Connectionism is the name of an approach to the study of human mental processes and cognition that utilizes mathematical models known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks. Connectionism has had many "waves" since its beginnings.
74-518: Synchronization is the coordination of events to operate a system in unison. For example, the conductor of an orchestra keeps the orchestra synchronized or in time . Systems that operate with all parts in synchrony are said to be synchronous or in sync —and those that are not are asynchronous . Today, time synchronization can occur between systems around the world through satellite navigation signals and other time and frequency transfer techniques. Time-keeping and synchronization of clocks
148-486: A body of water vapor) in steam engines , in regard to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use
222-606: A car, a coffeemaker , or Earth . A closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project Biosphere 2 . An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such a system is the Universe . An open system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a black box that is a process or collection of processes that transform inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here
296-415: A couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (now known as " hidden layers ") alongside input and output units, and used a sigmoid activation function instead of the old "all-or-nothing" function. Their work built upon that of John Hopfield , who was a key figure investigating the mathematical characteristics of sigmoid activation functions. From the late 1980s to
370-482: A five layer MLP with two modifiable layers learned useful internal representations to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes. In 1972, Shun'ichi Amari produced an early example of self-organizing network . There was some conflict among artificial intelligence researchers as to what neural networks are useful for. Around late 1960s, there was a widespread lull in research and publications on neural networks, "the neural network winter", which lasted through
444-731: A formal and mathematical approach, and Frank Rosenblatt who published the 1958 paper "The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain" in Psychological Review , while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. The first wave ended with the 1969 book about the limitations of the original perceptron idea, written by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert , which contributed to discouraging major funding agencies in
518-528: A formal and mathematical approach. McCulloch and Pitts showed how neural systems could implement first-order logic : Their classic paper "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) is important in this development here. They were influenced by the work of Nicolas Rashevsky in the 1930s and symbolic logic in the style of Principia Mathematica . Hebb contributed greatly to speculations about neural functioning, and proposed
592-421: A learning principle, Hebbian learning . Lashley argued for distributed representations as a result of his failure to find anything like a localized engram in years of lesion experiments. Friedrich Hayek independently conceived the model, first in a brief unpublished manuscript in 1920, then expanded into a book in 1952. The Perceptron machines were proposed and built by Frank Rosenblatt , who published
666-444: A major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. This is in strict alignment with Gödel's incompleteness theorems . The Artificial system can be defined as a "consistent formalized system which contains elementary arithmetic". These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then
740-553: A short delay. Line dance and military step are examples. Muscular bonding is the idea that moving in time evokes particular emotions. This sparked some of the first research into movement synchronization and its effects on human emotion. In groups, synchronization of movement has been shown to increase conformity, cooperation and trust. In dyads , groups of two people, synchronization has been demonstrated to increase affiliation, self-esteem, compassion and altruistic behaviour and increase rapport. During arguments, synchrony between
814-438: A standard railway time . In some territories, companies shared a single railroad track and needed to avoid collisions. The need for strict timekeeping led the companies to settle on one standard, and civil authorities eventually abandoned local mean time in favor of railway time. In electrical engineering terms, for digital logic and data transfer, a synchronous circuit requires a clock signal . A clock signal simply signals
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#1732772258573888-588: A system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined natural and designed , i. e. artificial, systems. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems , the Solar System , galaxies , and the Universe , while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. Artificial systems inherently have
962-456: Is George Boole 's Boolean operators. Other examples relate specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. Maslow's hierarchy of needs applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud developed systems that logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced
1036-474: Is computational , that is, that the mind operates by performing purely formal operations on symbols, like a Turing machine . Some researchers argued that the trend in connectionism represented a reversion toward associationism and the abandonment of the idea of a language of thought , something they saw as mistaken. In contrast, those very tendencies made connectionism attractive for other researchers. Connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds, but
1110-434: Is a concept that the synchronization of biochemical reactions determines biological homeostasis . According to this theory, all reactions occurring in a living cell are synchronized in terms of quantities and timescales to maintain biological network functional. Synchronization of movement is defined as similar movements between two or more people who are temporally aligned. This is different from mimicry, which occurs after
1184-418: Is a critical problem in long-distance ocean navigation. Before radio navigation and satellite-based navigation , navigators required accurate time in conjunction with astronomical observations to determine how far east or west their vessel traveled. The invention of an accurate marine chronometer revolutionized marine navigation. By the end of the 19th century, important ports provided time signals in
1258-546: Is a hardware system, software system , or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals , and various systems for filing papers, or catalogs, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal Classification is an example. This still fits with the definition of components that are connected together (in this case to facilitate
1332-438: Is also an important concept in the following fields: Synchronization of multiple interacting dynamical systems can occur when the systems are autonomous oscillators . Poincaré phase oscillators are model systems that can interact and partially synchronize within random or regular networks. In the case of global synchronization of phase oscillators, an abrupt transition from unsynchronized to full synchronization takes place when
1406-739: Is more conclusively characterized as a split between computationalism and dynamical systems . In 2014, Alex Graves and others from DeepMind published a series of papers describing a novel Deep Neural Network structure called the Neural Turing Machine able to read symbols on a tape and store symbols in memory. Relational Networks, another Deep Network module published by DeepMind, are able to create object-like representations and manipulate them to answer complex questions. Relational Networks and Neural Turing Machines are further evidence that connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds. Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm has to meet
1480-709: Is necessary to synchronize video frames from multiple cameras. In addition to enabling basic editing, synchronization can also be used for 3D reconstruction In electric power systems, alternator synchronization is required when multiple generators are connected to an electrical grid. Arbiters are needed in digital electronic systems such as microprocessors to deal with asynchronous inputs. There are also electronic digital circuits called synchronizers that attempt to perform arbitration in one clock cycle. Synchronizers, unlike arbiters, are prone to failure. (See metastability in electronics ). Encryption systems usually require some synchronization mechanism to ensure that
1554-451: Is required to separate the effect of intentionality from the beneficial effect of synchrony. Synchronization is important in digital telephony , video and digital audio where streams of sampled data are manipulated. Synchronization of image and sound was an important technical problem in sound film . More sophisticated film, video, and audio applications use time code to synchronize audio and video. In movie and television production it
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#17327722585731628-634: Is simply the manner in which organic brains happen to implement the symbol-manipulation system. This is logically possible, as it is well known that connectionist models can implement symbol-manipulation systems of the kind used in computationalist models, as indeed they must be able if they are to explain the human ability to perform symbol-manipulation tasks. Several cognitive models combining both symbol-manipulative and connectionist architectures have been proposed. Among them are Paul Smolensky 's Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic Cognitive Architecture (ICS). and Ron Sun 's CLARION (cognitive architecture) . But
1702-448: Is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination. A system comprises multiple views . Human-made systems may have such views as concept, analysis , design , implementation , deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these views. A systems architecture, using one single integrated model for
1776-521: Is with respect to error-propagation networks that are needed to support learning, but error propagation can explain some of the biologically-generated electrical activity seen at the scalp in event-related potentials such as the N400 and P600 , and this provides some biological support for one of the key assumptions of connectionist learning procedures. Many recurrent connectionist models also incorporate dynamical systems theory . Many researchers, such as
1850-726: The Five Ring System model in his book, The Air Campaign , contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—leadership, processes, infrastructure, population and action units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the Iran–Iraq War . In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy. Connectionism The first wave appeared 1943 with Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through
1924-591: The GPS satellites and Network Time Protocol (NTP) provide real-time access to a close approximation to the UTC timescale and are used for many terrestrial synchronization applications of this kind. In computer science (especially parallel computing ), synchronization is the coordination of simultaneous threads or processes to complete a task with correct runtime order and no unexpected race conditions ; see synchronization (computer science) for details. Synchronization
1998-527: The Latin word systēma , in turn from Greek σύστημα systēma : "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition". In the 19th century, the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot , who studied thermodynamics , pioneered the development of the concept of a system in the natural sciences . In 1824, he studied the system which he called the working substance (typically
2072-590: The Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) by James L. McClelland , David E. Rumelhart et al., which has introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (known as " hidden layers " now) alongside input and output units and using sigmoid activation function instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function. Hopfield approached the field from the perspective of statistical mechanics, providing some early forms of mathematical rigor that increased
2146-576: The order of the event is important. System A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole. A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment , is described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and is expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory and other systems sciences . Systems have several common properties and characteristics, including structure, function(s), behavior and interconnectivity. The term system comes from
2220-668: The 1958 paper “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain” in Psychological Review , while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. He cited Hebb, Hayek, Uttley, and Ashby as main influences. Another form of connectionist model was the relational network framework developed by the linguist Sydney Lamb in the 1960s. The research group led by Widrow empirically searched for methods to train two-layered ADALINE networks (MADALINE), with limited success. A method to train multilayered perceptrons with arbitrary levels of trainable weights
2294-412: The 1970s, during which the field of artificial intelligence turned towards symbolic methods. The publication of Perceptrons (1969) is typically regarded as a catalyst of this event. The second wave begun in the early 1980s. Some key publications included ( John Hopfield , 1982) which popularized Hopfield networks , the 1986 paper that popularized backpropagation, and the 1987 two-volume book about
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2368-607: The Fodor-Pylyshyn challenge formulated by classical symbol theory for a convincing theory of cognition in modern connectionism. In order to be an adequate alternative theory of cognition, Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm would have to explain the existence of systematicity or systematic relations in language cognition without the assumption that cognitive processes are causally sensitive to the classical constituent structure of mental representations. The subsymbolic paradigm, or connectionism in general, would thus have to explain
2442-525: The US from investing in connectionist research. With a few noteworthy deviations, most connectionist research entered a period of inactivity until the mid-1980s. The term connectionist model was reintroduced in a 1982 paper in the journal Cognitive Science by Jerome Feldman and Dana Ballard. The second wave blossomed in the late 1980s, following a 1987 book about Parallel Distributed Processing by James L. McClelland , David E. Rumelhart et al., which introduced
2516-661: The ability to interact with local and remote operators. A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system. The data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA). There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively . For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics , A . W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including
2590-462: The allocation and scarcity of resources. The international sphere of interacting states is described and analyzed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school . This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school , which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure
2664-449: The arguing pair has been noted to decrease; however, it is not clear whether this is due to the change in emotion or other factors. There is evidence to show that movement synchronization requires other people to cause its beneficial effects, as the effect on affiliation does not occur when one of the dyad is synchronizing their movements to something outside the dyad. This is known as interpersonal synchrony. There has been dispute regarding
2738-444: The case of a feedforward network, or to a previous layer in the case of a recurrent network. Discovery of non-linear activation functions has enabled the second wave of connectionism. Neural networks follow two basic principles: Most of the variety among the models comes from: Connectionist work in general does not need to be biologically realistic. One area where connectionist models are thought to be biologically implausible
2812-450: The classical constituent structure of mental representations, the theory of cognition it develops would be, at best, an implementation architecture of the classical model of symbol theory and thus not a genuine alternative (connectionist) theory of cognition. The classical model of symbolism is characterized by (1) a combinatorial syntax and semantics of mental representations and (2) mental operations as structure-sensitive processes, based on
2886-424: The connectionist Paul Smolensky , have argued that connectionist models will evolve toward fully continuous , high-dimensional, non-linear , dynamic systems approaches. Precursors of the connectionist principles can be traced to early work in psychology , such as that of William James . Psychological theories based on knowledge about the human brain were fashionable in the late 19th century. As early as 1869,
2960-428: The connections could represent synapses , as in the human brain . This principle has been seen as an alternative to GOFAI and the classical theories of mind based on symbolic computation, but the extent to which the two approaches are compatible has been the subject of much debate since their inception. Internal states of any network change over time due to neurons sending a signal to a succeeding layer of neurons in
3034-610: The coupling strength exceeds a critical threshold. This is known as the Kuramoto model phase transition . Synchronization is an emergent property that occurs in a broad range of dynamical systems, including neural signaling, the beating of the heart and the synchronization of fire-fly light waves. A unified approach that quantifies synchronization in chaotic systems can be derived from the statistical analysis of measured data. In cognitive neuroscience, (stimulus-dependent) (phase-)synchronous oscillations of neuron populations serve to solve
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3108-420: The debate in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to opposition between the two approaches. Throughout the debate, some researchers have argued that connectionism and computationalism are fully compatible, though full consensus on this issue has not been reached. Differences between the two approaches include the following: Despite these differences, some theorists have proposed that the connectionist architecture
3182-443: The debate rests on whether this symbol manipulation forms the foundation of cognition in general, so this is not a potential vindication of computationalism. Nonetheless, computational descriptions may be helpful high-level descriptions of cognition of logic, for example. The debate was largely centred on logical arguments about whether connectionist networks could produce the syntactic structure observed in this sort of reasoning. This
3256-410: The description of multiple views, is a kind of system model. A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe Job Entry Subsystem family ( JES1 , JES2 , JES3 , and their HASP / ASP predecessors) are examples. The main elements they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have
3330-410: The difficulty in deciphering how ANNs process information or account for the compositionality of mental representations, and a resultant difficulty explaining phenomena at a higher level. The current (third) wave has been marked by advances in deep learning , which have made possible the creation of large language models . The success of deep-learning networks in the past decade has greatly increased
3404-399: The distinction between them is often elusive. An economic system is a social institution which deals with the production , distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society . The economic system is composed of people , institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property . It addresses the problems of economics , like
3478-544: The existence of systematicity and compositionality without relying on the mere implementation of a classical cognitive architecture. This challenge implies a dilemma: If the Subsymbolic Paradigm could contribute nothing to the systematicity and compositionality of mental representations, it would be insufficient as a basis for an alternative theory of cognition. However, if the Subsymbolic Paradigm's contribution to systematicity requires mental processes grounded in
3552-404: The flow of information). System can also refer to a framework, aka platform , be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition . In engineering and physics , a physical system is the portion of
3626-419: The form of a signal gun, flag, or dropping time ball so that mariners could check and correct their chronometers for error. Synchronization was important in the operation of 19th-century railways, these being the first major means of transport fast enough for differences in local mean time between nearby towns to be noticeable. Each line handled the problem by synchronizing all its stations to headquarters as
3700-630: The fundamental principle of syntactic and semantic constituent structure of mental representations as used in Fodor's "Language of Thought (LOT)". This can be used to explain the following closely related properties of human cognition, namely its (1) productivity, (2) systematicity, (3) compositionality, and (4) inferential coherence. This challenge has been met in modern connectionism, for example, not only by Smolensky's "Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic (ICS) Cognitive Architecture", but also by Werning and Maye's "Oscillatory Networks". An overview of this
3774-420: The general binding problem . According to the so-called Binding-By-Synchrony (BBS) Hypothesis a precise temporal correlation between the impulses of neurons ("cross-correlation analysis") and thus a stimulus-dependent temporal synchronization of the coherent activity of subpopulations of neurons emerges. Moreover, this synchronization mechanism circumvents the superposition problem by more effectively identifying
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#17327722585733848-408: The late 1980s, some researchers (including Jerry Fodor , Steven Pinker and others) reacted against it. They argued that connectionism, as then developing, threatened to obliterate what they saw as the progress being made in the fields of cognitive science and psychology by the classical approach of computationalism . Computationalism is a specific form of cognitivism that argues that mental activity
3922-408: The learning algorithm, the number of units, etc.), or in unhelpfully low-level terms. In this sense, connectionist models may instantiate, and thereby provide evidence for, a broad theory of cognition (i.e., connectionism), without representing a helpful theory of the particular process that is being modelled. In this sense, the debate might be considered as to some extent reflecting a mere difference in
3996-447: The level of analysis in which particular theories are framed. Some researchers suggest that the analysis gap is the consequence of connectionist mechanisms giving rise to emergent phenomena that may be describable in computational terms. In the 2000s, the popularity of dynamical systems in philosophy of mind have added a new perspective on the debate; some authors now argue that any split between connectionism and computationalism
4070-527: The mid-1990s, connectionism took on an almost revolutionary tone when Schneider, Terence Horgan and Tienson posed the question of whether connectionism represented a fundamental shift in psychology and so-called "good old-fashioned AI," or GOFAI . Some advantages of the second wave connectionist approach included its applicability to a broad array of functions, structural approximation to biological neurons, low requirements for innate structure, and capacity for graceful degradation . Its disadvantages included
4144-403: The neurologist John Hughlings Jackson argued for multi-level, distributed systems. Following from this lead, Herbert Spencer 's Principles of Psychology , 3rd edition (1872), and Sigmund Freud 's Project for a Scientific Psychology (composed 1895) propounded connectionist or proto-connectionist theories. These tended to be speculative theories. But by the early 20th century, Edward Thorndike
4218-464: The notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline . Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics , chaos theory , and the self-organization of systems . There is also such a thing as a logical system . An obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by Leibniz and Isaac Newton . Another example
4292-557: The perceived respectability of the field. Another important series of publications proved that neural networks are universal function approximators , which also provided some mathematical respectability. Some early popular demonstration projects appeared during this time. NETtalk (1987) learned to pronounce written English. It achieved popular success, appearing on the Today show . TD-Gammon (1992) reached top human level in backgammon . As connectionism became increasingly popular in
4366-400: The physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey defined systems in terms of conceptual , concrete , and abstract systems, either isolated , closed , or open . Walter F. Buckley defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical , organic , and process models . Bela H. Banathy cautioned that for any inquiry into
4440-418: The popularity of this approach, but the complexity and scale of such networks has brought with them increased interpretability problems . The central connectionist principle is that mental phenomena can be described by interconnected networks of simple and often uniform units. The form of the connections and the units can vary from model to model. For example, units in the network could represent neurons and
4514-484: The receiving cipher is decoding the right bits at the right time. Automotive transmissions contain synchronizers that bring the toothed rotating parts (gears and splined shaft) to the same rotational velocity before engaging the teeth. Flash synchronization synchronizes the flash with the shutter . Some systems may be only approximately synchronized, or plesiochronous . Some applications require that relative offsets between events be determined. For others, only
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#17327722585734588-405: The role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlie the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance. In computer science and information science , an information system
4662-489: The signature of synchronous neuronal signals as belonging together for subsequent (sub-)cortical information processing areas. In cognitive science, integrative (phase) synchronization mechanisms in cognitive neuroarchitectures of modern connectionism that include coupled oscillators (e.g."Oscillatory Networks") are used to solve the binding problem of cognitive neuroscience in perceptual cognition ("feature binding") and in language cognition ("variable binding"). There
4736-405: The start or end of some time period, often measured in microseconds or nanoseconds, that has an arbitrary relationship to any other system of measurement of the passage of minutes, hours, and days. In a different sense, electronic systems are sometimes synchronized to make events at points far apart appear simultaneous or near-simultaneous from a certain perspective. Timekeeping technologies such as
4810-1207: The system is not as structurally integral as is assumed (i.e. it is evident that if the initial expression is false, then the artificial system is not a "consistent formalized system"). For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them. George J. Klir maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems , bounded and unbounded systems , discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems , etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems . Important distinctions have also been made between hard systems—–technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering , operations research, and quantitative systems analysis—and soft systems that involve people and organizations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through soft systems methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more scientific ,
4884-552: The system. There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with various purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity"—otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems. Most systems are open systems , exchanging matter and energy with their respective surroundings; like
4958-462: The term working body when referring to the system. The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory . In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them. In the late 1940s and mid-50s, Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby pioneered
5032-508: The true effect of synchrony in these studies. Research in this area detailing the positive effects of synchrony, have attributed this to synchrony alone; however, many of the experiments incorporate a shared intention to achieve synchrony. Indeed, the Reinforcement of Cooperation Model suggests that perception of synchrony leads to reinforcement that cooperation is occurring, which leads to the pro-social effects of synchrony. More research
5106-1003: The universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in models of individual humans and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social and cultural behavioral patterns. In management science , operations research and organizational development , human organizations are viewed as management systems of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes ( organizational behaviors ) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed
5180-463: The use of mathematics to study systems of control and communication , calling it cybernetics . In the 1960s, Marshall McLuhan applied general systems theory in an approach that he called a field approach and figure/ground analysis , to the study of media theory . In the 1980s, John Henry Holland , Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term complex adaptive system at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute . Systems theory views
5254-401: The world as a complex system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary ; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the environment . One can make simplified representations ( models ) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of
5328-463: Was later achieved although using fast-variable binding abilities outside of those standardly assumed in connectionist models. Part of the appeal of computational descriptions is that they are relatively easy to interpret, and thus may be seen as contributing to our understanding of particular mental processes, whereas connectionist models are in general more opaque, to the extent that they may be describable only in very general terms (such as specifying
5402-588: Was published by Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa in 1965, called the Group Method of Data Handling . This method employs incremental layer by layer training based on regression analysis , where useless units in hidden layers are pruned with the help of a validation set. The first multilayered perceptrons trained by stochastic gradient descent was published in 1967 by Shun'ichi Amari . In computer experiments conducted by Amari's student Saito,
5476-583: Was writing about human learning that posited a connectionist type network. Hopfield networks had precursors in the Ising model due to Wilhelm Lenz (1920) and Ernst Ising (1925), though the Ising model conceived by them did not involve time. Monte Carlo simulations of Ising model required the advent of computers in the 1950s. The first wave begun in 1943 with Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through
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