The Syama Jataka , Sama Jataka , Sovannasam Cheadok or Suwannasam Chadok is the third of the Jataka tales in the collection of Ten Jataka or Mahanipata Jataka , which tell of the last ten lives of the Buddha prior to the life in which he achieves enlightenment. The Syama Jataka tells the story of a Bodhisatva who descends to earth to be born as the child of two pious hermits. As a young man, Sovannasam becomes a hermit as well, and then dedicates himself to the care of his parents who have been blinded. Followers of Buddhism believe that the Buddha told the story in a sermon at Wat Chetapun to explain the virtues of Sovannasam's conduct to a monk who was uncertain whether it was appropriate for a monk to take care of his parents.
182-598: Syama, the Buddha in a former life, was the only son of a blind hermit and his wife, who are entirely dependent on him for support. He attends to their needs with great devotion in an example of filial piety . One day, Syama goes to draw water at the river and is shot with an arrow by the King of Benares, who is out hunting. Owing to the king’s penitence and his parents’ sorrow Indra intervenes and allows Syama to be healed and his parents’ sight to be restored. The story of Syama
364-478: A 'book of merit' ( Pali : puñña-potthaka , Sanskrit : puṇyapustaka ) was sometimes kept by someone for years and read in the last moments of life. This practice was based on the story of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi , and was mostly practiced by the royalty and rich during the period of the Mahāvaṁsa chronicle . More recent practice has also been observed, for example, as a form of terminal care . or as part of
546-527: A discourse called the Sigalaka Sutta , several ways are mentioned in which a child can repay its parents: "I will perform duties incumbent on them, I will keep up the lineage and tradition ( Pali : kula vaṃsa ) of my family, I will make myself worthy of my heritage." The deity Sakka is reported to have had seven rules of conduct according to which he lived his life, the first of which being "As long as I live, may I maintain my parents". This rule
728-479: A deity intervened and Śyāma came back to life. In some versions of the story, it is the mother who makes an "act of truth" referring to the virtue of her son, and by doing so magically revives him. There is also a story of the elder Maudgalyayāna , one of the main disciples of the Buddha, who is described saving his mother from hell by sharing his religious merits . In this story, Maudgalyayāna sees through meditative vision that his mother who has just died
910-706: A Buddha ( Sanskrit : manopraṇidhānaya ). The story depicts the Buddha-to-be as a filial and grateful son, which the text says is a habit of Buddhas-to-be in general. The mother is part of the reason the Buddha-to-be aspires to become a Buddha in a future life. The Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents is still popular in East Asia and is often referred to in preaching by monks. The story of
1092-498: A Buddhist monk and report this to the Buddha. The Buddha, however, speaks high praise of the monk's filial piety, and he relates a discourse called the Mātuposaka Sutta , as well his own previous life as Śyāma. In this previous life, the Buddha-to-be was taking care of his blind parents, but was accidentally shot by a king hunting. Whilst his last thoughts went out to his parents who would no longer have any one to take care of them,
1274-768: A belief that a filial child should even be willing to sacrifice its own body. The Ullambana Sūtra introduced the idea of transfer of merit through the story of Mulian Saves His Mother and led to the establishment of the Ghost Festival . By this Buddhists attempted to show that filial piety also meant taking care of one's parents in the next life, not just this life. Furthermore, authors in China—and to some extent Japan—wrote that in Buddhism, all living beings have once been one's parents, and that practicing compassion to all living beings as though they were one's parents
1456-471: A bit of merit is no use to him ( Pali : "anumattenāpi puññena attho mayhaṃ na vijjati" ). Some scholars, supporting the transcendency thesis, have interpreted this to mean that merit can only lead to happiness and progress within Saṃsāra , but does not lead to Nirvana, and must in fact be discarded before attaining Nirvana. Marasinghe believes, however, that the word merit in this passage refers to merit in
1638-421: A certain wish or intention also affects the meritorious deed, as the power of the merits can be channeled toward a certain purpose. The manner in which people give is also important: whether someone gives respectfully or not, and whether by giving someone is harming anyone. With regard to the size of the gift, a larger gift is usually more meritorious than a smaller one, but purity of mind affects merit more than
1820-572: A community. People were so intent on merit-making and giving, that in some societies, people would even offer themselves and their family to a Buddhist temple, as one high-ranking minister did in the ancient Pagan Kingdom (ninth until fourteenth century Burma). On a similar note, in Sri Lanka, kings and commoners would offer slaves to the temple, and then donate money to pay for their freedom, that way accruing two merits at once. Even more symbolically, kings would sometimes offer their kingdom to
2002-401: A criticism against Buddhism, which was seen to disregard filial piety in favor of universal kindness. During this period, in response to attacks from Confucianists and Daoists, works written in defense of filial piety in Buddhism reflected a higher level of maturity. For example, in response to Daoist criticism that Buddhism teaches abandonment of one's parents, Fa Lin responded by referring to
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#17327759099092184-570: A distinction is made between worldly ( Pali : lokīya ) and transcendental ( Pali : lokuttara ) merit, in which only transcendental merit leads to liberation. The Thai scholar and monastic Phra Payutto believes that merit and kusala are both used to describe the 'cleanliness of the mind' ( RTGS : khwam sa-at mot chot ). But whereas merit aims for the 'beautiful and praiseworthy' ( RTGS : suai-ngam na chuenchom ) aspect of such cleanliness, with worldly benefits such as wealth, praise and happiness; kusala aims for
2366-575: A filial daughter and later choosing the nun's life), or by transforming Confucian practices in Buddhist practices. Though the ideal of self-sacrifice agreed with Confucian values, such sacrifice was redefined fitting with Buddhist values. Through these writings, Chinese Buddhists attempted to connect the family with the monastery in a mutually supportive relationship. Inscriptions show that female donors of Buddhist monasteries often dedicated their generosity to their parents, effectively helping to establish
2548-538: A happy or a miserable successor. And so, without any definite belief as to how, or in what realm of the universe he will re-arise as that successor to his present self, the pious Buddhist, no less than his pious brethren of other creeds, goes on giving money and effort, time and thought to good works, cheerfully believing that nothing of it can possibly forgo its effect, but that it is all a piling up of merit or creative potency, to result, somewhere, somewhere, somehow, in future happiness—happiness which, though he be altruistic
2730-426: A heavenly rebirth in their afterlife, whereas people who are negligent in this, are called "outcasts" ( Pali : vasala ). Buddhist studies scholar Guang Xing believes a comparison is drawn here between the devotion to Brahma , and the devotion toward one's parents, of which the latter is considered better, because they are considered the real creators. Parents are also compared to " Worthy Ones " and Buddhas , which
2912-462: A human, the gift yields more fruits than if the recipient is an animal, but a gift to a sāmaṇera (a young monk), a monk, many monks, and the Buddha yield even more fruits, in ascending order. If the giver is motivated by greed or other defilements of the mind , the merit gained will be much less than if the giver is motivated by loving-kindness or other noble intentions. Even the intention of going to heaven, though in itself not considered wrong,
3094-434: A major reason for the Buddha to allow his foster mother to become a full-fledged Buddhist nun , and thereby starting the order of nuns, was gratitude toward her. In stories of the previous lives of the Buddha , there are several examples that illustrate filial piety. In one life found in several Buddhist collections, the Buddha-to-be is Śyāma , a filial son who takes care of his blind parents in their old age. This story
3276-447: A memorandum, but his protests were suppressed by emperor Xianzong and not much responded to. Han Yu was nearly executed and banished. His popularity later rose, however. During the 10th-century neo-Confucianist revival, Han Yu's writings were rediscovered and he became a saintly figure. Already in the 9th century, Emperor Wuzong took Han Yu's arguments to heart and began a campaign to extinguish Buddhism (841–845), citing as one of
3458-535: A more spiritual sense rather than only blood relations. With this, Tōrei meant to emphasize the role of religion and its lineage. Therefore, in Japan, Buddhists regarded the position of Buddhism on filial piety as either the same as in Confucianism, or as broader and deeper than in Confucianism. In South and Southeast Asia, the example of the Buddha maintaining a loving relationship with his family, as depicted in
3640-405: A moustache and beard as well. The clothing in which the couple is depicted shows a similar variety to that of Sovannasam, and includes tiger skins and varying color “sampot". The elderly couple is not however represented in the kingly costume in which Sovannasam is sometimes rendered. The Jataka appear on a relief at Sanchi , Stupa No1, Western Gateway. At the right hand top corner of the panel arc
3822-586: A new ideal of female filial piety. Also, the legend of Miaoshan became quite popular, which related how the bodhisattva Guanyin is born as a princess and refuses to marry following her father's wishes. She eventually manages to find salvation for herself and her father, when she heals her father from his illness by sacrificing some of her body parts to be used for medicine. This story is still used by Buddhist women in Singapore to justify their resistance to marriage. Another story that connects filial piety with
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#17327759099094004-537: A number of Asian cultures, some of which are based on Buddhism, such as Thailand. In the context of care-giving in Thailand, the parents of a child are compared to an enlightened Buddhist monk from the perspective of the family. The children of a parent are seen to have a relationship of bunkhun with the parents, which is a value that informs their filial piety, and gives it a sense of "respect, honor, fidelity, devotion, dutifulness, and sacrifice". Furthermore, there
4186-531: A person should repay: the moral debt to one's parents, to all living beings, to one's ruler and to the Triple Gem (the Buddha, his teaching and the monastic community ). Perhaps inspired by Brahmanical teachings, Chinese Buddhists hoped that edifying people about the four debts would help for Buddhism to become more accepted in China. However, the teaching of the four debts only gained much popularity during
4368-516: A phrase stating that "filial piety is called precepts ", which inspired writings by Buddhist scholars on the subject and made the Fanwang Jing very popular. Furthermore, in order for Confucianists to accept Buddhism more easily, new elements were introduced in the Buddhist doctrine. During the Han dynasty (202 BCE–9 CE) , Chinese Buddhist leaders introduced the teaching of the four debts that
4550-907: A princess called Pari kongju is abandoned by her parents because they want a male heir. She is later saved by the Buddha and raised by others. Despite being abandoned, she later finds medicine for her ill royal parents and cures them out of filial piety. During the Edo period in Japan (1603–1868), large quantities of biographies of filial people were written, as Japanese authors were inspired by Ming dynasty Chinese texts and started writing extensively about filial piety. Some of these works were written by Japanese Buddhist monks, writing about filial Buddhist lay people or monks. Others were written by Chinese Buddhist monks that had moved to Japan as part of initiatives to revitalize Buddhism for Chinese residents in Japan. Bankei Yōtaku (1622–1693) emphasized filial piety in his teachings, considering it part of Buddhahood . In
4732-415: A relative to ordain as a monk. Young people often temporary ordain as monks, because they believe this will not only yield fruits of merit for themselves, but also for their parents who have allowed them to ordain. In China, Thailand and India, it used to be common to offer land or the first harvest to a monastery. Also, more socially oriented activities such as building a hospital or bridge, or giving to
4914-584: A role in state rituals and mourning rites for ancestors, up until late imperial times (13th–20th century). Also, sūtras and narratives about filial piety are still widely used. The Ghost Festival is still popular in many Asian countries, especially those countries which are influenced by both Buddhism and Confucianism. Furthermore, in Theravādin countries in South and Southeast Asia, generosity, devotion and transfer of merit to parents are still widely practiced among
5096-453: A significant impact on the rural economies in these countries. Merit is connected with the notions of purity and goodness. Before Buddhism, merit was used with regard to ancestor worship , but in Buddhism it gained a more general ethical meaning. Merit is a force that results from good deeds done; it is capable of attracting good circumstances in a person's life, as well as improving the person's mind and inner well-being. Moreover, it affects
5278-565: A similar message. The Sūtra of Filial Piety was not only a way for Chinese Buddhists to adapt to Confucian ideals, it added its own Buddhist contribution to the concept of filial piety. It added the role of women and poor people in practicing filial piety, and regarded filial piety as a quality to be practiced toward all living beings in this and the next life . Therefore, the sūtra served not only as an adaptation to Confucian values, but also served Buddhist ideals of edification. In their teachings about filial piety, Chinese Buddhists emphasized
5460-530: A similar note, the Pāli tradition relates how the Buddha teaches his father Suddhodana on several occasions, eventually helping his father to attain enlightenment . Further, the Mahāyāna tradition has it that the Buddha organizes a funeral ceremony for his father out of piety. The Buddha is not only depicted as showing filial piety to his natural parents, but also his foster mother Mahāpajāpatī . Ohnuma has argued that
5642-467: A sort of spiritual currency or bookkeeping system. Though objections have been made against this metaphor , it is not new. Similar comparisons have been made in the Milinda Pañhā , and in seventeenth-century China. Moreover, Schopen has shown that Buddhism has had strong connections with the mercantile class, and Rotman thinks that a mercantile ethos may have informed Buddhist texts such as
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5824-606: A spiritual practice. But using wealth in unrighteous ways, or hoarding it instead of sharing and giving it, is condemned extensively. Taṇhā (thirst, desire, greed, craving) is what keeps a person wandering in Saṃsāra (the cycle of rebirth) , instead of becoming liberated. It is the attachment to wealth that is an obstacle on the spiritual path, not wealth per se. Stories illustrating these themes in vernacular Buddhist literature, have profoundly influenced popular culture in Buddhist countries. Several scholars have described merit as
6006-446: A stage in a cumulative force of tremendous power. He and his works stand in a mutual relation, somewhat like that of child to parent in the case of past works, of parent to child in the case of future works. Now no normal mother is indifferent as to whether or how she is carrying out her creative potency. Nor can any normal Buddhist not care whether his acts, wrought up hourly in their effect into his present and future character, are making
6188-426: A temple, which, returned the gift immediately, together with some Dhamma teaching. Also in Sri Lanka, King Mahakuli Mahatissa disguised himself as a peasant and started to earn his living working on a paddy field, so he would be able to gain more merit by working himself to obtain resources to give to Buddhist monks. In some cases, merit-making was even continued after a person's death: in ancient Thai tradition, it
6370-443: A view on the next life and liberation. Among lay people, women tend to engage in merit-making more than men, and this may be a way for them to enhance empowerment . Very often, merit-making is done as a group, and it is believed that such shared merit-making will cause people to be born together in next lives. This belief holds for families, friends, communities and even the country as a whole. In some cases, merit-making took
6552-535: A way to contribute to and sustain the social order. In Buddhist scriptures , narratives are given of the Buddha and his disciples practicing filial piety toward their parents, based on the qualities of gratitude and reciprocity. Initially, scholars of Buddhism like Kenneth Ch'en saw Buddhist teachings on filial piety as a distinct feature of Chinese Buddhism. Later scholarship, led by people such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen , has come to believe that filial piety
6734-401: A wide range of narratives, had a profound effect in countries where Theravāda Buddhism took hold. In devotional texts, parents were mentioned in the same list with the Triple Gem as object of devotion. Vernacular narratives warned of the dangers of treating one's parents with disrespect and encouraged the listeners a life-long respect for mothers and mother-like figures. Buddhist rituals marking
6916-576: A yearly festival ( RTGS : Thet Mahachat ) is held focused on the Vessantara Jātaka , a story of a previous life of the Buddha which is held sacred. This festival, seven centuries old, played a major role in legitimating kingship in Thai society. ( see § Kingship , below ) Making merit is the central theme of the festival. Since the period of Rama IV , however, the festival has become less popular. Many countries also celebrate
7098-512: Is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the next life and contributes to a person's growth towards enlightenment . In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased loved one, in order to help the deceased in their new existence. Despite modernization , merit-making remains essential in traditional Buddhist countries and has had
7280-477: Is a common idea found in Buddhist texts and Buddhist societies, and explains why people are different and lead different lives in many ways. Karma is self-regulatory and natural: it operates without divine intervention and human intention is fundamental to it. Internally, merit makes the mind happy and virtuous. Externally, present good circumstances, such as a long life, health and wealth, as well as
7462-649: Is a custom among Theravādin Buddhists in Asia for male children to temporarily become ordained as a Buddhist monks in order to dedicate the religious merit to their parents. Having passed this rite is regarded by the Thai as a sign of maturity and as an expression of filial piety. in Thailand, women cannot receive full ordination, however, and therefore practice their filial role mostly economically. Even Thai women who emigrate abroad tend to still send money to their aging parents. The custom of sending money to one's parents
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7644-449: Is a widespread custom of transferring merit to one's deceased relatives, of which the origin is still a matter of scholarly debate. Merit has been that important in Buddhist societies, that kingship was often legitimated through it, and still is. In modern society, merit-making has been criticized as materialist , but merit-making is still ubiquitous in many societies. Examples of the impact of beliefs about merit-making can be seen in
7826-501: Is also cited in the commentary to the Dhammapada , indicating the impact of filiality during that period. However, in the early discourse called Kataññu Sutta , the Buddha describes through several metaphors the difficulty in repaying the gratitude of one's parents through material means only. The discourses say that even if children were to carry their parents on their backs their entire lives, or let them be kings and queens of
8008-502: Is also considered a form of saving, considering there is a rebirth in which people receive back what they have given. As for virtue, this comprises three out of eight aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path , the path central in the Buddhist teaching: right speech , right action and right livelihood . Being the main criterion for moral behaviour in Buddhism, virtue is mostly about the undertaking of five precepts , although
8190-607: Is also known, which is different from merit in some details. The most fruitful form of merit-making is those good deeds done with regard to the Triple Gem , that is, the Buddha , his teachings, the Dhamma ( Sanskrit: Dharma ), and the Sangha . In Buddhist societies, a great variety of practices involving merit-making has grown throughout the centuries, sometimes involving great self-sacrifice. Merit has become part of rituals , daily and weekly practice , and festivals . In addition, there
8372-532: Is also part of the Buddhist path, cultivated through loving-kindness and the other sublime attitudes ( Pali : brahamavihāra ). In post-canonical and vernacular Pāli literature, such as the Jātaka stories of the Buddha's previous lives, the Avadānas and Anisaṃsa texts, as well as in many Mahāyāna texts, merit is the main concept. It is regarded as something which can be accumulated throughout different lifetimes in
8554-508: Is associated with goodness and purity of mind. In traditional Buddhist societies, it is believed that merit is more sustainable than that of magical rites , spirit worship or worldly power. The way merit works, is that acts of merit bring good and agreeable results, whereas demeritorious acts bring bad and disagreeable results. A mixture of the two generates mixed results in a person's life. This karmic correspondence ( Pali : kamma-sarikkhatā ) or "automatic cosmic reaction" (Brokaw)
8736-418: Is certainly not very filial. Yet they could have done nothing better to save their father's life. If they had folded their hands and practiced the norm of filial sons, their father's life would have been lost in the waters." The behavior of a Buddhist monk is similar. While on the surface the Buddhist seems to reject and abandon his parents, the pious Buddhist is actually aiding his parents as well as himself on
8918-499: Is common among rural Thai, who often work in big cities to earn money. During the Thai New Year festival , gratitude is widely and publicly expressed as elderly parents are honored by gifts. Among Sri Lankans, commemoration of one's deceased parents is an important part of daily routine of many people. This may be done by a simple daily act of lighting incense. There still is a common expression among Sri Lankans that "the mother
9100-451: Is common, especially those meritorious deeds which are connected to monks and temples. In this regard, there is a saying in Burma, "Your hands are always close to offering donations". Contrary to popular conceptions, merit-making is done by both monastics and laypeople alike. Buddhist monks or lay Buddhists earn merit through mindfulness , meditation, chanting and other rituals. Giving
9282-593: Is compared with a seed planted in fertile ground which reaps more and better fruits than in infertile ground. The Sangha is described as a field of merit, mostly because the members of the Sangha follow the Noble Eightfold Path . But in many texts, the Buddha and the Dhamma, and their representations, are also described as fields of merit. For example, Mahāyāna tradition considers production and reverence of Dharma texts very meritorious—this tradition, sometimes referred to as
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#17327759099099464-412: Is described as the way in which a Bodhisattva prevents "suffering in all evil destinies ". These ten wholesome ways are: These ten actions are described as akusala ('unwholesome'; Sanskrit : akuśala ), and when abstaining from them it is called kusala ('wholesome'; Sanskrit : kuśala ). Moreover, kusala and akusala are depicted as having 'roots' ( mūla ). Akusalamūla are
9646-552: Is generally considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics , in nearly all Buddhist traditions. Merit-making is very important to Buddhist practice in Buddhist societies. Merit is a "beneficial and protective force which extends over a long period of time" (B.J. Terwiel)—and is the effect of good deeds ( Pali : kamma , Sanskrit : karma ) done through physical action, words, or thought. As its Pāli language (the language of Theravada Buddhism, as practiced in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, etc.) definition indicates, this force
9828-459: Is going on pilgrimage , which is mostly common in Tibet and Japan. This practice is highly regarded and considered very meritorious. In several Buddhist countries, it has been common to record merits done. In China, it was common for many centuries to keep record of someone's meritorious deeds in 'merit ledgers' ( pinyin : gōngguò gé ). Although a belief in merit and retribution had preceded
10010-402: Is not filial piety and humanity , then what is piety and humanity?" Responding to criticism from emperor Huan Xuan (369–404), Huiyuan (334–416) argued that Buddhist monks did not have to pay homage to the emperor in "a manifested way", but just in heart and mind. Buddhist monks did in fact support imperial rule, he continued, but do so by teaching virtue to the people and in that way "all
10192-410: Is not seen as lofty as the intention to want to develop and purify the mind. If the recipient is spiritually "not worthy of the gift", the gift will still be meritorious provided the giver's intention is good, and this is also valid the other way around. Good thoughts must also be maintained after the good deed is done, as regretting the gift will also decrease the merit. Whether the giver pronounces
10374-521: Is reborn in hell . Shocked by this, he tries to use his meditative psychic powers to help his mother, but to no avail. Then the Buddha advises him to do meritorious acts toward the monastic community on behalf of his mother, which does help. Early Buddhist texts, such as the Māta Sutta of the Saṃyutta Nikāya , mention that every living being has once been one's relative in a previous life in
10556-468: Is reborn in a happy destination, however, one can only stay there as long as merits last. Thus, it is stated in the Tipiṭaka that people cannot take anything with them when they die, except for whatever merit and demerit they have done, which will affect their future. Merit can be accumulated in different quantities, and stored up, but also has an impermanent character: it can run out. Summarising from
10738-468: Is seen as superior. In the early days of Western Buddhist scholarship, a number of scholars, among which Indologist I.B. Horner (1896–1981) and linguist Jean Przyluski (1885–1944), emphasized the role of filial piety in Indian Buddhism. However, in later years, scholars such as Hajime Nakamura , Michihata Ryōshū, Miyakawa Hasayuki and Kenneth Ch'en developed the perspective that filial piety
10920-638: Is similar to the filial devotion expressed in the Hindu Taittirı̄ya Upaniśad . In a fourth discourse Mahāyañña ('great sacrifice') in the Aṅguttara Nikāya , the Buddha compares reverence toward one's parents, family and religious leaders to fire worship , and concludes that those people are much more useful and meaningful to tend to than the fire. The parents are mentioned here as first and foremost. Buddhist studies scholar Reiko Ohnuma does point out, however, that Buddhist texts describe
11102-425: Is the Buddha of the home". Among some Buddhists, there is a custom of prostrating to parents. In a 2015 study among British teens who self-identify as Buddhist, 78% of heritage (ethnic) Buddhists indicated they prostrated to their parents, and 13% of convert Buddhist teens. Merit (Buddhism) Merit ( Sanskrit : puṇya ; Pali : puñña ) is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics . It
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#173277590990911284-548: Is the fundamental way of making merit for many laypeople, as monks are not allowed to cook by themselves. Monastics in their turn practice themselves to be a good field of merit and make merit by teaching the donors. Merit-making has thus created a symbiotic relationship between laypeople and Sangha, and the Sangha is obligated to be accessible to laypeople, for them to make merit. Giving can be done in several ways. Some laypeople offer food, others offer robes and supplies, and others fund ceremonies, build monasteries or persuade
11466-455: Is the more superior form of filial piety. Another aspect emphasized was the great suffering a mother goes through when giving birth and raising a child. Chinese Buddhists described how difficult it is to repay the goodness of one's mother, and how many sins mothers often committed in raising her children. The mother became the primary source of well-being and indebtedness for the son, which was in contrast with pre-Buddhist perspectives emphasizing
11648-543: Is therefore and thus far responsible. C. A. F. Rhys Davids , A Study of the Buddhist Norm The ten bases of merit are very popular in Buddhist countries. In China, other similar lists are also well-known. In Thai Buddhism , the word "merit" ( RTGS : bun ) is often combined with "to do, to make" ( RTGS : tham ), and this expression is frequently used, especially in relation to giving. In Buddhist societies, such merit-making
11830-416: Is used in merit transfer ceremonies, for example. Merit is not only a concept, but also a way of living. The Pāli canon identifies three bases of merit ( puññakiriyā-vatthu ), in order of difficulty: In Buddhist texts and practice, giving is considered the easiest of the three bases of merit. It helps to overcome selfishness and stills the mind; it prepares the mind for the practice of virtue. It
12012-494: Is usually depicted as a King, with a headdress, a crossed ornamental chest strap, and various other jewelry. In Wat Saravan Decho (Phnom Penh), Belayeak is depicted as an ordinary hunter, wearing short pants, a short-sleeved shirt, and carrying a bow. In some temples, King Belayeak is depicted with the face of a yeak (demon). Sovannasam's parents are generally represented as an elderly couple, sometimes with black hair, sometimes with gray hair. Some temple painters represent Dukol with
12194-517: Is very similar to the story of Shravana in the Sanskrit epic Ramayana . Shravana's tale is about a pious son taking care of his blind parents, who gets killed while fetching water by a hunting king. But the endings are different, in Shravana's story, the king gets cursed by the blind parents who lost their son and serves as a backstory for the cause of the king's son Rama 's exile and his journey,
12376-527: The Sūtra of Filial Piety , was written early in the Tang dynasty. This discourse has the Buddha make the argument that parents bestow kindness to their children in many ways, and put great efforts into ensuring the well-being of their child. The discourse continues by describing how difficult it is to repay one's parents' kindness, but concludes that this can be done, in a Buddhist way. The Fumu Enzhong Jing contained
12558-630: The Confucian and Daoist classics , as well as historical precedents. In one passage, the text compares the life of a Buddhist monk with a pious son who saves his father from drowning: "A long time ago, the Ch'i people crossed a large river in a boat and it happened that their father fell into the water. His sons rolled up their sleeves, seized his head, and turned him upside down, forcing the water out of his mouth, thus bringing their father back to life. Now, to seize one's father's head and turn him upside down
12740-485: The Divyāvadāna . Gombrich objects to calling merit-making "dry metaphysical mercantilism ", but he does speculate on a historical relation between the concept of merit and the monetisation of ancient India's economy. Two practices mentioned in the list of meritorious acts have been studied quite extensively by scholars: dedicating (or transferring) merit to others, and rejoicing in others' merits. Transferring merit
12922-525: The Northern and Southern dynasties (420–577), Buddhism developed much in China, and conflicts arose with Daoists and Confucianists. A Daoist wrote a polemic called the Sanpo Lun attacking Buddhism for destroying the nation and the family. He argued that monks did not do anything productive, and resources were wasted on building Buddhist monasteries. He also criticized the shaving of hair as "destructive to
13104-639: The Phu Mi Bun rebellions which took place in the last centuries, as well as in the revival of certain forms of merit-making, such as the much discussed merit release . Puñña literally translates as 'merit, meritorious action, virtue '. It is glossed by the Theravāda Commentator Dhammapāla as " santanaṃ punāti visodheti ", meaning 'it cleans or purifies the life-continuity'. Its opposites are apuñña (demerit) or pāpa ('infertile, barren, harmful, bringing ill fortune'), of which
13286-470: The Tang dynasty (618–907), the story gained much popularity and it was eventually transformed into a Confucian classic tale as well. Furthermore, it was a way for Chinese Buddhists to make a statement that Buddhist filial piety was superior to Confucian filial piety . Sujāti and other Buddhist stories of self-sacrifice spread a belief that a filial child should even be willing to sacrifice its own body. As for
13468-446: The bodhisattva figure is that of Dizang 's previous lives, both as filial daughters. Buddhist writings on filial piety influenced Confucianism and Chinese culture at large. In India, where Buddhism originated, women had different social roles than in China, and devotion of the child to the mother was an important virtue. The debt of a child to its mother was seen as more important than the debt to its father, and hurting one's mother
13650-648: The cycle of birth and rebirth . In Mahāyāna Buddhism, therefore, helping to liberate other living beings from suffering came to be seen as a form of filial piety, since it was believed that all beings could have once been one's parents. This doctrine has affected Buddhist practice as well. For example, in some forms of Tibetan meditation, practitioners are instructed to develop loving-kindness to all living beings by remembering that all could have been their mother in previous lifetimes. Just as in Pāli texts, Mahāyāna texts compare particularistic love negatively to universal love, which
13832-644: The eight precepts may be kept now and then. The five precepts are part of many Buddhist ceremonies , and are also considered a merit itself, helping the practitioner to become strong and healthy. The benefits of practicing the three bases of merits are also summarised as three forms of happiness ( Pali : sampatti )—happiness as a human being, happiness in heaven, and happiness in Nirvana . When people die, what world they will be reborn into depends on how intense they practice these three bases of merit. It is, however, only mental development that can take someone to
14014-547: The five moral precepts in Buddhism were an expression of filial piety. Although the promotion of the five precepts by Buddhist monks had previously been referred to as a way to support imperial rule and therefore a form of filial piety, Buddhist writers now took this further. In particular, Qisong in his work the Xiaolun equated each of the precepts with a Confucian virtue (known as "five constants"), but argued that Buddhist ethics were superior to Confucian ethics, because of
14196-415: The monastic community , and if they already were but were found out later to have killed a parent, they were expelled. This sentiment is echoed in the later Milindapañhā , which states that a person who committed matricide or patricide cannot attain to insight in Buddhist teachings. Apart from merit, in many Āgama texts, filial piety is said to lead to an orderly and harmonious society. In Pāli texts,
14378-486: The six relationships , father and son, older and younger brother, husband and wife, will be benefited". He further stated that in order to become a monk, a devotee had to ask permission from his parents and emperor first—ordination as a monk was therefore not against filial piety, he argued. This argument was supported by certain rules in the Indian Buddhist monastic discipline, but the intention behind these rules
14560-501: The "cult of the book" ( Gregory Schopen ), stimulated the development of print technology in China . In other traditions a Buddha image is also considered a field of merit, and any good deed involving a Buddha image is considered very meritorious. A meritorious deed will also be very valuable (and sometimes viewed in terms of a field of merit) if performed to repay gratitude to someone (such as parents), or performed out of compassion for those who suffer. Deeds of merit done towards
14742-573: The 'power of blessed substances' ( Standard Tibetan : rdzas ) . These are considered an addition to the traditional list and can help protect against calamities or other negative events caused by bad karma. A number of scholars have criticized the concepts of merit and karma as amoral, egoist and calculative, citing its quantitative nature and emphasis on personal benefits in observing morality. Other scholars have pointed out that in Buddhist ethics egoism and altruism may not be as strictly separated as in western thought, personal benefit and that of
14924-440: The 'purity' ( RTGS : borisut ) aspect of cleanliness, with enlightenment as its benefit. Phra Payutto does add that both need to be accumulated on the Buddhist path. In making this comparison, he says this only holds for worldly merit, not for transcendental merit. Collins equates transcendental merit with kusala . In the earlier Pāli texts, kusala was much more commonly used than puñña , puñña mostly being used in
15106-490: The 18th-century, filial piety was reinterpreted by Japanese writers such as Fórì and Tōrei Enji . Just like in Song dynasty China, filial piety was not seen as just a virtue to be practiced towards parents, relatives and ancestors, but to all living beings. Since all living beings were seen to have been one's parents from previous lives, the filial role of the individual was more broadly construed, and blood lines were interpreted in
15288-451: The 1980s. The scene is not found in older temple paintings. Sovannasam is generally depicted as a 16 to 20 year old youth. Individual temple painters depict Sovannasam in a variety of costumes. Generally, he is depicted with his hair coiled in a bun, wearing a tiger skin which is the standard costume of a hermit. He can also be seen represented as a Brahmin wearing white clothes or in an orange costume similar to those worn by monks. Belayeak
15470-961: The 8th century, when the Mahāyāna Discourse on the Concentration of Mind Ground was translated in Chinese ( pinyin : Dacheng Ben Shengxin Di Guan Jing ) by Prajñā . In the 2nd century CE, another text was composed based on the Kataññnu Sutta ( Sanskrit : Katajña Sūtra ), called the Fumuen Nanbao Jing , the Discourse on the Difficulties in Repaying Parents' Debts. The text emphasized
15652-549: The Buddha would normally emphasise ethics . The fact that an enlightened person is neutral in terms of karma, does not mean he is ethically neutral. Indeed, the Buddha is quoted in the Tipiṭaka as saying he is foremost in 'higher morality' ( adhisīla ). Keown attempts to overcome this problem by proposing that enlightened people are beyond the accumulative experience of good deeds (merit, puñña ), since they are already perfected. They therefore do not need to accumulate goodness and
15834-647: The Buddhist clergy and in that way to help their mothers from a bad rebirth in hell. The traditional ancestral sacrifices were therefore discouraged by Chinese Buddhists. The Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents was introduced and translated in Korea in the Goryeo period , in the 17th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Confucian value of filial piety toward parents and emperor became strongly associated with Buddhism. Important in this process
16016-418: The Buddhist idea that all living beings might have been our parents, but also our enemies. A wise man therefore practices impartiality and seeks enlightenment. This is the Buddhist way to benefit one's parents and all living beings. The Zen master Qisong (1007 – 1072) criticized Han Yu's writings for not conforming to Confucian doctrine. Also, during this time some Buddhist writers started to argue that
16198-419: The Buddhist text Milinda Pañhā , some scholars conclude that merit is inherently stronger than demerit. Moreover, many merits together have the power to prevent demerits from having an effect, by pushing them "to the back of the queue" ( Richard Gombrich ), though demerits can never be undone. All these benefits of merit ( Pali : ānisaṁsa ; Sanskrit : ānuśaṁsa ), whether internal or external, are
16380-581: The Chinese emperor by prostrating and other devotion, which in Confucianism was associated with the virtue of filial piety. Huiyuan (334–416) responded that although monks did not express such piety, they did pay homage in heart and mind; moreover, their teaching of morality and virtue to the public helped support imperial rule. From the 6th century onward, Chinese Buddhists began to realize that they had to stress Buddhism's own particular ideas about filial piety in order to for Buddhism to survive. Śyāma , Sujāti and other Buddhist stories of self-sacrifice spread
16562-506: The Ghost Festival as the highest expression of filial piety, in which Buddhist and Confucian doctrine could meet. Apart from religious texts, the first generations of Buddhists in China responded to criticism from Confucianists by emphasizing the lay life more and the monastic life less in their teachings, and for those who did become ordained as monastics, they decided to erect monasteries in populated areas, instead of retreating to
16744-484: The Indian Buddhist tradition, East Asian Buddhism raised it from a peripheral role to a central one. Buddhists attempted to show that filial children could still take care of their parents in the afterlife, a concept which they believed Confucianists overlooked. Some Buddhist authors like Ch'i-sung proclaimed that Buddhists not only practiced filial piety, but also did so at a more deeper level than Confucianists, because they took care of their parents in both this life and
16926-550: The Sangha as a whole ( Pali : saṅghadāna ) yield greater fruits than deeds done towards one particular recipient ( Pali : pāṭipuggalikā dakkhiṇā ) or deeds done with favoritism. Indeed, saṅghadāna yields even more fruits than deeds of merit to the person of the Buddha himself. Thus the Buddhist's view of his present activities has a wider basis, they being but one group of incidents in an indefinitely prolonged past, present and future series. They are, as has been said, no mere train of witnesses for or against him, but
17108-527: The State]" and "Monastery for the Glorification of Filial Piety" . Neo-Confucianism upheld the principle of "gradational love" ( pinyin : ren-yi ), which argued that good people should develop filial piety for their parents and neighbors first, and only in a later stage develop love for humankind. Although this idea was influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrine, the principle was eventually used as
17290-586: The Teachings' and 'Straightening one's own views' are part of 'Mental development'. Thus, in Theravāda Buddhism, merit is always accrued through morally (good) actions. Such good deeds are also highly valued in the other two Buddhist schools, that is Mahāyāna (China, Japan, etc.) and Vajrayāna (Tibet, Nepal, etc.). In some forms of Mahāyāna or Vajrayāna it is believed, however, that even more merit will accrue from certain ritual actions, sometimes called
17472-532: The Tipiṭaka, Keown believes that only this passage is not enough to base the transcendency thesis on. In the Pāli Canon, an enlightened person is said to be neutral in terms of karma, that is, the person no longer generates karma, merit, or demerit. Some scholars have interpreted this to mean that an enlightened person attains a state where distinctions between good and evil no longer exist. Other scholars have criticized this as making little sense, considering how
17654-435: The activities of lay merit-making associations. The association of wealth with merits done has deeply affected many Buddhist countries. The relation between giving and wealth is ubiquitous in vernacular Pāli literature, and many stories of exemplary donors exist, such as the stories of Anāthapiṇḍika and Jōtika. In Buddhism, by emphasizing the usage of wealth for generosity, accumulating wealth for giving purposes thus became
17836-403: The aim in merit-making, and are often subject of Dharma teachings and texts. Thus, merit is the foundation of heavenly bliss in the future, and in some countries merit was also considered to contribute to the good fortune of the country. Because merit is understood to have these many beneficial effects, it is sometimes compared with cool water, which is poured or which is bathed in. This symbol
18018-640: The aims of monks and laypeople cannot be that easily separated. This transcendency thesis has also been applied to scriptural interpretation. When discussing the path to the attainment of Nirvana, in some passages in the Tipiṭaka merit is rejected. For example, in the Padhāna Sutta, the Bodhisatta (the Buddha Gotama to be) is tempted by Māra to give up his self-torture practices to do meritorious acts instead. The Bodhisatta replies that even
18200-611: The arising of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India in the 1st century CE. In a third early discourse called Sabrahmā Sutta , parents are described as worthy of respect and gifts, because they have created their children, and were the ones who educated their children in their formative years. Furthermore, parents have provided the basic requirements for the child to survive. Children who attempt to pay back their debt to their parents by providing for them, are considered "superior people" [ th ] ( Pali : sappurisa ) expected to go to
18382-574: The ashram with Sovannasam's parents is added, a little way off in the distance. Another image from the Sovannasam story which is frequently found on temple walls shows Sovannasam carrying both his parents, one on each side, in a traditional hanging carrier. This scene is not mentioned in any text of the Sovannasam Jataka that we could find, and it might have been copied from printed images imported into Cambodia from Thailand and India during
18564-636: The belief that children are indebted to their parents is a form of right view , part of the Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path . A well-known story that expresses filial piety is the Buddha's journey to the second Buddhist heaven to teach his mother, who died when giving birth to him. It is found in both the Pāli commentaries Aṭṭhasālinī and the commentary to the Dhammapada , as well as the Ekottara and Saṃyukta Āgamas . On
18746-454: The character and abilities someone is born with, arise from merits done in the past and vice versa, with demerits. The merits and demerits a person has done may take a while to bear fruit. Merit or demerit may cause a good or bad future respectively, including in the next lives to come. A bad destination after rebirth may be caused by demerit, but merely a lack of merit may also lead a person to be born in an unhappy destination. When someone
18928-529: The children's devotion toward their parents as a good deed that will reap religious merit, lead to praise by the wise, and finally, a rebirth in heaven . It is described as a fundamental good deed, and is in some Āgama texts compared to making offerings to a Buddha-to-be ( Sanskrit : bodhisattva ). By contrast, killing one's parents is considered one of the most gravest deeds to do , leading to an immediate destiny to hell . According to Buddhist texts, people who had done so were not allowed to become members of
19110-705: The compassion parents have towards their children. It later became highly popular in East Asian countries, as it was cited in at least ten Chinese translations of Indian texts. Based on this text, the more popular Fumu Enzhong Jing was composed ( Chinese : 父母恩重經 , title has similar meaning). The Fumu was depicted in illustrations found in the Dunhuang caves dating back to the Tang (618–907) and Song dynasties (960–1279). Popular preaching and lectures, mural and cave paintings and stone carvings indicate that it once
19292-687: The context of the practice of giving. In a widely quoted theory, Melford Spiro and Winston King have distinguished two forms of Buddhism found in traditional Buddhist societies, "kammatic Buddhism" focused on activities such as merit-making, and "nibbanic Buddhism" which focuses on the liberation from suffering and rebirth. In this theory, called the "transcendency thesis" (Keown), Buddhism has two quite separate aims, which are pursued by separate groups, that is, laypeople (kammatic) and monks (nibbanic). This view has, however, been downplayed or criticized by many other scholars, who believe that kammatic practices are in many ways connected to nibbanic practices, and
19474-455: The contexts in which Indian and Chinese Buddhism arose, it was only in China that Buddhism would, in Strong's words, "systematically and self-consciously" develop its response to the question of filial piety. Buddhism stressed individual salvation, which went against the Confucian tenets, that mostly focused on family life and society. Buddhism advocated monasticism and celibacy, and emphasized
19656-401: The country, they would still not have repaid the large debt to their parents. Eventually, he concludes that it is only possible to repay one's gratitude by teaching them Buddhism through spiritual qualities, such as faith in Buddhism , morality , generosity and wisdom . Though this discourse was translated and cited in many Buddhist traditions and schools, it came to be more emphasized with
19838-420: The criticism that monks shave their hair, Liu Xie stated they abandoned minor filial acts in order to perform greater ones. The adaptation of Buddhism to fit in with Confucian expectations of filial piety did not only take place on an academic level. Even on the grassroots level, in folk religion , Buddhism was adapted to fit in with Confucian values, as evidenced in the 5th-century text Tiwei Boli Jing . In
20020-634: The debate between critics and Buddhists became more refined as more Buddhist texts were translated and Buddhism became better known in China. When Buddhism was introduced to China, it was redefined to support filial piety. Many elements of Buddhist teaching were once secondary in Indian Buddhism, but now gained new importance and a new function in a process of apologetics. For example, the Mouzi Lihuolun (牟子理惑論) presented arguments why Buddhist practices did not go against Confucius, but were actually praised by him. The Mouzi does this by referring to
20202-781: The detail. Through these ledgers it was believed someone could offset bad karma. In the fourth century CE , the Baopuzi , and in the twelfth century the Treatise On the Response of the Tao and the Ledger of Merit and Demerit of the Taiwei Immortal introduced the basics of the system of merit ledgers. In the fourteenth century CE, the Tao master Zhao Yizhen recommended the use of
20384-531: The doctrine of the transfer of merit , so much emphasized in the filial story of Mulian Saves His Mother , originated in Indian Buddhism, within the context of ancestor worship and offerings to hungry ghosts . Scholar of religion Stephen F. Teiser has stated, however, that there is no evidence of an Indian predecessor to the Chinese Ghost Festival with its emphasis on salvation of ancestors. Although many similarities can be found between
20566-484: The donors who provided gifts for the sacrifice. In Buddhism, it was the Buddhist monk who assumed this role, considered qualified to receive generosity from devotees and thereby generating merit for them. He came to be described as āhuneyyo ('worthy of offering'), by analogy with the Brahmanical term āhavanīya ('worthy of sacrifice', used in offerings to the ritual fire); and as dakkhiṇeyyo ('qualified to accept
20748-438: The early 20th century, is the scene in which Sovannasam goes to draw water for his parents and is mortally wounded by King Belayeak's arrow. Sovannasam is generally depicted lying with an arrow sticking out of him while all the wild animals who have accompanied him to the river run away in fright. King Belayeak is depicted either in the pose of still shooting his arrow, or holding his bow in his hand. In some paintings of this scene,
20930-529: The emperor, and Buddhist monastic life was seen to go against its tenets. In the 3rd–5th century, as criticism of Buddhism increased, Buddhist monastics and lay authors responded by writing about and translating Buddhist doctrines and narratives that supported filiality, comparing them to Confucianism and thereby defending Buddhism and its value in society. The Mouzi Lihuolun referred to Confucian and Daoist classics , as well as historical precedents to respond to critics of Buddhism. The Mouzi stated that while on
21112-404: The emperor. Dao Xuan and Fa Lin, standing in the tradition of Huiyuan, argued that monks paid respects internally, and that such internal respect was more important than outward expression. There was so much opposition that Gaozong had to adjust the decree and eventually fully rescind it. Later, in the middle of the Tang dynasty, Han Yu attempted to criticize Buddhism for lack of filial piety in
21294-544: The epic poem Ramayana, whereas in Syama's story there is Indra 's intervention, revival of Syama and restoration of his parent' sight. Based on the dates of Ramayana and Jataka tales and the highly similar narrative, it is possible that Syama Jataka was inspired by the Shravana's story. The single scene from the Sovannasam Cheadok most often represented, both in new temple paintings and in temple paintings dating to
21476-404: The experience of the consequences of the action. He further points out that in the Pāli suttas (discourses) mental development ( bhāvanā ) practices such as meditation are also included in the path of merit. It is unlikely that in the Tipiṭaka meditation would be regarded as an indirect path or obstacle to Nirvana, and there are passages that directly relate merit to Nirvana. Sometimes
21658-606: The father. Nevertheless, although some critics of Buddhism did not have much impact during this time, this changed in the period leading up to the Neo-Confucianist revival, when Emperor Wuzong (841–845) started the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution , citing lack of filial piety as one of his reasons for attacking Buddhist institutions. Filial piety is still an important value in a number of Asian cultures. In China, Buddhism continued to uphold
21840-418: The focus on the pitṛ did not really change. In Buddhism, the idea of an eternal heaven was rejected, but it was believed that merit could help achieve a rebirth in a temporary heaven. Merit was no longer merely a product of ritual , but was invested with an ethical meaning and role. In the Tipiṭaka ( Sanskrit : Tripitaka ; the Buddhist scriptures), the importance of merit is often stressed. Merit
22022-436: The form of a community-wide competition, in which different donors tried to outdo each other to prove their generosity and social status. This was the case during merit-making festivals in nineteenth-century Thailand. In modern Thailand, businesses and politicians often make merit to improve their public image and increase confidence among customers or voters. In Burma, lay devotees form associations to engage in merit-making as
22204-479: The gift's size. It is therefore recommended to give as much as you can afford, no more and no less. Such care in choosing whom to give to and how to give, is called being 'skilled in merit' ( Pali : puññassa kovidā ). A teaching that exists in both Mahāyāna sūtras and Theravādin suttas is the teaching on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action ( Pali : kusaladhamma ). In Mahāyāna, this teaching
22386-613: The god Indra and the king. Filial piety in Buddhism Filial piety has been an important aspect of Buddhist ethics since early Buddhism , and was essential in the apologetics and texts of Chinese Buddhism . In the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas , filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or merit ; and as
22568-460: The great suffering a mother goes through when giving birth and raising a child. They described how difficult it is to repay one's parents, and how many sins the mother often would commit in raising her children. They even went so far that she might even go to hell as a result of the sins she committed. The mother became the primary source of well-being and indebtedness for the son, which was in contrast with pre-Buddhist perspectives. This emphasis on
22750-755: The highest heavenly worlds, or to Nirvana. Post-canonical texts and commentaries such as the Dhammasaṅganī and Atthasālinī , elaborating on the three bases of merit, state that lay devotees can make merit by performing ten deeds. Seven items are then added to the previous three: These ten, the Commentator Buddhaghosa says, all fit within the three first bases of merit: 'Giving' includes 'Transferring merit to others' and 'Rejoicing in others' merit' by extension, whereas 'Virtue' includes 'Honouring others' and 'Offering service'. The remaining items 'Listening to Teachings', 'Instructing others in
22932-420: The ideal monk as a person who detaches himself from his parents, which is seen as a hindrance to his spiritual progress. He is to develop even-mindedness , feeling the same for his loved ones and foes. On a similar note, the texts say a monk should see all women as his mother, not only his biological mother. This is considered a helpful method to practice the celibate life . Some early Buddhist texts describe
23114-411: The indebtedness towards others, the second quality is interpreted as repaying such debt. Buddhist texts often encourage children from the age of discretion to take care of their parents, remember their gratitude to them, honor them and do everything they can to repay their gratitude to them. The care and attention the parents have given the child is seen to deserve full acknowledgment from the child. In
23296-562: The justifications that Buddhists would "abandon their rulers and parents for the company of teachers". Monastics were defrocked and monasteries were destroyed at a large scale. Although Wuzong's successor Emperor Xuanzong (810–859) attempted to recover the damage done, since that time Chinese Buddhism has never completely recovered to its former status. It did continue to uphold a role in state rituals and mourning rites for ancestors, up until late imperial times (13th–20th century). Monasteries were given names like "Monastery for Honoring Loyalty [to
23478-434: The ledgers to examine oneself, to bring emotion in harmony with reason. From the fourth to the sixteenth centuries, many types of ledgers were produced by Buddhist and Tao schools, and the usage of the ledgers grew widespread. The practice of recording merits has survived in China and Japan until the present day. In Theravāda countries, for example in Burma and Sri Lanka, similar customs have been observed. In Sri Lanka,
23660-496: The merit ledgers by many centuries, during the Ming dynasty , through the ledgers a practice of systematic merit accumulation was established for the first time. The merit ledgers were lists of good deeds and bad deeds, organized in the form of a calendar for users to calculate to what extent they had been practicing good deeds and avoiding bad deeds every day. The ledgers also listed the exact retributions of every number of deeds done, to
23842-433: The monastic vocation and taking care of his destitute parents as a lay person, since he assumes he cannot do so as a monk. The Buddha is able to prevent him from disrobing, however, and teaches him he can take care of his parents while still in monk's robes. The monk then decides to share gifts of food and cloth with them regularly, for which he is criticized by his fellow monks. His fellow monks consider this inappropriate for
24024-476: The monk Mulian saving his beloved mother is still depicted in Chinese opera to this day, which is especially popular in the countryside. Throughout Asia, the Ghost Festival is still celebrated, though its importance is most felt in countries which have been influenced by both Buddhism and Confucianism. Filial piety is still an important part of moral education in Buddhist countries. It is an important value in
24206-518: The monk, whereas the Brahmanical yajña only emphasized offerings to the Brahmin priest. That is not to say that such offerings were not important in early Buddhism : giving to the Sangha was the first Buddhist activity which allowed for community participation, and preceded the first rituals in Buddhism. The main concept of the field of merit is that good deeds done towards some recipients accrue more merit than good deeds to other recipients. This
24388-408: The need for changing post-Han society to deal with daughters-in-law perceived as unruly, by providing a role for her as a filial daughter where indigenous tradition was silent or ambiguous. In edifying stories about virtuous daughters-in-law, women were given a pivotal role in creating harmony in the family, which was unprecedented. However, although daughters' expression of filial piety was basically
24570-409: The negatives akusala and pāpa have almost the same meaning, there are some differences between the positives, kusala and puñña . According to P. D. Premasiri , Kusala is used to describe a more direct path to Nirvana than puñña . Damien Keown , however, believes they are merely different angles of the same concept: kusala refers to the moral status of an action, whereas puñña refers to
24752-399: The next life, but also in adjacent lives after that. Wealth, lifespan, and position are all contingent on merit. In Buddhist texts further details are given in what way and to what extent a meritorious deed will bring results: this depends on the spiritual quality of the recipient, the spiritual attitude of the giver, the manner in which one gives and the object given. If the recipient is
24934-549: The next lives to come, as well as the destination a person is reborn. The opposite of merit is demerit ( papa ), and it is believed that merit is able to weaken demerit. Indeed, merit has even been connected to the path to Nirvana itself, but many scholars say that this refers only to some types of merit. Merit can be gained in a number of ways, such as giving , virtue and mental development . In addition, there are many forms of merit-making described in ancient Buddhist texts . A similar concept of kusala ( Sanskrit: kusala )
25116-452: The next. The Sutra on a Filial Son stated in this regard that the best way to repay one's parents' kindness was by helping them to develop faith in Buddhism, not just by taking care of them materially. On a similar note, the monk Zongmi (780–841) argued that the main motivation for Prince Siddhārtha leaving his parents and becoming a monk was so he could teach them later on and thereby repay his debt of gratitude to them. Zongmi described
25298-401: The offering'), by analogy with the Brahmanical dakśiṇā , the sacrificial offering itself. The Sangha (monastic community) was also described as 'field of merit' ( Pali : puññakkhetta ; Sanskrit : puṇyakṣetra ). The difference with the Brahmanical tradition was, according to Marasinghe, that Buddhism did recognize other ways of generating merit apart from offerings to
25480-410: The offspring necessary to continue the ancestor worship in next generations. Furthermore, Buddhist monks shaved their heads, which was perceived as a lack of filial piety, because Confucianism saw the human body as a "living monument of filial piety" and considered tonsure a form of mutilation. Another problem was that early Chinese Buddhist monks did not formally pay homage to the emperor, which
25662-423: The one hand and the ideal of pure motherhood on the other hand. The son was taught to deal with this indebtedness to his mother by making donations to the local monastery. The monastery would then perform recitation of texts and dedicate the merit to the mother, which would help her. In other words, to be a good son, one also had to be a good Buddhist. Religious studies scholar Alan Cole has attempted to describe
25844-415: The other becoming one as the practitioner progresses on the spiritual path. Buddhist ethics is informed by Buddhist metaphysics, notably, the not-self doctrine , and therefore some western ethical concepts may not apply. Besides, as Keown notices, moral action would not be possible if it was not preceded by moral concern for others, as is illustrated by the example of the Buddha himself. Such moral concern
26026-469: The path towards enlightenment. In this regard, the Mouzi cites Confucius saying that judgments should be made appropriately, weighing circumstances. In a way, Buddhists claimed therefore that a Buddhist monk benefited his parents, and in superior ways than Confucianism, because their renunciation was the "height of self-giving". The Mouzi Lihuolun also attempted to counter charges that not having children
26208-411: The period of adulthood of a young male emphasized gratitude and honor to the mother. A common metaphor found in popular Sinhalese verse and religious prose dating from medieval times is that of the Buddha as a caring, loving mother. In another example, vernacular post-canonical Pāli texts in several Theravādin countries mention a previous life of the Buddha in which he first conceived the idea of becoming
26390-610: The person". Again, Buddhist writers responded in defense. Sengshun replied that Buddhist supported imperial rule by promoting virtuous behavior, referring to the Shanshengzi Jing ( Chinese : 善生子經 , i.e. the Chinese translation of the Sigalaka Sutta ) to show that Buddhists observed social norms. In addition, Liu Xie argued that Buddhist monks and lay people did practice filial piety, but monks did so by sharing merit with their departed relatives. Responding to
26572-743: The poor are included in the Tipiṭaka, and by many Buddhists considered meritorious. In fieldwork studies done by researchers, devotees appreciated the merits of becoming ordained and supporting the building of a temple the most. Fisher found that building a temple was considered a great merit by devotees, because they believed they would in that way have part in all the wisdom which would be taught at that temple. People may pursue merit-making for different reasons, as Buddhist orthodoxy allows for various ideals, this-worldly or ultimate. Although many scholars have pointed out that devotees often aim for this-worldly benefits in merit-making, it has also been pointed out that in old age, people tend to make merit with
26754-462: The population. In the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas , filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or merit ; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order. In the Nikāyas, two qualities are often named in pair: kataññuta and katavedita . Whereas the first word refers to acknowledgement of
26936-458: The pre-Buddhist Brahmanical sense, connected with rituals and sacrifice, and the lay life. Another example often quoted in this context is the simile of the raft , which states that both dhamma and adhamma should be let go of in order to attain liberation. Whereas the term adhamma in the text clearly refers to evil views, the meaning of dhamma is subject to different interpretations. Considering that no other similar passage can be found in
27118-514: The process of attaining Buddhahood , and is also instrumental in attaining it. The Bodhisatta intent on accomplishing Buddhahood and bringing other beings across the ocean of suffering, must do so by accumulating all sorts of merits, in this context also called perfections ( Pali : pāramī ; Sanskrit : pāramitā ). This form of merit-making is always led by a vow for enlightenment ( Pali : panidhāna ; Sanskrit : praṇidhāna ), and an intention to enlighten others as well, as well as
27300-630: The process of integrating Buddhism in Chinese culture, Buddhists soon realized that refutation of criticism by Confucianists was not sufficient to hold their own. Chinese Buddhism had to stress its own ideas about filial piety. To more directly point out the Buddhist's filial nature, passages and parables about filial piety in Northwest Indian and Central Asian Buddhism became very prominent in Chinese Buddhism. The story of Śyāma ( Chinese : 晱子 ; pinyin : Shanzi or Yamuku )
27482-420: The remote wilderness. This also helped to contribute to the social expectations of Chinese Confucian culture. By the end of the 6th century, Buddhist monks were paying homage to the Chinese emperor through rituals and services, which also helped to stop the argument whether monks should prostrate themselves. Nevertheless, in 662 emperor Gaozong issued decrees obliging monks to prostrate before their parents and
27664-399: The resulting happiness anymore. They no longer need to strive for a happy rebirth in the next life, because they have gone beyond rebirth. Their enlightenment is, however, an ethical perfection as well, though this is solely described as kusala , not as puñña . In pre-Buddhist Brahmanism , Brahmin priests used to perform yajña s (sacrifices) and thereby generating merit for
27846-551: The role of women in Chinese Buddhism using a Freudian framework. Cole states that Chinese Buddhist texts depicted women as examples of virtue and sacrifice, but also as lustful and greedy people. However, Cole's monograph about the family in Chinese Buddhism has received mixed reviews and his conclusions are disputed. Chinese Buddhists urged people to stop killing animals for ancestor worship , because this would create only bad karma ; rather, people were encouraged to practice devotion and make merit, especially making donations to
28028-399: The roots of evil in the mind (the defilements ), whereas the kusalamūla are roots connected with good qualities of the mind. Both of them are called roots because they are qualities that can be cultivated and grown in the mind. Puñña and pāpa are close in meaning to kusala and akusala . Both pairs are used for distinguishing between ethically right and wrong. However, even though
28210-484: The salvation of all people and making their family proud by doing so. Any change in the son's status would reflect on the parent, therefore the spiritual achievements of the monk were at the same time a form of filial piety toward his parents. In that sense, Sun Chuo claimed that Buddhism teaches what amounts to a perfect form of filial piety, which he further amplified by referring to the Buddha's conversion of his father. Sun Chuo also responded to criticism with regard to
28392-595: The same as that of sons, daughters expressed it in more extreme forms, including infanticide or suicide. Often their role only became important in the absence of any sons. On a similar note, in 517, the monk Shi Baochang wrote a number of hagiographies of virtuous nuns. In these stories, a new ideal Chinese woman was constructed, who was both filial yet also practiced Buddhist virtues. In Baochang's stories, he depicted women that excelled at both Confucian and Buddhist virtue and practices, by either combining such practices, practicing them at different periods in life (e.g. being
28574-400: The son's obligation to the mother was a new addition to the Chinese concept of filial piety, as the bond between mother and son became the primary relationship. According to scholar Nomura Shin'ichi, the ideal of the son repaying the gratitude to his mother played an important part in uniting two contrasting ideas in East Asian culture at the time, that is, the concept of feminine impurity on
28756-509: The story of Sudāna ( Sanskrit : Viśvantara ), a previous life of the Buddha, in which a prince becomes an ascetic and gives away his father's possessions, his own wife and children as a practice of generosity . Sun Chuo's opponent critic described Sudāna as an "inhuman creature", but Sun Chuo argued that Sudāna had realized the highest form of filial piety, because in his final lifetime as Gautama Buddha he would eventually help his family to attain enlightenment. Sun Chuo concluded: "If this
28938-564: The story of Maudgalyayāna, this was incorporated in the Ullambana Sūtra , and led to the establishment of the Ghost Festival in China in the 6th century. The festival was held in the seventh moon of the Chinese calendar , and commemorated Maudgalyayāna ( pinyin : Mulian ) saving his mother. The festival became very popular throughout Chinese society, even to the point of imperial families and government officers becoming involved. The story also became very popular: though already part of
29120-526: The suffering inherent in family life, which was unacceptable in the Confucian world view. Confucianism considered it a child's duty to continue the parental line. Moreover, celibacy did not exist in China before the arrival of Buddhism. Therefore, in early medieval China ( c. 100–600 ), Buddhism was heavily criticized for what Confucianists perceived as a disregard for Confucian virtues and role ethics among family members. In addition, Buddhist monks were without descendants, and therefore did not create
29302-486: The surface the Buddhist monk seems to reject and abandon his parents, he is actually aiding his parents as well as himself on the path towards enlightenment. Sun Chuo ( c. 300–380) further argued that monks were working to ensure the salvation of all people and making their family proud by doing so, and Liu Xie stated that Buddhists practiced filial piety by sharing merit with their departed relatives. Buddhist monks were also criticized for not expressing their respect to
29484-482: The term pāpa has become most common. The term merit , originally a Christian term , has in the latter part of the twentieth century gradually been used as a translation of the Buddhist term puṇya or puñña . The Buddhist term has, however, more of an impermanent character than the English translation implies, and the Buddhist term does not imply a sense of deserving . Before the arising of Buddhism, merit
29666-456: The transferring of merits to all living beings to that effect. Another aspect of meritorious acts, emphasised more in later literature, is the idea that a single meritorious act done will reap many fruits, as, for example, expressed in the Vimānavatthu . Not only is the quality of people's next rebirth affected by their merits, but also the circumstances in which they are reborn; not only in
29848-417: The two hermitages with the father and mother seated in front of them. Below them their son Syama is coming to draw water from the stream. Then, to the left, we see the figure of the King thrice repeated, first shooting the lad in the water, then with bow in hand, then standing penitent with bow and arrow discarded; and in the left top corner are the father, mother and son restored to health, and by their side
30030-514: The two value systems. In the process of introducing and integrating Buddhism in China, historian Kenneth Ch'en distinguished three stages. In the first stage, Buddhism actively advocated filial piety as a Confucian virtue. In the second stage, Buddhists referred to their own tradition to make an argument that filial piety had always been part of it. In the last stage, they argued that Buddhist ethics were more universal and therefore more superior than Confucian kinship-oriented filial piety. Over time,
30212-501: The virtue of compassion for all living beings. This is a higher form of filial piety, he argued, because one presumes that all living beings have once been our parents and tries to repay the debt of gratitude to them. Qisong summarized his argument by stating that "[f]ilial piety is venerated in all religious teachings, but it is especially true in Buddhism". On a similar note, the Fanwang Jing ( Chinese : 梵網經 ) contained
30394-426: The while, is yet more a future asset of his, than of some one in whom he naturally is less interested than in his present self. He believes that, because of what he is now doing, some one now in process of mental creation by him, and to all intents and purposes his future " self," will one day taste less or more of life's trials. To that embryonic character he is inextricably bound ever making or marring it, and for it he
30576-493: The yearly Kaṭhina , when they offer robes, money and other requisites to the Sangha as a way to make merit. In Burma, the two yearly Light Festivals are typically occasions to make merit, as gifts are given to elders, and robes are sewn for the Sangha. In South Korea, a Buddha Day ( Korean : seog-ga-tan-sin-il ) is held, on which Buddhists pray and offer alms . Other kinds of occasions of merit-making are also upheld. A special form of merit-making less frequently engaged in
30758-513: Was a violation of good ethics. It was pointed out that Confucius himself had praised a number of ascetic sages who had not had children or family, but because of their wisdom and sacrifice were still perceived as ethical by Confucius. The argument that Buddhist filial piety concerns itself with the parent's soul is the most important one. Later, Sun Chuo ( c. 300–380), made an even stronger argument, by stating that Buddhists monks (far from working solely for their own benefit) were working to ensure
30940-776: Was already an important part of the devotional life of early Buddhists. Contrary to the general scholarly view, devotional practices like dedicating the merit of a building to one's parents were common among Buddhist monastics, even more so than among laypeople. There is also textual evidence to suggest that the ties monastics had with their parents were not absolutely severed as ideally prescribed. For example, in some texts of monastic discipline there are anecdotes that suggest monastics regularly kept contact with their parents, expressed concern for them, and even borrowed money to support them. Also, in many Jātaka stories monks are mentioned that take care of their parents, sometimes financially. Lastly, John Strong and Kenneth Ch'en have argued that
31122-487: Was an example of this. The story was often mentioned in the Chinese canon of Buddhist texts, was included in a number of different anthologies such as the Liudu Jijing and even the Confucian tradition of twenty-four stories of filial piety (1260–1368). A similar story of Sujāti ( Chinese : 須闍提 ; pinyin : Xusheti ) relates that she cut off her own flesh to feed her parents , to keep them alive. During
31304-624: Was an important part of Buddhist ethics, though not as fundamental to ethics as it was in Confucianism. At the time when Buddhism developed in India, there was criticism that Buddhist otherworldly ideals did not fit in with expectations of filial piety. Devotion to the mother was seen as a fundamental virtue, and early Buddhists had to reconcile Buddhist doctrine and practice with Indian social institutions. Schopen found much epigraphic evidence and some textual evidence showing that early Buddhist laypeople, monks and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their deceased parents, concluding filial piety
31486-472: Was commonly used in the context of Brahmanical sacrifice, and it was believed that merit accrued through such sacrifice would bring the devotee to an eternal heaven of the 'fathers' ( Sanskrit : pitṛ, pitara ) . Later, in the period of the Upanishads , a concept of rebirth was established and it was believed that life in heaven was determined by the merit accumulated in previous lives, but
31668-500: Was considered meritorious for people to dedicate their corpses to feed the wild animals after death. Many devout Buddhists observe regular "rest days" ( Pali : uposatha ) by keeping five precepts, listening to teachings, practicing meditation and living at the temple. Besides these weekly observances, ceremonies and festivities are yearly held and are often occasions to make merit, and are sometimes believed to yield greater merits than other, ordinary days. In Thailand and Laos,
31850-405: Was considered more severe than hurting one's father. Although a child was seen to be indebted to both parents, " [t] he obligation to the father is a call of duty, whereas the obligation to the mother is a pull of love". In Tang dynasty China, a number of apocryphal texts were written that spoke of the Buddha's respect for his parents, and the parent–child relationship. The most important of these,
32032-463: Was part of Buddhist doctrine since early times . Strong and Schopen have provided epigraphical and textual evidence to show that early Buddhist laypeople, monks and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their parents, concluding that filial piety was already an important part of the devotional life of early Buddhists. When Buddhism was introduced in China, it had no organized celibacy. Confucianism emphasized filial piety to parents and loyalty to
32214-416: Was redefined to show that Buddhism was congruent with traditions of piety and loyalty. In his arguments Huiyuan was supported by some government officials and prominent lay people. His writings effectively stopped the debate with regard to monks not prostrating for the emperor, but the more general issue of the Buddhist monastic order being exempt from certain duties and obligations still remained. During
32396-656: Was seen as going against social propriety and was connected with the idea that Buddhism did not adhere to filial piety. This already became a problem in the Eastern Jin dynasty (266–420). Furthermore, during the Wei (386–550) and Jin Dynasties , many Chinese women became ordained as nuns and left their families behind, which was very disturbing for Buddhism's critics. Nevertheless, many Chinese Buddhists still adhered strongly to Confucian values, and attempted to reconcile
32578-468: Was the spread of edifying vernacular songs , in which filial children were encouraged to chant invocations of the Buddha Amitabha for their parents' rebirth in a Pure Land . Further, the songs, meant for Buddhists, urged people to respectfully serve social relationships including parents, in agreement with Confucian social ethics. In an 18th-century shaman song informed by Buddhist principles,
32760-428: Was unique for the period in which Buddhism was introduced in China, and had not been part of Indian Buddhism before that. But in a more recent development, starting with Buddhist studies scholars such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen, it has been shown that filial piety was part of Buddhist teaching since early times , though Strong did regard it as a compromise to Brahmanical ethics. In early Buddhism, filial piety
32942-492: Was very popular among the common people. When Buddhism developed in China, not only filial piety itself was redefined, but also the role of women in Chinese culture: in texts such as the Yuyenü Jing women, especially daughters-in-law, were described as pious children, a description that had hardly been used for women. This changed all genres of writing from the early medieval period onward. Buddhist doctrine helped fulfill
33124-490: Was very popular in Buddhist India, as derived from epigraphical evidence from the first centuries CE, and can be found in both the Pāli and Chinese Buddhist scriptures. In the Pāli version of the story, it is prefaced by the life of a man who is ordained as a monk . After having been a monk for 17 years, he discovers his parents are abused by their servants and are starving. He then feels he needs to choose between
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