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158-566: The Roman legionaries and other forces of the Roman military , until the 2nd century A.D., used the gladius as a short thrusting sword effectively with the scutum , a type of shield , in battle. According to Vegetius , the Romans mainly used underhanded stabs and thrusts, because one thrust into the gut would kill an enemy faster than slashes or cutting. However, some depictions of Roman soldiers show them using slashing and cuts. Gladiators used

316-733: A breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states, and by 331 BC when Alexander the Great defeated the Persians

474-452: A citizen soldier of the Roman army . These soldiers would conquer and defend the territories of ancient Rome during the late Republic and Principate eras, alongside auxiliary and cavalry detachments. At its height, Roman legionaries were viewed as the foremost fighting force in the Roman world, with commentators such as Vegetius praising their fighting effectiveness centuries after

632-474: A legion for 25 years of service, a change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign. Legionaries were expected to fight, but they also built much of the infrastructure of the Roman Empire and served as a policing force in the provinces. They built large public works projects, such as walls, bridges, and roads. The legionary's last five years of service were on lighter duties. Once retired,

790-466: A medical discharge . This discharge would come with many benefits including exemption from some taxes and some civic duties. Legionary is also a term used for members of various military forces which have been accorded the title of "legion", although bearing no resemblance to the heavy infantry of ancient Rome. In the 18th and early 19th century this designation was sometimes accorded to units which comprised both mounted and foot components. More recently

948-556: A 12-page booklet entitled Swordsmanship . After returning from India in 1865, Hutton focused on the study and revival of older fencing systems and schools. He began tutoring groups of students in the art of 'ancient swordplay' at a club attached to the London Rifle Brigade School of Arms in the 1880s. In 1889, Hutton published his most influential work Cold Steel: A Practical Treatise on the Sabre , which presented

1106-417: A Roman legionary received a parcel of land or its equivalent in money and often became a politically prominent member of society. The Marian reforms were putative changes to the composition and operation of the Roman army during the late Roman republic usually attributed to Gaius Marius (a general who was consul in 107, 104–100, and 86 BC ). The most important of those putative changes concerned

1264-436: A belt ( balteus ), a pair of heavy sandals ( caligae ), a pair of greaves , a pair of manicas , a marching pack ( sarcina ), about fourteen days' worth of food, a waterskin (bladder for posca ), cooking equipment, two stakes ( sudes murale ) for the construction of palisades , a shovel , and a wicker basket . After the military reforms of Emperor Claudius (circa 41 AD), each legion would also be requisitioned

1422-419: A certain number of artillery pieces. Each cohort (roughly 480 men) would receive one ballista and each centuria (roughly 100 men) would receive one carroballista . In a standard legionary formation of ten cohorts and sixty centuriae, a legion would be equipped with ten ballistae and sixty carroballistae. The Roman legionary fought first and foremost with his contubernium , the basic eight man unit of

1580-436: A different fear was used to motivate a soldier in spite of the fear of battle; that was the fear of harsh punishment by their commanding officers. In the words of Josephus "they are moreover hardened for war by fear; for their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from the ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity". A Roman legionary had two or three meals per day: The prandium (breakfast) and

1738-619: A fearsome heavy cavalry force. King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into the Baekje , Gaya confederacy , Buyeo , Later Yan and against Japanese invaders with his cavalry. In the 12th century, Jurchen tribes began to violate the Goryeo–Jurchen borders, and eventually invaded Goryeo Korea. After experiencing invasion by the Jurchen, Korean general Yun Kwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units. He reorganized

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1896-432: A form of eskrima using a curved single-edge sword. Soldiers in ancient Indian subcontinent are recorded as carrying a shield and spear in their hands while a sword, dagger, and battle-axe were held at the waist. These included both straight swords and slightly curved sabres. The stout, straight sword appears to have been common and can be seen in early sculptural depictions of the epics . The hero Arjuna , for instance,

2054-521: A high level of skill. Actor Errol Flynn became known for his sword-fighting scenes, such as in The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938). Other examples include The Princess Bride (1987), Rob Roy (1995), and Die Another Day (2002). The sword in ancient Egypt was known by several names, but most are variations of the words sfet , seft or nakhtui . The earliest bronze swords in

2212-452: A long tradition of intense military exchange between Han Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted nomads or "barbarians" of the north. The naval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept navy . In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao , the ruler of the former state of Jin , ordered his commanders and troops to adopt

2370-487: A member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes. Xiongnu , Tujue , Avars , Kipchaks , Khitans , Mongols , Don Cossacks and the various Turkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted groups that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume

2528-488: A nonlethal manner led fencing and swordsmanship to include a sport aspect from its beginnings, from before the medieval tournament right up to the modern age. The shift towards fencing as a sport rather than as military training happened from the mid-18th century, and was led by Domenico Angelo , who established a fencing academy, Angelo's School of Arms, in Carlisle House , Soho , London in 1763. There, he taught

2686-648: A pair did occur. While earlier tachi were primarily intended to be used from horseback and were thus worn with the edge facing down, the later katana was worn with the edge facing upwards; this simple alteration allowed the wielder to transition immediately from a draw directly into an attack without needing to first re-orient their weapon or body, proving to be a more efficient and practical optimization tailored toward melee combat scenarios (which were becoming more common than mounted combat at that time). Entire systems have been based on this technique and are known as iaido , iaijutsu , battodo , or battojutsu . Because of

2844-578: A rectangular shield called the kalasag . During the Battle of Mactan , Lapu-Lapu 's tribe used native swords and spears to defeat Ferdinand Magellan's troops who were armed with guns and cannons. The arrival of European colonists brought the influence of western swords, which is likely the origin of the pinuti 's hand-guard and sabre-like blade. When the Philippines was colonized by the Spaniards,

3002-522: A shield as a parrying tool or a second sword. Dual-wielding is thus a common and valued skill in the Indian subcontinent. Sparring is done through an exercise called gatka , in which the practitioners fight with wooden sticks to simulate swords. Swords in the Middle East evolved from daggers and sickles. They were originally made of copper, followed by bronze and finally iron. Among communities such as

3160-408: A shield or buckler but could also be wielded on their own. Sword fencing and sword dances are still practiced in much of the Middle East. In countries like Oman the weapon is typically paired with a shield or sometimes a dagger, of which many varieties exist. The spread of Islam was a unifying force in the Middle East, easing trade routes across the region. Armouries flourished and Damascus became

3318-625: A shorter gladius than the military. The spatha was a longer double-edged sword initially used only by Celtic soldiers, later incorporated as auxilia into Roman Cavalry units; however by the 2nd century A.D. the spatha was used throughout much of the Roman Empire . The Empire's legionary soldiers were heavily trained and prided themselves on their disciplinary skills. This probably carried over to their training with weaponry, but we have no Roman manuals of swordsmanship. One translation of Juvenal's poetry by Barten Holyday in 1661 makes note that

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3476-438: A small thickened cuirass that offered protection against lances, sabres, and bayonets; including some protection against a shot from distance. In the interwar period many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. The cavalry tank or cruiser tank was one designed with a speed and purpose beyond that of infantry tanks and would subsequently develop into

3634-499: A source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls. Hadrian's wall , a monumental example of Roman engineering , was built by the three legions stationed in the area. Legionaries were not just limited to building large-scale engineering projects. Surveyors, doctors, artisans, and engineers within

3792-412: A sport." As fencing progressed, the combat aspect slowly faded until only the rules of the sport remained. While fencing taught in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was intended to serve both for competition and the duel (while understanding the differences between the two situations), the type of fencing taught in a modern sport fencing salle is intended only to train the student to compete in

3950-404: A sporting encounter but would leave them defenseless against a counterthrust , even from a mortally wounded opponent, in a duel with lethal weapons. The development of the first touch rule itself was, in turn, driven by the increasing tendency of duels to be fought to draw first blood, rather than the death, with the result that training for a first touch could result in victory in a duel as well as

4108-587: A sporting encounter, even without killing or disabling the opponent. As early as 1880, attempts were made to recreate the older German, Italian, and Spanish schools of swordsmanship. The movement was led in England by the soldier, writer, antiquarian, and swordsman, Alfred Hutton . In 1862, he organized in his regiment stationed in India the Cameron Fencing Club, for which he prepared his first work,

4266-491: A standardized military discipline. Along with other martial systems, forms of swordsmanship were formalised in the military manual Muyejebo (1610) based on Qi Jiguang 's Ji Xiao Xin Shu , and in the revisions, Muyesinbo (1759) and Muyedobotongji (1790). The Muyedobotongji also describes standard lengths and weights of the swords used; while not exclusive to swordsmanship, 8 of the 23 chapters are devoted to it, reflecting

4424-572: A successful campaign. Plunder and loot also supplement a legionary's income and is used as a large incentive for soldiers to follow their emperor in campaigns. At the end of their years of service, Roman legionaries received a small allotment of land or a monetary equivalent. As the Roman empire solidified, permanent legionary fortresses were constructed and many grew into towns. These fortresses contained bathhouses , taverns, and even amphitheaters where festivals and animal displays were held. However, legionaries were not allowed to legally marry until

4582-615: A variety of foodstuffs but mainly wine , vinegar, vegetables (largely beans or lentils), salt, salt-pork , cheese, and olive oil . However, this did not include fruit. Through foraging, trade with merchants, requisitioning, or raiding during campaigns, the Roman legionary could obtain other foodstuffs not included in his rations. In combination, the average soldier's diet was generally nutritious and filling. Permanent Roman forts would contain hospitals, where doctors ( medici ) operated on wounded, injured, or sick legionaries. These medical personnel also isolated sick soldiers, thereby reducing

4740-462: A whole unit displayed cowardice, the unit might be decimated , in which one out of every ten soldiers were executed. Less extreme punishments included demotions, changing the wheat rations to barley, and the removal of some identifying military gear. Large armies would generally not begin battle immediately upon meeting. Rather, days or even weeks of redeployment and negotiation would take place before battle. Several days of maneuvering occurred before

4898-468: Is Yabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery. An archer on a running horse shoots three special "turnip-headed" arrows successively at three wooden targets. This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period. Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had. He organized yabusame as a form of practice. Currently,

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5056-485: Is currently being reconstructed. At present, sword training includes the single sword, two swords, and the sword with a shield. Among the Assyrians and Hittites , the sword or namsaru was long with a slender blade. In the ancient Middle East, swords were always a secondary weapon. Assyrians made extensive use of the sword and dagger in hand-to-hand combat; the primary weapons were the bow, spear, and sling. Prior to

5214-576: Is known about early medieval fencing techniques save for what may be concluded from archaeological evidence and artistic depiction (see Viking Age arms and armour ). What little has been found, however, shows the use of the sword was limited during the Viking age, especially among the Vikings themselves and other northern Germanic tribes. Here, the spear, axe, and shield were prominent weapons, with only wealthy individuals owning swords. These weapons, based on

5372-471: Is made to wield a one-handed sword with a bevelled point, a small handguard, and a large round pommel. Two-handed swords naturally had longer handles and were broad at the hilt. Curved swords are also known to have been in common use since at least the Buddhist era, including large kukri -like falchions. The most common type of curved sword is the katti , which still occurs under various names everywhere from

5530-517: Is possible that the Italian fencing treatise Flos Duellatorum , written by the Italian swordmaster Fiore dei Liberi around 1410, has ties to the German school. During this period of time, the longsword grew out of the arming sword, eventually resulting in a blade comfortably wielded in both hands at once. Armour technology also evolved, leading to the advent of plate armour , and thus swordsmanship

5688-479: Is the Agni Purana , which gives 32 positions to be taken with the sword and shield. Indian swordplay is highly athletic, taking advantage of the weapon's lightweight. Techniques make extensive use of circular movements, often circling the weapon around the swordsman's head. Systems exist which focus on drawing the sword out of the opponent's body. The attacking weapon is rarely used for blocking, relying either on

5846-482: Is the last major account of the German school, and its context is now almost entirely sportive. The use of the longsword continued to decline throughout the Renaissance period, marked by the increased effectiveness of the arquebus and the use of pike squares as a powerful implement of battle. During this time, civilian swords evolved to side-swords , also known as "cut and thrust" swords, and progressed towards

6004-450: The cena (dinner). For these meals, the soldiers were issued regular rations consisting mainly of wheat, which composed roughly 60–70% of a soldier's total rations. This would be consumed in the form of either bread or porridge. However, while on campaign, the soldiers would cook their wheat rations into hardtack , a long-lasting biscuit. Supplementing the soldier's wheat rations was the cibaria , rations other than grain. This included

6162-510: The Battle of Carrhae , the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians . At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome. These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach

6320-408: The Battle of Pharsalus began. Before battle, measures were taken to ensure legionaries were as effective as possible. These included giving legionaries their meals and resting them before the battle. Their commanders and general would also give speeches during this time. These speeches would heavily emphasize the amount of plunder and riches that winning the battle would give the legionaries, as this

6478-605: The Chinese system , the others being the staff and spear . The order in which these weapons is taught may vary between schools and styles, but the jian is generally taught last among the four. The sword has long held a significance in Japanese culture from the reverence and care that the samurai placed in their weapons. The earliest swords in Japan were straight, based on early Chinese jian . Curved blades became more common at

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6636-650: The Dayuan for this reason, since the Dayuan were hoarding a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the Hellenized – Greek region of Fergana (established slightly earlier by Alexander the Great ). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana. Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by

6794-628: The Hellas . Similarly, the men of the Mountain Land from north of Kabul -River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela , providing a cavalry force and 15 elephants. This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush. The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen ( asva-yuddha-Kushalah ). On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as Ashvakas , i.e.

6952-553: The Huns of Attila and the later Mongol armies . In Europe, cavalry became increasingly armoured (heavy), and eventually evolving into the mounted knights of the medieval period. During the 17th century, cavalry in Europe discarded most of its armor, which was ineffective against the muskets and cannons that were coming into common use, and by the mid-18th century armor had mainly fallen into obsolescence, although some regiments retained

7110-454: The Ippiko (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet. They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters. The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and

7268-533: The Iranian Plateau forced the Assyrians to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry. In the army of the late Roman Empire , cavalry played an increasingly important role. The Spatha , the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By

7426-531: The Jaina work Parishishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta 's ( c.  320 BC – c.  298 BC ) alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka . The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2). These hordes had helped Chandragupta Maurya defeat

7584-704: The Kambojas . These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander ( c.  326 BC ) during latter's campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander's historians. These highlanders, designated as "parvatiya Ayudhajivinah" in Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord. The Sanskrit drama Mudra-rakashas by Visakha Dutta and

7742-488: The Pax Romana , a rank-and-file Roman legionary would be paid 225 denarii per year. This was increased to 300 denarii during the reign of Domitian . However, during the third century crisis, inflation and chaos disrupted a legionary's pay, with emperors often letting legionaries seize goods from civilians. Their income was supplemented by donatives from emperors either to secure a legion's loyalty or to award them after

7900-557: The Persians and Hebrews , the sword was short and equivalent to the Roman gladius . There did however exist longswords, slightly curved swords, and sickle-like swords similar to the Egyptian khopesh . Some blades were of such varying sizes that it is difficult to classify them as either daggers or swords, and they are thus referred to by archaeologists as dagger-swords.In modern Iran , traditional Persian armed combat called razmafzar

8058-644: The Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians . The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt from 1550 BC as well as the Assyrian army and Babylonian royalty. The power of mobility given by mounted units

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8216-495: The aristocracy the fashionable art of swordsmanship which they had previously had to go the continent to learn, and also set up a riding school in the former rear garden of the house. He was fencing instructor to the Royal Family . With the help of artist Gwyn Delin, he had an instruction book published in England in 1763, which had 25 engraved plates demonstrating classic positions from the old schools of fencing. His school

8374-953: The main battle tank . Nonetheless, some cavalry still served during World War II (notably in the Red Army , the Mongolian People's Army , the Royal Italian Army , the Royal Hungarian Army , the Romanian Army , the Polish Land Forces , and German light reconnaissance units within the Waffen SS ). Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Modern usage of

8532-464: The rapier and civilian dueling , took the forefront. The compendium compiled by Paulus Hector Mair in the 1540s looks back to the preceding century of work and attempts to reconstruct and preserve a failing art. The treatise by Joachim Meyer , dating to the 1570s and notable for its scientific and complete approach to the style (it is suggested that Meyer's students came to him with less military knowledge and therefore required more basic instruction),

8690-408: The rewards and punishments , which served as both incentives and deterrents for legionaries in battle. For example, the highly coveted corona civica was given to legionaries who saved a comrade in battle. However, death was the punishment for a variety of different offenses. Those who committed cowardice and dereliction of duty were stoned to death by their comrades. On very rare occasions when

8848-431: The samurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charging lancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete. Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units. An example

9006-566: The trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills. The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the chariot -riding Chinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancient Shang dynasty ( c.  1600 –1050 BC). By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred thousand mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force. The handheld pistol-and-trigger crossbow

9164-677: The "horsemen" and their land was known as "Home of Horses". They are the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of the Classical writings, and the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Pāṇini 's Ashtadhyayi . The Assakenoi had faced Alexander with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants. Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of Kunar and Swat valleys as a section of

9322-463: The 16th century with the advent of firearms . The last prominent battlefield sword to be used was the backsword . Although it was not a new invention, it managed to outlast other forms of war swords, being used by cavalry units and officers. The power, accuracy, and reliability of firearms continued to improve, however, and soon swords had little place on the battlefield aside from ceremonial purposes. The preferred civilian dueling weapon shifted from

9480-485: The 1890s, both in order to benefit various military charities and to encourage patronage of the contemporary methods of competitive fencing. Exhibitions were held at the Bath Club and a fund-raising event was arranged at Guy's Hospital . Despite this revival, the practice died out soon after the death of Hutton in 1910. Interest in the physical application of historical fencing techniques remained largely dormant during

9638-545: The 20th century, cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms , operating as light cavalry in the roles of reconnaissance , screening , and skirmishing , or as heavy cavalry for decisive economy of force and shock attacks . An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations depending on era and tactics, such as a cavalryman , horseman , trooper , cataphract , knight , drabant , hussar , uhlan , mamluk , cuirassier , lancer , dragoon , samurai or horse archer . The designation of cavalry

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9796-432: The 30 cm (12 in) shortsword and the standard sword with a blade measuring 76–90 cm (30–35 in) had a cylindrical pommel. The latter weapon was wielded with both hands like a quarterstaff. Chinese speakers make a clear distinction between a "sword" (double-edged) and a "knife" (single-edged). In Chinese culture the double-edged sword or jian is considered a master's weapon or gentlemen's weapon, both from

9954-463: The 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns. Other specialist weapons during this period included javelins, long reaching lancers, axes and maces. The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the Parthians and their Persian Sasanian successors. Both, but especially

10112-528: The Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain decent and well-trained cavalry units. In 1107, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Kwan. To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to the northeast of the Goryeo–Jurchen borders (동북 9성, 東北 九城). The ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. The emergence of

10270-624: The Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars". J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e.

10428-700: The Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province. Ancient Kambojas organised military sanghas and shrenis (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as Arthashastra of Kautiliya as well as the Mahabharata record. They are described as Ayuddha-jivi or Shastr-opajivis (nations-in-arms), which also means that

10586-627: The Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen". The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas , all of whom had participated in the Kurukshetra war under the supreme command of Kamboja ruler Sudakshin Kamboj . Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. being ashva.yuddha.kushalah (expert cavalrymen). In

10744-526: The Later Republic, Roman legionaries predominantly came from the areas surrounding Rome. However, as Rome expanded, recruits began to come from other areas in Italy. Slowly, recruits came from the regions where the legions were stationed rather than from Italy itself. By the reign of Trajan , there were 4–5 legionaries originating from the provinces for every legionary originating from Italy. When on

10902-731: The Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the Kuru king Duryodhana of Hastinapura . Herodotus ( c.  484 – c.  425 BC ) attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (i.e. Gandharans/Kambojans of Gandari Strapy of Achaemenids ) from the 20th strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486–465 BC), which he led against

11060-492: The Medieval Age. Some time after this evolution, the earliest known treatises ( Fechtbücher ) were written, dealing primarily with arming sword and buckler combat. Among these examples is the I.33 , the earliest known Fechtbuch . The German school of swordsmanship can trace itself most closely to Johannes Liechtenauer and his students, who later became the German masters of the 15th century, including Sigmund Ringeck , Hans Talhoffer , Peter von Danzig and Paulus Kal . It

11218-411: The Roman army, a process called "proletarianisation". This was thought to have created a semi-professional class of soldiers motivated by land grants; these soldiers in turn became clients of their generals, who then used them to overthrow the republic . Belief in a comprehensive scheme of reforms under Marius emerged in 1840s German scholarship, which posited that any changes in the Roman army between

11376-541: The Roman army. The men of the same contubernium fought, slept, ate, and trained together. This strong sense of camaraderie gave Roman legionaries a sense of pride and kept them fighting on the battlefield. The standard bearers, signiferi , were of great importance in keeping Roman soldiers in the battle. The loss of a standard was a disgrace to the centuria the standard belonged to. As such, standard bearers served as someone to rally around and as someone to exhort legionaries to battle. Optiones , Roman officers at

11534-421: The Roman legions. With the state providing the equipment to the recruits and no property requirements, even the poorest Roman citizens were able to join the legions. However, the army was viewed as an honorable and valued profession. With a steady pay, good retirement benefits, and even certain legal advantages, a legionary had many perks that common citizens found desirable. As such, though poor citizens could join

11692-490: The Roman trainees learned to fight with the wooden wasters before moving on to the use of sharpened steel. In fact, it is also found that Roman gladiators trained with a wooden sword, which was weighted with lead, against a straw man or a wooden pole known as a palus (an early relative of the later wooden pell ). This training would have provided the Roman soldier with a good foundation of skill, to be improved upon from practical experience or further advanced training. Little

11850-585: The ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot. The role of horsemen did however remain secondary to that of the hoplites or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states. Cavalry played a relatively minor role in ancient Greek city-states , with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, Thebes produced Pelopidas , their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed by Philip II of Macedon when Philip

12008-559: The advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot. Another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly valued and exploited in warfare during the Ancient and Medieval eras. Some hosts were mostly cavalry, particularly in nomadic societies of Asia , notably

12166-442: The altering of the socio-economic background of the soldiery. Other changes were supposed to have included the introduction of the cohort ; the institution of a single form of heavy infantry with uniform equipment; the universal adoption of the eagle standard ; and the abolition of the citizen cavalry . It was commonly believed that Marius changed the soldiers' socio-economic background by allowing citizens without property to join

12324-433: The ancient world. Though there were many different formations that legionaries fought in, they tended toward close, ordered formations with gaps between formations. These gaps would allow for reserve units to enter battle or serve as avenues for skirmishing forces to retreat back behind the legionaries. During lulls in the battle, wounded soldiers could further be taken back behind battle lines through these gaps. During

12482-590: The appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was also a significant factor as was the adoption of stirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in Eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established by Persian forces, as

12640-416: The army was an important component of tax collection. Legionaries also served to spread Roman culture throughout the provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped Romanize the provinces they protect. Roman legionaries served as

12798-494: The army would be used for a variety of different civil services along with their normal military role. Regular trained legionaries were known as milites and were the equivalent in rank of the modern private . Included in the ranks, aside from the milites , were the immunes , specialist soldiers with secondary roles such as engineer , artilleryman, drill and weapons instructor, carpenter and medic . These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and would fight in

12956-474: The back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour's hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC

13114-611: The best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May). It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations. Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit. "hat shooting") is a type of Japanese mounted archery. In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping

13272-501: The capital for trade in swords from Syria , Persia and Spain . The 9th-century Muslim scholar Al-Kindi studied the craft of forging swords and found 25 sword-making techniques particular to their countries of origin, including Yemen, Iran, France, and Russia. The curved scimitar blade which has now come to typify Middle Eastern swords came about after the Turkish Seljuk migration from Central Asia to Anatolia, popularizing

13430-512: The case of pharaohs. The blade may be edged on one or both sides, and was made from copper alloy, bronze, iron, or blue steel. The double-edge grip-tongue sword is believed to have been introduced by the Sherden and became widely dispersed throughout the Near East . These swords are of various lengths, and were paired with shields. They had a leaf-shaped blade, and a handle which hollows away at

13588-445: The center of the shield. This allowed the legionary to not only use the scutum as defensive equipment but also as an offensive weapon. Legionaries would have used this iron boss to punch and shove the enemy combatants. Accompanying this was the gladius , a primarily stabbing weapon though it could also be used to cut. These fairly simple tools combined with impressive discipline made the Roman legionary an extremely effective soldier in

13746-462: The centre and thickens at each end. Middle Eastern swords became dominant throughout North Africa after the introduction of Islam, after which point swordsmanship in the region becomes that of Arabian or Middle Eastern fencing. Among some communities, swords were restricted to royalty or tribal leaders. Forms vary from one area to another, such as the billao of Somalia, boomerang-sword in Niger or

13904-444: The chance of a possibly infectious disease spreading through the army. Roman forts and camps were also planned in such a way as to minimize the spread of water-borne illnesses , which ravaged many ancient armies. Engineers took special care in piping fresh water to the camps and carrying sewage downstream of any watering places. Those legionaries who were seriously and permanently wounded or injured would be granted missio causaria , or

14062-563: The character of bureaucratic nation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders. The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of the Russian Empire . In Eastern Europe , and out onto the steppes , cavalry remained important much longer and dominated

14220-441: The classical Roman legionary disappeared. Roman legionaries were recruited from Roman citizens under age 45. They were first predominantly made up of recruits from Roman Italy , but more were recruited from the provinces as time went on. As legionaries moved into newly conquered provinces, they helped Romanize the native population and helped integrate the disparate regions of the Roman Empire into one polity. They enlisted in

14378-526: The classical legionary and used darts rather than the pila of their predecessors. Though the legionary was first and foremost a soldier, he provided a variety of other critical functions. Lacking a professional police force , governors would use legionaries to keep the peace and protect critical facilities. As the Roman empire lacked a large civil administration , the army would often be given many administrative positions. High ranking soldiers often acted as judges in disputes among local populations and

14536-399: The considerable skill required to fight with this weapon and from the fact that commanders of armies favored the jian in order to move easily amongst the troops. It is described in Chinese as the "delicate lady" of weapons, and is traditionally considered the weapon most suitable for women. A single edged sword is referred to as a dao . The jian and dao are among the four main weapons taught in

14694-500: The country date back 4000 years. Four types of sword are known to have been used: the ma or boomerang-sword based on the hunting stick, the kat or knife-sword, the khopesh or falchion based on the sickle, and a fourth form of straight longsword. The khopesh was used region-wide and is depicted as early as the Sixth Dynasty (3000 BC). It was thick-backed and weighted with bronze, sometimes even with gold hilts in

14852-442: The danger in training with real swords, practitioners since the 18th century have trained with wooden swords ( bokken or bokutō ) or bamboo swords ( shinai ) while wearing body armour. After the carrying of swords in public became illegal, this resulted in the modern sport of kendo . Some ancient schools still exist along with some more modern schools. Many schools also focus almost exclusively on swordsmanship which grew from

15010-461: The deep south to the far northeast. The handle, in particular, has changed over time, eventually incorporating a crossguard. The 16th-century Mughal conquests spread the talwar and similar weapons throughout the north, northwest and central regions. The talwar is still the most common form of sword in the martial arts of these areas, but the older katti is still used in some advanced forms. The earliest extant manual on ancient Indian swordsmanship

15168-421: The discipline of the legionaries, as they began to expect more and more rewards from their emperors. Under Caracalla , Septimus Severus's successor, all freedmen in the Roman Empire became Roman citizens , effectively erasing the distinction between auxiliaries and legionaries. This, coinciding with the continued expansion of the Roman army, meant recruits of more dubious standards joined the legions, decreasing

15326-427: The early Germanic spatha , were made very well. The technique of pattern welding of composite metals, invented in the Roman Empire around the end of the 2nd century A.D., provided some of these northern weapons superior properties in strength and resilience to the iron gladius of early Rome. As time passed, the spatha evolved into the arming sword , a weapon with a notable cruciform hilt common among knights in

15484-459: The end of the 8th century, with the importation of the curved forging techniques of that time. The shape was more efficient when fighting from horseback. Japanese swordsmanship is primarily two-handed wherein the front hand pushes down and the back hand pulls up while delivering a basic vertical cut. The samurai often carried two swords, the longer katana and the shorter wakizashi , and these were normally wielded individually, though use of both as

15642-594: The first half of the 20th century, and only revived near the end of the 20th century. Practitioners of modern fencing, who were unsatisfied with the exclusive sports emphasis that modern fencing had, took steps to preserve the principles of dueling and fencing as practiced in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Classical fencing uses the foil, épée, and sabre according to these older practices. Fencing and sword fighting have been incorporated into films as part of cinematic action sequences. Usually choreographed, these scenes are designed for entertainment but often demonstrate

15800-637: The former, were famed for the cataphract (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter horse archers . The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the Hellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the Roman–Persian Wars . At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match

15958-550: The founding of Islam, swords were imported from Ubulla , a town along the Tigris river in Iraq . Arabian swords retained their straight double-edge shape during the time of Muhammed . With the exception of their curved handles, they were nearly identical to medieval European arming swords in both function and design. They typically had a cruciform hilt and favoured cut and thrust techniques. Swords of this type were often paired with

16116-475: The health and sporting benefits of fencing more than its use as a killing art, particularly in his influential book 'L'École des armes ( The School of Fencing ), published in 1763. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , "Angelo was the first to emphasize fencing as a means of developing health, poise, and grace. As a result of his insight and influence, fencing changed from an art of war to

16274-439: The historical method of military sabre use on foot, combining the 18th century English backsword with modern Italian duelling sabre . Hutton's pioneering advocacy and practice of historical fencing included reconstructions of the fencing systems of several historical masters including George Silver and Achille Marozzo . He delivered numerous practical demonstrations with his colleague Egerton Castle of these systems during

16432-472: The horse. While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery. In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the Gupta dynasty (320–600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe- stirrups . Indian literature contains numerous references to

16590-436: The invention of the saddle-attached stirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a Jin dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD. The Chinese invention of the horse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure. The horse warfare of Korea

16748-425: The legions. The Roman legionaries were also guaranteed a land grant or a cash payment at the end of his service, making the Roman legionary less dependent on generals for rewards after campaigns. Augustus also changed the sacramentum so that soldiers swore allegiance only to the emperor, and not to the general. Thus, Augustus managed to end the civil wars which defined the late Roman Republic and created an army that

16906-496: The main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers. The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as

17064-420: The march in hostile territory, the legionary would carry or wear full armour , supplies and equipment. This commonly consisted of chain ( lorica hamata ) , scaled ( lorica squamata ) , or in the 1st–3rd century sectioned ( lorica segmentata ) armour, shield ( scutum ), helmet ( galea ), two javelins (one heavy pilum and one light verutum ), a short sword ( gladius ), a dagger ( pugio ),

17222-416: The military, members from across the plebeian class were found in the Roman legions. Indeed, the army served as one of the few avenues of upward mobility in the Roman world. The army actively sought out recruits with useful skills such as smiths, carpenters, and butchers. Though not required, literacy was useful since promotion to higher ranks such as centurion required a knowledge of writing. During

17380-414: The most effective manner within the rules of the sport. As this evolution has continued, the training and techniques have become increasingly further removed from their martial roots . One driving force behind this evolution is sport fencing's award of a point to the fencer who scores the first touch with right of way; this encourages the competitors to use scoring techniques that result in a first touch in

17538-479: The mount and rider . Heavy cavalry, such as Byzantine cataphracts and knights of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, were used as shock troops, charging the main body of the enemy at the height of a battle; in many cases their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later term battle cavalry . Light cavalry, such as horse archers , hussars , and Cossack cavalry, were assigned all

17696-611: The mounted warriors of the Central Asian horse nomads, notably the Sakas , Kambojas , Yavanas , Pahlavas and Paradas . Numerous Puranic texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC) in which the horsemen of five nations, called the "Five Hordes" ( pañca.ganan ) or Kṣatriya hordes ( Kṣatriya ganah ), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic King Bahu The Mahabharata , Ramayana , numerous Puranas and some foreign sources attest that

17854-472: The needs of the era when guns had not yet matured enough for short-range combat. Swords in the Philippines come in a variety of forms but are traditionally consistent with the straight or lightly curved cutting type used by the tribes of neighbouring Borneo and Taiwan. This is preserved in the design of the kampilan and the dahong palay , though other forms also existed. They were typically paired with

18012-404: The noble families' patronage of certain teachers. The earliest Korean swords were straight double-edge blades derived from the Chinese jian . As Korean warfare favoured mounted combat, the curved single-edge sword was found to be more effective from horseback. Joseon 's centralized government and the need to fend off frequent foreign invasions were conducive to the development of swordsmanship as

18170-518: The north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the hetairoi ( Companion cavalry ) of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great . In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen called prodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as the Macedonian pike phalanx and various kinds of light infantry . There were also

18328-425: The numerous roles that were ill-suited to more narrowly-focused heavy forces. This includes scouting , deterring enemy scouts, foraging , raiding , skirmishing , pursuit of retreating enemy forces, screening of retreating friendly forces, linking separated friendly forces, and countering enemy light forces in all these same roles. Light and heavy cavalry roles continued through early modern warfare , but armor

18486-503: The pre-existing Byzantine sabre designs for cavalry use, which influenced the entire region. The curved blade was well-suited to the equestrian culture of the Turks. The scimitar gave primacy to hacking and slashing techniques rather than thrusting. Western swordsmanship Asian swordsmanship Legionary The Roman legionary (in Latin legionarius ; pl. : legionarii ) was

18644-411: The quality of the Roman legionary further. During the 3rd Century Crisis , a more mobile army became necessary, as threats arose across the long borders of the Roman Empire. As such, mounted cavalry became essential to respond to the varied challenges to the empire. Because of this, Roman heavy infantry faded further from dominance. By the 4th century, Roman infantry lacked much of the body armor of

18802-467: The ranks if called upon. They were excused from some of the more arduous tasks such as drill and fatigues and received better pay than their comrades in arms. Though Roman legionaries were predominantly made up of volunteer citizens, conscription of recruits continued through Republic era and into the Principate , especially in times of crisis. This meant that levees remained a significant part of

18960-450: The rapier to the faster but shorter smallsword , and eventually shifted totally away from swords to the pistol , following developments in firearm technology. The civilian affair of dueling was banned in most areas, but persisted to some degree regardless of law, until well into the 20th century. The German school of swordsmanship, in general, faced a decline during the Renaissance as the Italian and Spanish schools, which tilted more toward

19118-434: The rear of a formation, had many essential roles outside of battle. However, during battle, their task was to prevent legionaries from routing. Carrying a staff with a ball-end, an optio would force legionaries fleeing from battle back into formation. Leading at the front, centurions would fight alongside legionaries under their command, serving as a role model for his legionaries to remain in combat. Finally, there were

19276-531: The recruit to develop strength as he trained with these wooden weapons. Alongside battle training, the recruit was also taught other necessary skills such as swimming and setting up camp. Most of all, however, the recruit was taught discipline, and was drilled twice a day during his training period. After this period, which could last up to six months, the recruit would become a milite and sent to his respective legion. The Roman soldier underwent especially rigorous training throughout his military career; discipline

19434-406: The reforms a "construct of modern scholarship". As Augustus consolidated power in 27 BC and founded the Principate , he further professionalized the Roman legionary and sought to break the legionary's dependence on his general. Under him, a legionary's term of service was raised to 25 years (before that, a legionary's average term of service was only 10 years) and pay was standardized throughout

19592-406: The reign of Septimius Severus (though their spouses were often recognized), most likely because of the implicit necessity to care for the widow in the event of a legionary's death. When first enlisted, a fresh Roman recruit ( tiro ) was not given real weapons to train with. Instead, he was given wooden swords and shields designed to be twice the weight of their counterparts in battle. This allowed

19750-653: The rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Eurasian Steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Iranic Parthians and Sarmatians . Together with a core of armoured lancers, these were predominantly horse archers using the Parthian shot tactic. The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no spurs , saddles , saddle cloths , or stirrups . Fighting from

19908-528: The ruler of Magadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan dynasty in Northern India. The cavalry of Hunas and the Kambojas is also attested in the Raghu Vamsa epic poem of Sanskrit poet Kalidasa . Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be Chandragupta II ( Vikaramaditya ) (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known Gupta dynasty . As late as the mediaeval era,

20066-463: The scene of warfare until the early 17th century and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic pastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led. Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements with the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Further east, the military history of China , specifically northern China , held

20224-554: The single-edge swords of the Gold Coast . The Abyssinian shotel took the form of a large sickle, like the Egyptian khopesh, with a small 10 cm (3.9 in) wooden handle. The edge was on the inside of the blade, which has a mid-rib running along its entire length. Double-edge swords similar to those of Europe and ancient Arabia occurred in some areas such as the takoba and kaskara . Two types of sword existed in Zanzibar :

20382-407: The soldiers behind them. Even if the pila failed to pierce the shields, the neck of the javelin would bend, making the shield useless. This then made the enemy vulnerable to missile fire and legionary attack. The disruption and damage wrought by pila would then be followed by the charge of Roman legionaries. Though Roman scutum had various different designs, they all shared a large metal boss in

20540-810: The southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC , but by the time of the Roman conquest of Britain a century later chariots were obsolete, even in Britannia. The last mention of chariot use in Britain was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius , in 84 AD. During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to those citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry, whose riders, armed with javelins , could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry, whose troopers, using lances , had

20698-469: The speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and clibanarii . The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by

20856-480: The status of being a cavalryman. As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian socii for filling the ranks of their cavalry. The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated by Hannibal Barca during the Second Punic War where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles. The most notable of these

21014-494: The stoning of individuals or unit executions involving decimation . However, honors, rewards, and promotions were frequently awarded to legionaries who distinguished themselves in battle or through exemplary service. One of the goals for strong disciplinary training was to expel fear from a Roman soldier. Fear, and the panic that often follows, is a devastating force to an army on the battlefield. The Romans aimed to remove fear through strict physical and mental training. However,

21172-460: The term cavalry is still used, referring in modern times to units continuing to fulfill the traditional light cavalry roles, employing fast armored cars , light tanks , and infantry fighting vehicles instead of horses, while air cavalry employs helicopters . Before the Iron Age , the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots . The chariot originated with

21330-400: The term generally refers to units performing the role of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) or main battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry). Historically, cavalry was divided into light cavalry and heavy cavalry . The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by

21488-480: The thicker, tapering sword that eventually became the 17th century rapier . This new weapon was popular for both protection on the street and as a tool in the duel , but found little success on the battlefield. The Italian, French, and Spanish schools embraced this change in civilian armament and developed systems of rapier fencing. The German school, however, provides little on this weapon and ceases its prevalence thereafter. The need to train swordsmen for combat in

21646-532: The times of Polybius and Marius were attributable to a single reform event. This belief was spread relatively uncritically and was accepted as largely proven by the 1850s and through much of the 20th century. There is, however, little ancient evidence for any permanent or significant change to recruitment practice in Marius' time. The occurrence of such a comprehensive reform led by Marius is no longer widely accepted by specialists; 21st-century scholars have called

21804-960: The title has been used by the French Foreign Legion , the Spanish Foreign Legion and the Polish Legions . Members of these modern legions are often called légionnaires , the French term for legionary. The term was also used by the Romanian far right paramilitary group known in English as the Iron Guard . Cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word cavalerie , itself derived from cheval meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback . Until

21962-644: The tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The Chinese recognized early on during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage in lacking the number of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies. Emperor Wu of Han (r 141–87 BC) went to war with

22120-512: The unit was dismissed by Galba after the Batavian Rebellion . For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion. The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that

22278-409: The use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive scythed chariots . The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC. However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph , or for racing. Outside of mainland Europe,

22436-634: The use of traditional swords and weapons was immediately banned. Because of this, the Filipinos were forced to use their own farm tools to fight in rebellions. And in the following insurgencies against other foreign colonists like America and Japan, they were again forced to use these improvised weapons. During the Japanese occupation, because of scarce ammunition to fight the Japanese, the Filipinos used guerrilla attacks with their melee weapons and swords in raiding Japanese camps. Filipino swordplay relies heavily on speed, and even today Filipino marines train in

22594-442: The utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia . After defeats such as

22752-570: Was a guest-hostage in Thebes. Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the Persians taught the Greeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The Athenian author and soldier Xenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations. The Macedonian kingdom in

22910-463: Was a primary incentive for the legionaries to do battle. Light skirmishing would then take place, with cavalry and auxiliaries probing enemy lines before a pitched battle commenced. The Roman legionary's three principal weapons were the pilum (javelin), scutum (shield), and gladius (short sword). Ideally, the legionaries would throw their pila first as they approached the enemy army. These pila could often penetrate enemy shields and hit

23068-658: Was broadly loyal to only the emperor. Legionaries would expand Rome's borders to include lower Britannia , Dacia , North Africa, and more through military campaigns under Augustus and future emperors. From the reign of Septimus Severus onward, the Roman legionary gradually lost his preeminence. Though there were multiple causes for this decline, all pointed to the gradual degradation of loyalty and/or discipline. Septimus Severus, perhaps unwittingly, began this decline when he lavished his legionaries with donatives and pay increases, recognising that they were his key to becoming and staying emperor. However, this proved detrimental to

23226-467: Was first started during the ancient Korean kingdom Gojoseon . Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern nomadic peoples and Yemaek peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the first century BC, the ancient kingdom of Buyeo also had mounted warriors. The cavalry of Goguryeo , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , were called Gaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and were renowned as

23384-445: Was further pressed to meet the demands of killing a very well protected enemy. For much of the early medieval period, the sword continued to remain a symbol of status. During later years, production techniques became more efficient, and so, while the sword remained a privilege, it was not so heavily confined to only the richest individuals, but rather to the richest classes. The military importance of swordsmanship rapidly diminished in

23542-438: Was however strong in most continental cavalry during peacetime and in these dismounted action continued to be regarded as a secondary function until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. With the development of armored warfare , the heavy cavalry role of decisive shock troops had been taken over by armored units employing medium and heavy tanks , and later main battle tanks . Despite horse-borne cavalry becoming obsolete,

23700-501: Was invented in China in the fourth century BC; it was written by the Song dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book Wujing Zongyao (1044 AD) that massed missile fire by crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges. On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited

23858-514: Was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests of Persia , Bactria , and northwestern India. The cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the equites —men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common legions . Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with

24016-425: Was not usually given to any military forces that used other animals or platforms for mounts, such as chariots , camels or elephants . Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot, were known in the early 17th to the early 18th century as dragoons , a class of mounted infantry which in most armies later evolved into standard cavalry while retaining their historic designation. Cavalry had

24174-567: Was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor . Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those in Egypt , Assyria , the Hittite Empire , and Mycenaean Greece . Cavalry techniques, and

24332-408: Was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored. Yet many cavalry units still retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes, and the morale boost these provide to the wearers, despite the actual armour giving little protection from firearms . By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was in their training and weight; the former

24490-431: Was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefield firepower increased, cavalry increasingly tended to become dragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to fight as infantry, even though retaining unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles. Military conservatism

24648-419: Was run by three generations of his family and dominated the art of European fencing for almost a century. He established the essential rules of posture and footwork that still govern modern sport fencing , although his attacking and parrying methods were still much different from current practice. Although he intended to prepare his students for real combat, he was the first fencing master yet to emphasize

24806-578: Was the Battle of Cannae , where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among Gauls , Iberians , and Numidians , the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (see Numidian cavalry ). Julius Caesar had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to the Cohortes Equitatae . Early emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their personal bodyguards until

24964-510: Was the base of the army's success, and the soldiers were relentlessly and constantly trained with weapons and especially with drill —forced marches with full load and in tight formation were frequent. As discipline was important, infractions were heavily punished by the centurions . Punishments could range from being obliged to spend the night outside the protective security of a fortified camp, through being beaten with clubs ( fustuarium —a common punishment for 'slowpokes' during long marches), to

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