, such as in schools, to educate their children on societies' norms and prepare them for adulthood; youth culture is a byproduct of this tactic. Because children spend so much time together and learn the same things as the rest of their age group, they develop their own culture. Psychological theorists have noted the role of youth culture in identity development. Youth culture may be

3290-489: The content of many of their programs could not have been aired by a US-regulated broadcaster. Predecessors to XERF, for instance, had originally broadcast in Kansas , advocating " goat-gland surgery " for improved masculinity, but moved to Mexico to evade US laws about advertising medical treatments, particularly unproven ones. In Europe, Denmark had the first known radio station in the world to broadcast commercial radio from

3360-583: The creation of parenting websites such as The Youth Culture Report and the Center for Parent Youth Understanding, whose goal is to preserve the values of older generations in young people. There is no consensus among researchers about whether youth subcultures hold different beliefs than adults do. Some researchers have noted the simultaneous rise in age segregation and adolescent adjustment problems such as suicide, delinquency, and premarital pregnancy. However, most evidence suggests that these youth problems are not

3430-407: The development of youth culture, while others do not. The basis of this distinction is the presence of universalistic or particularistic norms. Particularistic norms are guidelines for behavior that vary from one individual to another. In contrast, universalistic norms apply to all members of society. Universalistic norms are more likely to be found in industrialized societies. Modernization in

3500-516: The early 2010s, the Arab Spring illustrated how young people played roles in demonstrations and protests. The movement was initiated primarily by young people, mostly college students dissatisfied with the opportunities afforded to them. The participation of young people prompted Time magazine to include several youth members of the movement in its 2011 list of 100 most influential people. Additionally, this movement utilized social media (which

3570-554: The imagery of the Swinging London scene (but were filmed in Hollywood), as did the 2009 film The Boat That Rocked . Youth culture An emphasis on clothes, popular music, sports, vocabulary, and dating typically sets youth apart from other age groups. Within youth culture, there are many constantly changing youth subcultures , which may be divided based on race, ethnicity, economic status, public appearance, or

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3640-527: The interests of other national governments has created radio jamming stations transmitting noises on the same frequency to prevent reception of the incoming signal. While the United States transmitted its programs towards the Soviet Union , which attempted to jam them, in 1970 the government of the United Kingdom decided to employ a jamming transmitter to drown out the incoming transmissions from

3710-423: The last century has encouraged universalistic norms since interaction in modern societies makes it necessary for everyone to learn the same set of norms. Modernization and universalistic norms have encouraged the growth of youth culture. The need for universalistic norms has made it impractical for young people's socialization to come primarily from immediate family members, which would lead to significant variation in

3780-452: The market economy of modern society. As a means of coping with these contrasting aspects of adolescence, youth create freedom through behavior—specifically, through leisure -oriented activities done with peers. For decades, adults have worried that youth subcultures were the root of moral degradation and changing values in younger generations. Researchers have characterized youth culture as embodying values that are "in conflict with those of

3850-409: The miniaturization of transmitters and the fact that they can be put together by amateurs, 'encounters' a collective aspiration for some new means of expression. Propaganda broadcasting may be authorized by the government at the transmitting site, but may be considered unwanted or illegal by the government of the intended reception area. Propaganda broadcasting conducted by national governments against

3920-510: The nature of its content, its transmission format (especially a failure to transmit a station identification according to regulations), or the transmit power (wattage) of the station, even if the transmission is not technically illegal (such as an amateur radio transmission). Pirate radio is sometimes called bootleg radio (a term especially associated with two-way radio ), clandestine radio (associated with heavily politically motivated operations) or free radio . Radio "piracy" began with

3990-686: The new aristocracy". The phenomenon was featured in many films of the time, including Darling (1965) starring Julie Christie , The Pleasure Girls (1965), The Knack ...and How to Get It (1965), Michelangelo Antonioni 's Blowup (1966), Alfie (1966) starring Michael Caine, Morgan: A Suitable Case for Treatment (1966), Georgy Girl (1966), Kaleidoscope (1966), The Sandwich Man (1966), The Jokers (1967), Casino Royale (1967) starring Peter Sellers , Smashing Time (1967), To Sir, with Love (1967), Bedazzled (1967) starring Dudley Moore and Peter Cook , Poor Cow (1967), I'll Never Forget What's'isname (1967), Up

4060-755: The operation of a government station at the Washington, D.C. Navy Yard using legal means. In the run-up to the London Radiotelegraph Convention in 1912, and amid concerns about the safety of marine radio following the sinking of the RMS ; Titanic on April 15 of that year, the New York Herald of April 17, 1912, headlined President William Howard Taft 's initiative to regulate the public airwaves in an article titled "President Moves to Stop Mob Rule of Wireless." In

4130-471: The peer group diminishes as youth enter adulthood and take on adult roles. Fasick relates youth culture as a method of identity development to the simultaneous elongation of childhood and the need for independence in adolescence. According to Fasick, adolescents face contradictory pulls from society. Compulsory schooling keeps them socially and economically dependent on their parents, while young people need to achieve some sort of independence to participate in

4200-458: The power of its 250 kW transmitter was far greater than the maximum of 50 kW authorized for commercial use by the government of the United States of America. Consequently, XERF and many other radio stations in Mexico, which sold their broadcasting time to sponsors of English-language commercial and religious programs, were labelled as " border blasters ", but not "pirate radio stations", even though

4270-458: The president legal permission to shut down radio stations "in time of war". During the first two and a half years of World War I , before US entry, President Wilson tasked the US Navy with monitoring US radio stations, nominally to "ensure neutrality." The US was divided into two civilian radio "districts" with corresponding call-signs, beginning with "K" in the west and "W" in the east. The Navy

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4340-452: The reason for this is that the students perceived their friends as more liberal than they were. Sports, language, music, clothing, and dating tend to be superficial ways of expressing autonomy —they can be adopted without compromising one's beliefs or values. Some areas in which adolescents assert autonomy can cause long-term consequences, such as substance use and sexual activity. The impact of youth culture on deviance and sexual behavior

4410-473: The station were breaking the law (although as the term 'unauthorised' was never properly defined it was somewhat of a legal grey area ). This did not stop British newspapers from printing programme schedules for the station, or a British weekly magazine aimed at teenage girls, Fab 208 , from promoting the DJs and their lifestyle. (Radio Luxembourg's wavelength was 208 metres (1439, then 1440 kHz)). Radio Luxembourg

4480-429: Was a youth movement emphasising the new and modern. It was a period of optimism and hedonism, and a cultural revolution . One catalyst was the recovery of the British economy after post- Second World War austerity , which lasted through much of the 1950s. "The Swinging City" was defined by Time magazine on the cover of its issue of 15 April 1966. In a Piri Halasz article 'Great Britain: You Can Walk Across It on

4550-400: Was assigned call-signs beginning with "N". The Navy used this authority to shut down amateur radio in the western part of the US. When Wilson declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, he also issued an executive order closing most radio stations not needed by the US government. The Navy took it a step further and declared it was illegal to listen to radio or possess a receiver or transmitter in

4620-469: Was later joined by other well-known pirate stations received in the UK in violation of UK licensing, including Radio Caroline and Radio Atlanta (subsequently Radio Carolines North and South respectively, following their merger and the original ship's relocation), Radio London , and Laser 558 , all of which broadcast from vessels anchored outside of territorial limits and were therefore legitimate. Radio Jackie , for instance, although transmitting illegally

4690-480: Was often considered as "simply a diversion" by them. The swinging scene also served as a consumerist counterpart to the more overtly political and radical British underground of the same period. English cultural geographer Simon Rycroft wrote that "whilst it is important to acknowledge the exclusivity and the dissenting voices, it does not lessen the importance of Swinging London as a powerful moment of image making with very real material effect." The Swinging Sixties

4760-581: Was registered for VAT and even had its address and telephone number in local telephone directories. By the 1970s, pirate radio in the UK had mostly moved to land-based broadcasting, transmitting from tower blocks in towns and cities. Another variation on the term pirate radio came about during the " Summer of Love " in San Francisco during the 1960s. "Free radio" usually referred to secret and unlicensed land-based transmissions. These were also tagged as being pirate radio transmissions. Free Radio

4830-681: Was underway by the mid-1960s and included music by the Beatles , the Rolling Stones , the Kinks , the Who , Small Faces , the Animals , Dusty Springfield , Lulu , Cilla Black , Sandie Shaw and other artists from what was known in the US as the " British Invasion ". Psychedelic rock from artists such as Pink Floyd , Cream , Procol Harum , the Jimi Hendrix Experience and Traffic grew significantly in popularity. Large venues, besides former music halls, included Hyde , Alexandra and Finsbury Parks , Clapham Common and

4900-503: Was used only to refer to radio transmissions that were beyond government control , as was offshore radio in the UK and Europe. The term free radio was adopted by the Free Radio Association of listeners who defended the rights of the offshore radio stations broadcasting from ships and marine structures off the coastline of the United Kingdom . Félix Guattari points out: Technological development, and in particular

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