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118-559: Judaea was a Roman province that incorporated the regions of Judea , Samaria , Idumea , and Galilee and extended over parts of the former regions of Hasmonean and Herodian Judea. It was named after Herod's Tetrarchy of Judaea , but Roman Judaea encompassed a much larger territory than Judaea . The name "Judaea" ultimately traces to the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah . Following the deposition of Herod Archelaus in 6 AD, Judea came under direct Roman rule, during which time

236-472: A tetrarchy and divided among three of his sons, two of whom ( Philip and Herod Antipas ) became rulers of a quarter, and the third son, Archelaus , became an ethnarch and ruled over the remaining half of his father's kingdom. Major regions of the Herodian Kingdom were Judea , Samaria , Galilee , and Perea . Archelaus rule of Judea was gravely atrocious that he was dismissed in 6 CE by

354-592: A capital offence to refuse to make sacrifices to Roman Gods , although it did not outlaw Christian worship and may not have targeted Christians specifically. Valerian pursued similar policies later that decade. These were followed by a 40-year period of tolerance known as the " little peace of the Church ". Christianity grew in that time to have a major demographic presence. Stark, building on earlier estimates by theologian Robert M. Grant and historian Ramsay MacMullen, estimates that Christians made up around ten percent of

472-634: A cautiously tolerant attitude and policy toward pagans. Three successive laws issued in February 391 and in June and November of 392 have been seen by some as a marked change in Theodosius' policy putting an end to tolerance. Roman historian Alan Cameron has written on the laws of 391 and June 392 as being responses to local appeals that restated, as instructions, what had been requested by the locals. Cameron says these laws were never intended to be binding on

590-459: A critical juncture in the mid-third century. Beginning with less than 1000 people, by the year 100, Christianity had grown to perhaps one hundred small household churches consisting of an average of around seventy (12–200) members each. These churches were a segmented series of small groups. By 200, Christian numbers had grown to over 200,000 people, and communities with an average size of 500–1000 people existed in approximately 200–400 towns. By

708-537: A desire for personal glory to force Christianity on the rest of the empire in a cynical, political move thereby achieving, "in less than a century, the final conquest of the Roman empire". It wasn't until 1936 that scholars such as Arnaldo Momigliano began to question Gibbon's view. In 1953, art historian Alois Riegl provided the first true departure, writing that there were no qualitative differences in art and no periods of decline throughout Late Antiquity. In 1975,

826-607: A distinct social boundary, and a set kernel of doctrine. The result, he argued, was consistent conversion and higher birth rates, leading to exponential growth." Stark states a 3.4% growth rate compounded annually while Keith Hopkins uses what he calls "parametric probability" to reach 3.35%. Art historian Robert Couzin, who specializes in Early Christianity, has studied numbers of Christian sarcophagi in Rome. He has written that "more sophisticated mathematical models (for

944-505: A diverse population. Archaeological evidence shows that gentile migrants from neighboring Levantine provinces such as Arabia , Syria , and Phoenicia , as well as from the coastal plain and beyond, settled in the area. The new Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina was populated by Roman veterans and migrants from western parts of the empire, who also occupied its surroundings, administrative centers, and main roads. According to Lichtenberger, archaeological evidence from Bayt Nattif suggests

1062-437: A famine did oppress them at that time, and many people died for want of what was necessary to procure food withal, queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy a great quantity of corn, and others of them to Cyprus, to bring a cargo of dried figs. And as soon as they were come back, and had brought those provisions, which was done very quickly, she distributed food to those that were in want of it, and left

1180-489: A fully organized church system existed before Constantine and the Council of Nicea. From this, Judge concludes "the argument Christianity owed its triumph to its adoption by Constantine cannot be sustained". Critical mass had been achieved in the hundred years between 150 and 250 which saw Christianity move from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million. There was a significant rise in the absolute number of Christians in

1298-465: A limited role. In his 2020 biography of Theodosius, Mark Hebblewhite concludes that Theodosius never saw himself, or advertised himself, as a destroyer of the old cults. By the early fifth century, the senatorial aristocracy had almost universally converted to Christianity. This Christianized Roman aristocracy was able to maintain, in Italy, up to the end of the sixth century, the secular traditions of

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1416-580: A major religious movement in the Roman Empire, the barbarian kingdoms of the West, in neighboring kingdoms and some parts of the Persian and Sassanian empires. The major narrative concerning the rise of Christianity has, for over 200 years since its publication in 1776, been taken primarily from historian Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall. Gibbon had seen Constantine as driven by "boundless ambition" and

1534-538: A most excellent memorial behind her of this benefaction, which she bestowed on our whole nation. And when her son Izates was informed of this famine, he sent great sums of money to the principal men in Jerusalem. In 66-70 the First Jewish–Roman War erupted. From 70 until 132 Judea's rebelliousness required a governing Roman legate capable of commanding legions. Because Agrippa II maintained loyalty to

1652-556: A number of Jews may have forfeited their Jewish identity and assimilated into the Pagan and early Christian I.e. Gentile populations. Many Jewish captives were sold into slavery across the Roman Empire, contributing to an increase in the Jewish diaspora . According to Eitan Klein, after the revolt, Roman authorities confiscated lands in Judaea, leading to the resettlement of the region by

1770-508: A pagan husband who denounced his Christian wife, and Tertullian tells of children disinherited for becoming Christians. Despite this, for most of its first three centuries, Christianity was usually tolerated, and episodes of persecution tended to be localized actions by mobs and governors. Suetonius and Tacitus both record emperor Nero persecuting Christians in the mid-1st century, however this only occurred within Rome itself. There were no empire-wide persecutions until Christianity reached

1888-420: A period of reconstruction. Changes from the war, and from Justinian's 'adjustments' to Italy's administration in the decades after it, removed the supports that had allowed the aristocracy to retain power. The Senate declined rapidly at the end of the sixth and early seventh century coming to its end sometime before 630 when its building was converted into a church. Bishops stepped into roles of civic leadership in

2006-564: A persistence of non-conformist unorthodox Jewish groups that did not adhere to strict Biblical monotheism , as well as remnants of semitic pagan groups related to those of Yahwahist Iron Age Judah in the late Roman period. In AD 300, Jews formed around a quarter of the population and lived in compact settlements in Galilee , while Samaritans were concentrated in Samaria . By the fifth century, Christianity had gained further ground in

2124-592: A process of Christianization. Instead, the "flowering of a vigorous public culture that polytheists, Jews and Christians alike could share... [that] could be described as Christian "only in the narrowest sense" developed. It is true that blood sacrifice played no part in that culture, but the sheer success and unusual stability of the Constantinian and post-Constantinian state also ensured that "the edges of potential conflict were blurred... It would be wrong to look for further signs of Christianization at this time. It

2242-520: A punitive recent origin for the term, and point it has been used to refer to the Southern Levant at large for centuries since Classical antiquity, when it was first used by Herodotus , and has been used by Jewish authors such as Philo and Josephus while Judaea still existed. It's claimed that the name was chosen as the new province was far larger than Judaea , and was resulted from the merger of Judaea with Galilee. Despite this "Syria" in

2360-529: A row of procurators. Nevertheless, Agrippa's son, Agrippa II was designated King of the Jews in 48. He was the seventh and last of the Herodians . Jerusalem was plagued by famine between 44 and 48 According to Josephus , Helena of Adiabene "...went down to the city Jerusalem, her son conducting her on her journey a great way. Now her coming was of very great advantage to the people of Jerusalem; for whereas

2478-563: A starkly supernatural quality, and many are hagiographical . They present the rise of Christianity in terms of conquest which had taken place in Heaven where the Christian God had defeated the pagan gods. Fourth century Christian writers depict Constantine's conversion as proof of that defeat, and Christian writings are filled with proclaiming their heavenly "triumph". According to Peter Brown : "The belief that Late Antiquity witnessed

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2596-413: A unified Empire presupposed unity of faith. Under emperor Justinian, "the full force of imperial legislation against deviants of all kinds, particularly religious" ones, was applied in practice, writes Judith Herrin , historian of late antiquity. Pierre Chuvin describes the severe legislation of the early Byzantine Empire , as causing the freedom of conscience that had been the major benchmark set by

2714-570: Is based on the Theodosian Code published in AD 438. In the last decade of the 20th century and into the 21st century, multiple new discoveries of texts and documents, along with new research (such as modern archaeology and numismatics), combined with new fields of study (such as sociology and anthropology) and modern mathematical modeling, have undermined much of this traditional view. According to modern theories, Christianity became established in

2832-943: Is believed the Jerusalem Christians waited out the Jewish–Roman wars in Pella in the Decapolis . The line of Jewish bishops in Jerusalem , which is claimed to have started with James, brother of Jesus as its first bishop, ceased to exist within the Empire. Hans Küng in Islam: Past Present and Future , suggests that the Jewish Christians sought refuge in the Arabian Peninsula and he quotes with approval Clemen et al., "This produces

2950-657: Is consensus among scholars that religious identity became increasingly separated from civic and political identity, progressively giving way to the plurality of religious options rooted in other identities, needs and interests. Formerly, scholars believed that this plurality contributed to the slow decline of polytheism that began in the second century BC, and this axiom was rarely challenged. James B. Rives, classics scholar, has written that: Evidence for neglect and manipulation could readily be found,  ... But, as more recent scholars have argued, this evidence has often been cited without proper consideration of its context; at

3068-545: Is impossible to speak of a Christian empire as existing before Justinian". In the centuries following his death, Theodosius I (347 – 395) gained a reputation as the emperor who targeted and eliminated paganism in order to establish Nicene Christianity as the official religion of the empire. Modern historians see this as an interpretation of history rather than actual history. Cameron writes that Theodosius's predecessors Constantine , Constantius , and Valens had all been semi-Arians ; therefore, Christian literary tradition gave

3186-471: Is no evidence of any desire on the part of the emperor to institute a systematic destruction of temples anywhere in the Theodosian Code, and no evidence in the archaeological record that extensive temple destruction took place. While conceding that Theodosius's reign may have been a watershed period in the decline of the old religions, Cameron downplays the emperor's religious legislation as having

3304-487: Is now recognized that these private cults were "very common and widespread indeed, in the domus, in the streets, in public squares, in Rome itself (perhaps there in particular) as well as outside the capital". Christianity emerged as a sect of Second Temple Judaism in Roman Judaea , part of the syncretistic Hellenistic world of the first century AD, which was dominated by Roman law and Greek culture. It started with

3422-586: Is some evidence for Valentinian willingly acquiescing to the East's policies. Without the support of the Western emperor Leo accepted Theodosius' authority over the West, thereby beginning the trend toward state control of the church. In 535, Justinian I attempted to assert control of Italy, resulting in the Gothic War which lasted 20 years. Once fighting ceased, the senatorial aristocracy returned to Rome for

3540-526: Is when conversions of temples into churches truly began in earnest. According to Schuddeboom, "With the sole exception of the Pantheon, all known temple conversions in the city of Rome date from the time of the Papal State". Scholarship has been divided over whether this represents Christianization as a general effort to demolish the pagan past, or was simple pragmatism, or perhaps an attempt to preserve

3658-471: The simpulum and lituus on one side, though the reverse maintained Jewish imagery. Attributing these coins to specific governors is a challenge. They lack the governor's name, but display the reigning emperor's regnal year and name in Greek. Scholars rely on cross-referencing this information with historical records, particularly the writings of Josephus, to establish a governor's chronology and assign

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3776-495: The Decapolis . Its revenue was of little importance to the Roman treasury, but it controlled the land and coastal sea routes to the "bread basket" of Egypt and was a buffer against the Parthian Empire . The capital was moved from Jerusalem to Caesarea Maritima . Augustus appointed Publius Sulpicius Quirinius to the post of Legate of Syria and he conducted a tax census of Syria and Judea in 6 CE, which triggered

3894-457: The Edict of Milan to be fully abolished. Before the 800s, the 'Bishop of Rome' had no special influence over other bishops outside of Rome, and had not yet manifested as the central ecclesiastical power. There were regional versions of Christianity accepted by local clergy that it's probable the papacy would not have approved of – if they had been informed. From the late seventh to the middle of

4012-539: The First Jewish–Roman War in 66–73 CE and ultimately the Siege of Jerusalem and destruction of the temple in 70 CE, bringing an end to the Second Temple period . In 44 CE, Galilee and Perea were added to the province. In 132 CE, resulting from the merging of Galilee and Judea resulted in an enlarged province named Syria Palaestina . The first intervention of Rome in the region dates from 63 BCE, following

4130-540: The Herodian Tetrarchy , jointly ruled by Herod's sons and sister: Herod Archelaus (who ruled Judea , Samaria and Idumea ), Herod Philip (who ruled Batanea , Trachonitis as well as Auranitis ), Herod Antipas (who ruled Galilee and Perea ) and Salome I (who briefly ruled Jamnia ). A messianic revolt erupted in Judea in 4 BCE because of Archelaus's incompetence; the revolt was brutally crushed by

4248-577: The Legate of Syria , Publius Quinctilius Varus , who occupied Jerusalem and crucified 2,000 Jewish rebels. Because of his failure to properly rule Judea, Archelaus was removed from his post by Emperor Augustus in 6 CE, while Judea, Samaria, and Idumea came under direct Roman administration. This event had significant and ever-lasting effects on Jewish history , and the development of Christianity . The Judean province did not initially include Galilee , Gaulanitis (today's Golan) , nor Peraea or

4366-760: The Limes Arabicus , which had existed for some time, was pushed further south. The Crisis of the Third Century (235–284) affected Syria Palaestina, but the fourth century brought an economic upswing due to the Christianization of the Roman Empire and the associated upswing in Christian pilgrimage to the " Holy Land ". In the course of late antiquity, with imperial support, Christianity succeeded in asserting itself against both remnants of Semitic as well as trending Hellenistic Paganism in

4484-550: The New Testament . Writings from the late first and early second centuries indicate that Jewish farmers introduced rice to Judea during the early Roman period. The local crop was fine, large-kernel rice. During the Roman administration of Judaea, some governors commissioned the minting of coins for local use. Only six governors are known to have issued such coins, all minted in Jerusalem. All issues minted were prutot , small bronze coins averaging 2-2.5 grams, similar to

4602-477: The Roman Republic 's conquest of Judea in 63  BCE , the latter had maintained a system of semi-autonomous vassalage . The incorporation of the Roman province was enacted by the first Roman emperor , Augustus , after an appeal by the populace against the ill rule of Herod Archelaus (4 BCE – 6 CE). With the onset of direct rule, the official census instituted by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius ,

4720-493: The "administrative capital" of the region beginning in 6 AD. During the 1st and 2nd centuries, Judaea became the epicenter of a series of unsuccessful large-scale Jewish rebellions against Rome, known as the Jewish-Roman Wars . The Roman suppression of these revolts led to wide-scale destruction, a very high toll of life and enslavement. The First Jewish-Roman War (66-73) resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and

4838-460: The 4th century did not alter (more than normal regional fluctuations) from its rate of growth in the first three centuries. However, since Stark describes an exponential growth curve, he adds that this "probably was a period of 'miraculous seeming' growth in terms of absolute numbers". By the middle of the century, it is likely that Christians comprised just over half of the empire's population. A study by Edwin A. Judge, social scientist, shows that

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4956-468: The 7th and 8th centuries are when the 'end of the ancient world' is most conclusive and well documented. Christianity transformed into its medieval forms as exemplified by the creation of the Papal state , and the alliance between the papacy and the militant Frankish king Charlemagne . With the formation of the Papal State, the emperor's properties came into the possession of the bishop of Rome, and that

5074-507: The Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy which had previously been available only to pagan priests (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the persecutions. He also sponsored the First Council of Nicea to codify aspects of Christian doctrine. According to Stark, the rate of Christianity's growth under its first Christian emperor in

5192-616: The Constantinopolitan lawyer, wrote a history of the church around 443 where he evaluates the law of 8 November 392 as having had only minor significance at the time it was issued. Historical and literary sources, excepting the laws themselves, do not support the view that Theodosius created an environment of intolerance and persecution of pagans. During the reign of Theodosius, pagans were continuously appointed to prominent positions, and pagan aristocrats remained in high offices. During his first official tour of Italy (389–391),

5310-467: The Eastern emperors Theodosius II (407–450) and Marcianus (450–457), were unacceptable to the papacy. Pope Leo attempted to challenge the imperial decisions taken at these councils. He argued that the emperor should concern himself with 'secular matters', while 'divine matters' had a different quality and should be managed by 'priests' (sacerdotes). Pope Leo was not successful. The Roman emperors of

5428-556: The Emperor and often as provincial tax and finance ministers, to be elevated to governing magistrates with full state authority to keep the peace. He may have elevated Judea's procurator to imperial governing status because the imperial legate of Syria was not sympathetic to the Judeans. Following Agrippa's death in 44, the province returned to direct Roman control, incorporating Agrippa's personal territories of Galilee and Peraea, under

5546-534: The Empire, the Kingdom was retained until he died, either in 93/94 or 100, when the area returned to complete, undivided Roman control. Judaea was the stage of two, possibly three, major Jewish–Roman wars : Agriculture played a significant role in economic life in Judaea. Wheat, barley, olives and grapes were the main crops grown in Judaea's fields. Evidence for the cultivation of herbs, vegetables, and legumes comes from Rabbinic literature , Josephus ' works, and

5664-707: The Gentile world, it underwent a gradual separation from Judaism . Christianization was never a one-way process. Instead, there has always been a kind of parallelism as it absorbed indigenous elements just as indigenous religions absorbed aspects of Christianity. Michelle Salzman has shown that in the process of converting the Roman Empire's aristocracy, Christianity absorbed the values of that aristocracy. Several early Christian writers, including Justin (2nd century), Tertullian, and Origen (3rd century) wrote of Mithraists "copying" Christian beliefs. Christianity adopted aspects of Platonic thought, names for months and days of

5782-602: The Gentiles. This led to disputes with those requiring the continued observance of the whole Mosaic law including the requirement for circumcision . James the Just called the Council of Jerusalem (around 50 AD) which determined that converts should avoid "pollution of idols, fornication, things strangled, and blood" but should not be required to follow other aspects of Jewish Law ( KJV , Acts 15:20–21). As Christianity grew in

5900-635: The Idumaean , also known as Antipas , as the first Roman Procurator . Antipater's son Herod was designated as the King of Judea by the Roman Senate in 40 BCE but he did not gain military control until 37 BCE. During his reign, the last representatives of the Hasmoneans were eliminated, and the huge port of Caesarea Maritima was built. Herod died in 4 BCE, and his kingdom was partitioned into

6018-489: The Jews but had been destroyed, was rebuilt as the colonia Aelia Capitolina . Jews were forbidden to settle there or in the immediate vicinity. While Syria was divided into several smaller provinces by Septimius Severus , and later again by Diocletian , Syria Palaestina survived into late antiquity . Presumably, it was small enough not to become dangerous as a potential starting point for usurpation attempts. Instead, Diocletian even integrated parts of Arabia Petraea into

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6136-518: The Roman quadrans . The design of the coins reflects an attempt to accommodate Jewish sensibilities, likely in collaboration with the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem. Unlike typical Roman coinage featuring the emperor's portrait, these coins displayed symbols like palm tree and ears of grain , echoing earlier Hasmonean and Herodian designs. A notable exception is the coinage of Pontius Pilate , (26-36 CE), which included Roman cultic items like

6254-404: The Roman empire has long been one of decline beginning in the second and first centuries BC. Decline was interrupted by the short-lived 'Restoration' under the emperor Augustus (reign 27 BC – AD 14), then it resumed. In the process of decline, it has been thought that Roman religion embraced emperor worship, the 'oriental cults' and Christianity as symptoms of that decline. Christianity emerged as

6372-558: The Roman governor was given authority to punish by execution. The general population also began to be taxed by Rome . However, Jewish leaders retained broad discretion over affairs within Judaism. The Herodian kingdom was split into a tetrarchy in 6 AD, which was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea and Trachonitis . The capital of Judaea was shifted from Jerusalem to Caesarea Maritima , which, according to historian Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson , had been

6490-558: The Roman population by 300. The last and most severe official persecution, the Diocletianic Persecution , took place in 303–311. Constantine , who gained full control of the empire in 312, became the first Christian emperor. Although he was not baptised until shortly before his death, he pursued policies that were favorable to Christianity. The Edict of Milan of 313 ended official persecutions of Christianity extending toleration to all religions. Constantine supported

6608-598: The Second Temple . Two generations later, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-136) erupted. Judea's countryside was devastated, and many were killed, displaced or sold into slavery. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Following the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony under the name of Aelia Capitolina , and Judaea

6726-476: The aftermath of the AD 132-135 Bar Kokhba revolt , identifying Emperor Hadrian as the one responsible for the measure, though no direct evidence suggests exactly when the name change was implemented or by whom, and the renaming may even have taken place before the conclusion of the revolt. While the name Judaea bore an ethnic connotation to Jews, Syria-Palaestina had a strict geographical meaning. Some authors in late antiquity, such as Jerome , continued to refer to

6844-594: The birth of Christianity . In 36 CE another messianic revolt erupted near Mount Gerizim , under the lead of a Samaritan , and was quickly crushed by Pilate; the Samaritans complained against Pilate's brutality to the Legate of Syria Lucius Vitellius the Elder , who removed Pilate from his post and sent him to Rome to account, replacing him with an acting prefect called Marcellus . In 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered

6962-595: The city of Rome. This survival of secular tradition was aided by the imperial government, but also by Pope Leo I . Peter Brown writes that from the very beginning of his pontificate in the Western Empire (440–61), Leo "ensured that the 'Romans of Rome' should have a say in the religious life of the City". The Western Roman Empire declined during the 5th century, while the Eastern Roman Empire during

7080-421: The classicist J. A. North, have written that Roman imperial culture began in the first century with religion embedded in the city-state, then gradually shifted to religion as a personal choice. Roman religion's willingness to adopt foreign gods and practices into its pantheon meant that, as Rome expanded, it also gained local gods which offered different characteristics, experiences, insights, and stories. There

7198-485: The coins accordingly. These coins were primarily circulated within Judaea, with the highest concentration found in Jerusalem, where hundreds have been discovered. However, evidence indicates that the coins transcended their intended region, with discoveries in Transjordan and even in distant locations like Dura and Antioch . The minting of provincial coins ceased in 59 CE, and they continued to circulate until

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7316-557: The concept of "history" was expanded to include sources outside ancient historical narrative and traditional literary works. The evidentiary basis expanded to include legal practices, economics, the history of ideas, coins, gravestones, architecture, archaeology and more. In the 1980s, syntheses began to pull together the results of this more detailed work. In the closing quarter of the twentieth century, scholarship advanced significantly. Gibbon's historical sources were almost exclusively Christian literary documents. These documents have

7434-496: The death of paganism and the triumph of monotheism, ... is not actual history but is, instead, a "representation" of the history of the age created by "a brilliant generation of Christian writers, polemicists and preachers in the last decade of this period". Ramsay MacMullen writes that: "We may fairly accuse the historical record of having failed us, not just in the familiar way, being simply insufficient, but also through being distorted". Historian Rita Lizzi Testa adds "Transcending

7552-542: The decline of paganism has been taken up again by some scholars. Not all the classic themes have lost their value in current scholarship. In 2001, Wolf Liebeschuetz suggested that some special situations, such as the era between the imperial age and the Middle ages, require the concept of crisis to be understood. Religion in Graeco-Roman times differed from religion in modern times. In the early Roman Empire religion

7670-420: The domestic level with his image "among the household gods". Innumerable small images of emperors have been found in a wide range of media that are being reevaluated as religiously significant. Rives adds that "epigraphic evidence reveals the existence of numerous private associations of 'worshippers of the emperor' or 'of the emperor's image', many of which seem to have developed from household associations". It

7788-651: The eighth century, eleven of the thirteen men who held the position of Roman Pope were the sons of families from the East, and before they could be installed, these Popes had to be approved by the head of State, the Byzantine emperor. The union of church and state buoyed the power and influence of both, but the Byzantine papacy , along with losses to Islam, and corresponding changes within Christianity itself, put an end to Ancient Christianity. Most scholars agree

7906-465: The emperor was gravely disturbed that the Jewish assemblies had been forbidden in certain places. For this reason, he stated with emphasis that the sect of the Jews was forbidden by no law." There is little, if any, evidence that Theodosius I pursued an active policy against the traditional cults, though he did reinforce laws against sacrifice, and write several laws against all forms of heresy. Scholars generally agree that Theodosius began his rule with

8024-471: The emperor won over the influential pagan lobby in the Roman Senate by appointing its foremost members to important administrative posts. Theodosius also nominated the last pair of pagan consuls in Roman history ( Tatianus and Symmachus ) in 391. Theodosius allowed pagan practices – that did not involve sacrifice – to be performed publicly and temples to remain open. He also voiced his support for

8142-483: The empire, and it gave no advantage to Christians over other faiths. The Edict was addressed to the people of the city of Constantinople, it opposed Arianism, attempted to establish unity in Christianity and suppress heresy. Hungarian legal scholar Pál Sáry says it is clear from mandates issued in the years after 380 that Theodosius had made no requirement in the Edict for pagans or Jews to convert to Christianity: "In 393,

8260-479: The end of the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 CE. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, Jews lost their previously held rights, and subsequent Roman coinage in Judaea no longer reflected Jewish influence. Christianization of the Roman Empire The growth of Christianity from its obscure origin c. 40 AD, with fewer than 1,000 followers, to being the majority religion of

8378-612: The end of the Third Mithridatic War , in which Pompey defeated Mithridates VI Eupator , sacked Jerusalem , and established the province of Syria . The assertion of Roman hegemony and the rise of Roman political and cultural influence brought an end to Hellenistic Judea . In the aftermath of the Hasmonean civil war , Pompey installed the prince Hyrcanus II as Ethnarch and High Priest of Israel , but not as king. Some years later Julius Caesar appointed Antipater

8496-561: The entire Roman Empire by AD 400, has been examined through a wide variety of historiographical approaches. Until the last decades of the 20th century, the primary theory was provided by Edward Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , published in 1776. Gibbon theorized that paganism declined from the second century BC and was finally eliminated by the top-down imposition of Christianity by Constantine ,

8614-525: The erection of a statue of himself in the Temple in Jerusalem , a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism. The Legate of Syria, Publius Petronius , fearing civil war if the order was carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year. King Herod Agrippa I finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order. Caligula later issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem, but he

8732-477: The established state support of the traditional religious institutions, nor did society substantially change its pagan nature under his rule. Constantine's policies were largely continued by his sons though not universally or continuously. Peter Brown has written that, "it would be profoundly misleading" to claim that the cultural and social changes that took place in Late Antiquity reflected "in any way"

8850-463: The first Roman emperor , Augustus , after an appeal from his own subjects. Herod Antipas, ruler of Galilee and Perea from 4 BCE, was dismissed by Emperor Caligula in 39 CE. Herod's son Philip ruled the northeastern part of his father's kingdom. Canaan State of Israel (1948–present) Following the death of Herod the Great , the Herodian Kingdom of Judea was divided into

8968-453: The first Christian emperor, and his successors in the fourth century AD. For over 200 years, Gibbon's model and its expanded explanatory versions—the conflict model and the legislative model—have provided the major narrative. The conflict model asserts that Christianity rose in conflict with paganism, defeating it only after emperors became Christian and were willing to use their power to require conversion through coercion. The legislative model

9086-619: The first century, the messages began to be recorded in writing and spread abroad. The earliest writings are generally thought to be those of the Apostle Paul who spoke of Jesus as both divine and human. The degree of each of these characteristics later became cause for controversy beginning with Gnosticism which denied Jesus' humanity and Arianism which downgraded his divinity. Christianity began to expand almost immediately from its initial Jewish base to Gentiles (non-Jews). Both Peter and Paul are sometimes referred to as Apostles to

9204-535: The first three centuries had seen the control of religion as one of their functions, taking among their titles pontifex maximus ("chief priest") of the official cults. The Western Christian emperors did not see themselves as priests, surrendering the title pontifex maximus under the emperor Gratian . The Christian Eastern emperors, on the other hand, believed the regulation of religious affairs to be one of their prerogatives. The Western emperor Valentinian III (425–55) was, in essence, appointed by Theodosius, and there

9322-467: The former senator's places. The position and influence of the pope rose. Justinian took an active concern in ecclesiastical affairs and this accelerated the trend towards the control of the Church by the State. Where Constantine had granted, through the Edict of Milan, the right to all peoples to follow freely whatever religion they wished, the religious policy of Justinian I reflected his conviction that

9440-602: The fourth century. Demetrius of Thessaloniki became venerated as the patron of agriculture during the Middle Ages. According to historian Hans Kloft, that was because the Eleusinian Mysteries, Demeter's cult, ended in the 4th century, and the Greek rural population gradually transferred her rites and roles onto the Christian saint Demetrius. For the followers of traditional Roman religions, Christianity

9558-639: The fragments of census statistics that still exist "with such historical and archaeological data as reported size of armies, quantities of grain shipments and distributions, areas of cities, and indications of the extent and intensity of cultivation of lands". Sociologists Rodney Stark and Keith Hopkins have estimated an average compounded annual rate of growth for early Christianity that, in reality, would have varied up and down and region by region. Ancient historian Adam Schor writes that "Stark applied formal models to early Christian material... [describing] early Christianity as an organized but open movement, with

9676-453: The governor of Roman Syria , caused tensions and led to an uprising by Jewish rebel Judas of Galilee (6 CE). Other notable events in the region include the crucifixion of Jesus c.  30–33 CE (which led to the emergence of Christianity ) and in 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Second temple . Growing discontent at Roman rule led to

9794-538: The heartland with the capital at Caesarea, while Palaestina Secunda extended to Galilee , the Golan , and parts of the Transjordan and its capital was Scythopolis (now Beit She'an ). Salutaris was named Palaestina Tertia or Salutaris. The name Syria-Palaestina was given to the former Roman province of Judaea in the early 2nd century AD. The renaming is often presented as an act of punitive disassociation in

9912-499: The home, write archaeologists Konstantinos Bilias and Francesca Grigolo. The genius was fixed on a person, usually the head of the household. The penates were the divinities who provided and guarded the food and possessions of the household. Sacrifice had largely ended by the time of Julian (361-363), a generation before the law of November 392 was issued, but these private, domestic, sometimes daily, sacrifices were thought to have "slipped out from under public control". Sozomen ,

10030-458: The imperial cult's rituals and iconography were elements of a way of thinking that people formed as a means of coming to terms with the tremendous power of Roman emperors. The emperor was "conceived in terms of honors ... as the representation of power" personifying the intermediary between the human and the divine. According to Rives, "Most recent scholars have accepted Price's approach". Recent literary evidence reveals emperor worship at

10148-434: The land. The province was split into smaller ones during the fourth and fifth centuries. In 358, areas that had formerly belonged to Arabia Petraea were transformed into a separate province of Palaestina Salutaris with Petra as its capital. The remaining territory was named Palaestina Prima . Around the year 400, it had been further split into a smaller Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda . Palaestina Prima included

10266-564: The larger Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Diocese of the East , together with the provinces of Isauria , Cilicia , Cyprus (until 536), Euphratensis , Mesopotamia , Osroene , and Arabia Petraea . Palaestina Prima consisted of Judaea , Samaria , the Paralia and Peraea , with the governor residing in Caesarea . Palaestina Secunda consisted of the Galilee, the lower Jezreel Valley ,

10384-648: The limitations of the Enlightenment's interpretive categories" has meant restructuring understanding of the late Roman empire. The result has been a radically altered picture. According to the Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity , scholars have largely abandoned Gibbon's views of decline, crisis and fall. Most contemporary scholars, such as philosophy professor Antonio Donato, consider current understanding to be more precise and accurate than ever before. However, this "new view" has also been criticized, and

10502-438: The mid-3rd century, the little house-churches where Christians had assembled were being succeeded by buildings adapted or designed to be churches complete with assembly rooms, classrooms, and dining rooms. The earliest dated church building to survive comes from around this time. In his mathematical modelling, Rodney Stark estimates that Christians made up around 1.9% of the Roman population in 250. That year, Decius made it

10620-538: The ministry of Jesus , who proclaimed the coming of the Kingdom of God. After his death by crucifixion, some of his followers are said to have seen Jesus, and proclaimed him to be alive and resurrected by God. When Christianity spread beyond Judaea, it first arrived in Jewish diaspora communities. The early Gospel message spread orally , probably originally in Aramaic , but almost immediately also in Greek . Within

10738-546: The most insight into the societal change. Sociology has also generated the theory that Christianity spread as a grass roots movement that grew from the bottom up; it includes ideas and practices such as charity , egalitarianism , accessibility and a clear message, demonstrating its appeal to people over the alternatives available to most in the Roman Empire of the time. The effects of this religious change are seen as mixed and are debated. The standard view of paganism (traditional city-based polytheistic Graeco-Roman religion ) in

10856-508: The name, Palestine was independent of Roman Syria , even to a greater extent than before, since instead of a legatus Augusti pro praetore , a higher-ranking governor of consular rank now presided over the region. This in turn was probably due to the fact that in addition to the already existing legion in Caesarea, a second legion was stationed in Legio , increasing the military importance of

10974-417: The orthodox Theodosius most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity. In keeping with this view of Theodosius, some previous scholars interpreted the Edict of Thessalonica (380) as establishing Christianity as the state religion. German ancient historian Karl Leo Noethlichs  [ de ] writes that the Edict of Thessalonica did not declare Christianity to be the official religion of

11092-450: The paradox of truly historic significance that while Jewish Christianity was swallowed up in the Christian church, it preserved itself in Islam ." In circa 390, Syria Palaestina was reorganised into several administrative units: Palaestina Prima , Palaestina Secunda , and Palaestina Tertia (in the 6th century), Syria Prima and Phoenice and Phoenice Lebanensis. All were included within

11210-438: The past's art and architecture, or some combination. Demographer John D. Durand describes two types of population estimates: benchmarks derived from data at a given time, and estimates that can be carried forward or backward between such benchmarks. Reliability of each varies based on the quality of the data. Romans were "inveterate census takers," but few of their records remain. Durand says historians have pieced together

11328-424: The pilgrimage of Empress Helena , the mother of Constantine the Great , c. 326–28. New pagan cities were founded in Judea at Eleutheropolis (now Bayt Jibrin ), Diopolis (now Lod ), and Nicopolis . The Hellenization of Palaestina continued under Septimius Severus (193–211 AD). The Romans destroyed the Jewish community of the Church in Jerusalem, which had existed since the time of Jesus. Traditionally it

11446-412: The population at large. The law of 8 November 392 has been described by some as the universal ban on paganism that made Christianity the official religion of the empire. The law was addressed only to Rufinus in the East, it makes no mention of Christianity, and it focuses on practices of private domestic sacrifice: the lares , the penates and the genius . The lares is the god who takes care of

11564-415: The preservation of temple buildings, but failed to prevent damaging several holy sites in the eastern provinces which most scholars believe was sponsored by Cynegius , Theodosius' praetorian prefect. Some scholars have held Theodosius responsible for his prefect's behavior. Following Cynegius' death in 388, Theodosius replaced him with a moderate pagan who subsequently moved to protect the temples. There

11682-439: The province maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offenses, until c.  28 CE . Judea in the early Roman period was divided into five administrative districts with centers in Jerusalem, Gadara , Amathus , Jericho , and Sepphoris . In 30–33 CE, Roman prefect Pontius Pilate had Jesus of Nazareth crucified on the charge of sedition , an act that led to

11800-589: The province, namely the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula . He moved the Legio X Fretensis from Aelia Capitolina to Aila (today's Eilat / Aqaba ) to secure the country against Arab incursions. The part of the Roman imperial border that now ran through Palestine was subsequently placed under its own supreme commander, the dux Palaestinae , who is known from the Notitia Dignitatum . The border wall,

11918-527: The province. Exactly when the legion was moved and the rank of the governor's post increased is a matter of debate - in any case, these events must have occurred before the governorship of Quintus Tineius Rufus , who took office no later than 130. The population of Syria-Palaestina was of mixed character . The aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in severe devastation for Judaea's Jewish population, including significant loss of life, forced displacements, and widespread enslavement. The scale of suffering

12036-408: The region as Judaea out of habit due to the prominent association with the Jews. This includes an inscription from Ephesos from AD 170-180, honoring the wife of a figure known as "Eroelius Klaros", who had the epithet "ruler of Judaea" ("[Ερο]υκίου Κλάρου, υπάτου, [ηγ]εμόνος Ιουδ[αίας]"), decades after the recreation of Provincia Judaea as Syria-Palaestina. Other scholars and commenters disagree with

12154-543: The region, and Christians formed a majority in Palestine and Jerusalem through migration and conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews. After the Jewish–Roman wars (66–135), which Epiphanius believed the Cenacle survived, the significance of Jerusalem to Christians entered a period of decline, it having been destroyed and later refounded as the pagan colonia of Aelia Capitolina. Christian interest resumed again with

12272-566: The regions east of Galilee, and the western part of the former Decapolis , with the seat of government at Scythopolis . Palaestina Tertia included the Negev, southern Transjordan part of Arabia, and most of Sinai , with Petra as the usual residence of the governor. Palaestina Tertia was also known as Palaestina Salutaris. Judaea (Roman province) Judaea ( Latin : Iudaea [juːˈdae̯.a] ; Ancient Greek : Ἰουδαία , romanized :  Ioudaía [i.uˈdɛ.a] )

12390-478: The reign of Emperor Theodosius II (408–50) was functioning well. Theodosius II enjoyed a strong position at the centre of the imperial system. Decline in the West led both Eastern and Western authorities to assert their right to power and authority over the Western Empire. Theodosius II claim was based on Roman law and military power. Leo responded, using the concept of inherited 'Petrine' authority . The Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon in 449 and 451, convened by

12508-455: The rest of the third century. Classics professor Seth Schwartz states the number of Christians in existence by the end of the third century indicates Christianity's successful establishment predated Constantine. Under Constantine and his sons, certain pagan rites, including animal sacrifice and divination, began being deprived of their previous position in Roman civilization. Yet other pagan practices were tolerated, Constantine did not stop

12626-492: The revolt of Judas of Galilee ; the revolt was quickly crushed by Quirinius. Judea was not a senatorial province , nor an imperial province , but instead was a "satellite of Syria" governed by a prefect who was a knight of the Equestrian Order (as was that of Roman Egypt ), not a former consul or praetor of senatorial rank . Quirinius appointed Coponius as first prefect of Judea. Still, Jews living in

12744-431: The same time, other evidence that presents a different picture has been dismissed out of hand. After 1990, evidence expanded and altered the picture of late antique paganism. For example, private cults of the emperor were previously greatly underestimated. For many years, the imperial cult was regarded by the majority of scholars as both a symptom and a cause of the final decline of traditional Graeco-Roman religion. It

12862-463: The shape of the expansion curve) could affect certain assumptions, but not the general tendency of the numerical hypotheses". Classical scholar Roger S. Bagnall found that, by isolating Christian names of sons and their fathers, he could trace the growth of Christianity in Roman Egypt . While Bagnall cautions about extrapolating from his work to the rest of the Roman Empire, Stark writes that

12980-532: The third century, before Constantine, paganism did not end in the fourth century, and imperial legislation had only limited effect before the era of the Eastern emperor Justinian I (reign 527 to 565). In the twenty-first century, the conflict model has become marginalized, while a grassroots theory has developed. Alternative theories involve psychology or evolution of cultural selection, with many 21st-century scholars asserting that sociological models such as network theory and diffusion of innovation provide

13098-527: The week – even the concept of a seven-day week – from Roman paganism. Bruce David Forbes says that "Some way or another, Christmas was started to compete with rival Roman religions, or to co-opt the winter celebrations as a way to spread Christianity, or to baptize the winter festivals with Christian meaning in an effort to limit their [drunken] excesses. Most likely all three". Some scholars have suggested that characteristics of some pagan gods — or at least their roles — were transferred to Christian saints after

13216-589: Was a Roman province from 6 to 132 CE , which at its height incorporated the Levantine regions of Judea , Idumea , Samaria , and Galilee , and parts of the costal plain including Philistia , extending over the territories of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms . The name Judaea (like the similar Judea ) was derived from the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah , that was centered predominantly in Judea . Since

13334-420: Was assumed this kind of worship of a man could only be possible in a system that had become completely devoid of real religious meaning. It was, therefore, generally treated as a "political phenomenon cloaked in religious dress". However, scholarship of the twenty-first century has shifted toward seeing it as a genuine religious phenomenon. Classical scholar Simon Price used anthropological models to show that

13452-490: Was immense, with ancient sources reporting extensive destruction and high casualty rates. It appears that at the end of the revolt, Jewish settlement in Judaea Proper had nearly been eradicated, but remained strong in other parts of Palestine. Jewish survivors faced harsh Roman punitive measures, including expulsion from Jerusalem and other areas, leading to a migration to Galilee and Golan . Some scholars suggest that

13570-508: Was murdered before the statue reached Jerusalem and his successor Claudius rescinded the order. The "Crisis under Caligula" has been proposed as the first open break between Rome and Jews . Between 41 and 44 AD, Judea regained its nominal autonomy , when Herod Agrippa was made King of the Jews by the emperor Claudius , thus in a sense restoring the Herodian dynasty. Claudius had allowed procurators , who served as personal agents to

13688-467: Was polytheistic and local. It was not focused on the individual but was focused on the good of the city: it was a civic religion in which ritual was the main form of worship. Politics and religion were intertwined, and many public rituals were performed by public officials. Respect for ancestral custom was a large part of polytheistic belief and practice, and members of the local society were expected to take part in public rituals. Roman historians, such as

13806-486: Was renamed Syria Palaestina, a term occasionally used among Greco-Romans for centuries to describe the Southern Levant . Syria-Palaestina included Judea , Samaria , Galilee , Idumaea , and Philistia . The province retained its capital, Caesarea Maritima, and therefore remained distinct from Syria, which was located further north with its capital in Antioch . Jerusalem , which held special religious significance for

13924-482: Was seen as an odd entity, not quite Roman, but not quite barbarian either. Christians criticized fundamental beliefs of Roman society, and refused to participate in rituals, festivals and the imperial cult . They were a target for suspicion and rumor, including rumors that they were politically subversive and practiced black magic, incest and cannibalism . Conversions tore families apart: Justin Martyr tells of

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