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62-877: Groups based in the Jazira Region & Deir ez-Zor Governorate Groups based in the Euphrates Region Groups based in the Afrin Region , Manbij Region, & Aleppo city (including Sheikh Maqsood ), withdrew to Manbij in March 2018 Groups based in the Manbij Region Groups based in the Raqqa District & Al-Thawrah District [REDACTED] NES police forces [REDACTED] NES civilian defence forces The Syrian Democratic Forces ( SDF )

124-683: A Kurdish-Christian autonomy movement emerged in Jazira. The demands of the movement were autonomous status similar to the Sanjak of Alexandretta , the protection of French troops, promotion of Kurdish language in schools and hiring of Kurdish officials. The movement was led by Michel Dome, mayor of Qamishli, Hanna Hebe, general vicar for the Syriac-Catholic Patriarch of Jazira, and the Kurdish notable Hajo Agha. Some Arab tribes supported

186-508: A month and began to enact disciplinary measures against commanders of the units that had involved in corruption and accepting recruit under age of 18 to their ranks. In October 2015 the YPG demobilized 21 minors from the military service in its ranks. In response to reports issued by international organisations such as Human Rights Watch, the general command of the SDF issued a military order prohibiting

248-416: A pro-Damascus Kurdish chief. In September 1938, Hajo Agha chaired a general conference in Jazira and appealed to France for self-government. The new French High Commissioner, Gabriel Puaux, dissolved parliament and created autonomous administrations for Jabal Druze, Latakia and Jazira in 1939 which lasted until 1943. All four main ethnic communities (Kurds, Arabs, Armenians and Assyrians) are represented in

310-612: A renewed Turkish invasion of Syrian territory . At the time of its founding in late 2015, The Economist described the SDF as "essentially a subsidiary of the Kurdish YPG". At the end of October, the al-Shaitat tribal militia, the Desert Hawks Brigade, joined the SDF to fight ISIL in the southern countryside of Hasakah Governorate . In November, the FSA group Euphrates Jarabulus Battalions announced its accession to

372-636: A report published by the United Nations ' Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic on 10 March 2017, the Commission refuted Amnesty International's reports of ethnic cleansing, stating that "'though allegations of 'ethnic cleansing' continued to be received during the period under review, the Commission found no evidence to substantiate reports that YPG or SDF forces ever targeted Arab communities on

434-513: A respresentative survey with 391 SDF fighters; of the total respondents, 68.7% were Arabs, 17.2% Kurds, 12.5% Christians, 0.9% Yezidis, and 0.6% Turkmens. By comparison, the SDF itself estimated at the time that 50-70% of its troops were Arabs, 30-50% Kurds, 5% Christians, 2% Yezidis, and 2% Turkmens. Unofficial figures, quoted in Al Majalla in 2021, similarly indicated a sizeable Arab majority, 65,000 out of 100,000 total. The Arab membership of

496-645: A terrorist group by Turkey. SDF also includes several ethnic militias, and various factions of the Syrian opposition 's Free Syrian Army . The primary opponents of the SDF are the various Islamist , Syrian nationalist , and pro-Turkish forces involved in the civil war. Major enemies include al-Qaeda affiliates, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Syrian National Army (TFSA),

558-747: A topic of continuous debate between the regions' Boards of Education and the Syrian central government in Damascus , which partly pays the teachers. In August 2016, the Ourhi Centre in the city of Qamishli was founded by the Assyrian community, to educate teachers in order to make the Syriac language an additional language to be taught in public schools in Jazira Region, which then started with

620-556: Is a Kurdish -led coalition formed by ethnic militias and rebel groups, and serves as the official military wing of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES). The SDF is allied to and supplied by the United States –led CJTF–OIR international alliance. Founded in 10 October 2015, the SDF claims that its mission is fighting to create a secular , democratic and federalized Syria . The SDF

682-508: Is opposed by Turkey, who claims the group has direct links to the PKK , which it regards as a terrorist group . Formed as a rebel alliance in the Syrian civil war , the SDF is composed primarily of Kurdish , Arab , and Assyrian/Syriac , as well as some smaller Armenian , Turkmen and Chechen forces. It is militarily led by the People's Protection Units (YPG), a Kurdish militia regarded as

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744-881: Is the 2015 established Nahawand Center for Developing Children’s Talents in Amuda . The Jazira Region Board of Education operates two public institutions of higher education, the University of Rojava and the Mesopotamian Social Sciences Academy , both in the city of Qamishli . Jazira Region houses a third one, the Hasakah campus of Al-Furat University , which is operated by the Damascus government Ministry of Higher Education. Euphrates Volcano Euphrates Volcano ( Arabic : بُرْكَان الْفُرَات , romanized :  Burkān al-Furāt )

806-879: The Al-Darbasiyah area, and the Tell Tamer area, as well as the Qamishli canton consisting of the Qamishli area (with the Amûda , Tirbê Sipî , Tel Hemîs and Tel Berak districts subordinate to it) and the Derîk area (with the Girkê Legê , Tel Koçer and Çilaxa districts subordinate to it). Jazira Region's ethnic groups include Kurds , Arabs , Assyrians , Armenians and Yazidis . While Kurdish , Arabic and Syriac are official languages, all communities have

868-481: The Counter Terrorism Center at West Point said "growing acceptance of the SDF by Sunni Arab rebel groups" and more generally "growing legitimacy of the SDF". Another analysis as of late June described the YPG as "only one faction of many within the SDF", however that "it's the YPG that makes the SDF reliable and effective. The SDF's other components function as auxiliaries to the SDF's 'backbone',

930-657: The Tanzimat reforms period (1839–67). Until the 19th century, Kurdistan did not include the lands of Syrian Jazira in some books. The Treaty of Sèvres ' putative Kurdistan did not include any part of today's Syria. According to McDowall, Kurds slightly outnumbered Arabs in Jazira in 1918. The demographics of Northern Syria saw a huge shift in the early part of the 20th century when the Ottoman Empire ( Turks ) conducted ethnic cleansing of its Christian Armenian and Assyrian populations. Some Kurdish tribes joined in

992-706: The Turkish Armed Forces , and their allies. The SDF has focused primarily on the ISIL, successfully driving them from important strategic areas, such as Al-Hawl , Shaddadi , Tishrin Dam , Manbij , al-Tabqah , Tabqa Dam , Baath Dam , and ISIL's former capital of Raqqa . In March 2019, the SDF announced the total territorial defeat of ISIL in Syria, with the SDF taking control of the last stronghold in Baghuz . Since

1054-634: The Turkish authorities . It is estimated that 25,000 Kurds fled at this time to Syria. While many of the Kurds in Syria have been there for centuries, waves of Kurds fled their homes in Turkey and settled in Syria, where they were granted citizenship by the French mandate authorities . In the late 1930s a small but vigorous separatist movement emerged in Qamishli. With some support from French Mandate officials,

1116-690: The Women's Protection Units (Yekîneyên Parastina Jin, YPJ) had been operating throughout the regions of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria , the other founding partners were more geographically focused. Geographically focused on the Euphrates Region were the YPG's partners in the Euphrates Volcano joint operations room, several mainstream Syrian rebel factions of the Free Syrian Army , who had helped defend

1178-832: The al-Sanadid Forces of the Arab Shammar tribe, both of whom had cooperated with the YPG in fighting ISIL since 2013. The MFS is further politically aligned with the YPG via their shared secular ideology of democratic confederalism , which in the Assyrian community is known as the Dawronoye movement. Geographically focused on the Manbij Region was the Army of Revolutionaries (Jaysh al-Thuwar, JAT), itself an alliance of several groups of diverse ethnic and political backgrounds, who had in common that they had been rejected by

1240-585: The "powerbrokers" in Aleppo Province , being primarily "anti-ISIS" but not necessarily "anti-regime". In September 2014, several Free Syrian Army groups released a video addressing the Siege of Kobani in which they issued a joint statement pledging to defend the city from ISIS and asking for aid from western countries to do so. The Wall Street Journal noted that the flag of the YPG featured prominently in

1302-682: The 101-seat Legislative Assembly. The current prime minister (sometimes referred to as president) of Jazira Canton is the Kurdish Akram Hesso with Arab Hussein Taza Al Azam and Assyrian Elizabeth Gawrie as deputy prime ministers (sometimes referred to as vice-presidents). There are people's councils but it is unclear how they relate to the transitional government. There also appear to be co-governor/co-president positions, with tribal leader and Al-Sanadid Forces leader Humaydi Daham al-Hadi and Hediye Yusuf being co-governors of

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1364-543: The 2016/17 academic year. With that academic year, states the Rojava Education Committee, "three curriculums have replaced the old one, to include teaching in three languages: Kurdish, Arabic and Syriac”. The federal, regional and local administrations in Rojava put much emphasis on promoting libraries and educational centers, to facilitate learning and social and artistic activities. One cited example

1426-563: The AANES constitution, the city of Qamishli is the administrative center of Jazira Region. However, as parts of Qamishli remain under the control of Syrian government forces, meetings of the autonomous region's administration take place in the nearby city of Amuda . The region has two subordinate cantons, the Hasakah canton consisting of the al-Hasakah area (with the Al-Shaddadi , Al-Arisha and Al-Hawl districts subordinate to it),

1488-652: The Assyrian community of al-Malikiyah was subjected to a vicious assault. Even though the assault failed, Assyrians felt threatened and left in large numbers, and the immigration of Kurds from Turkey to the area converted al-Malikiya, al-Darbasiyah and Amuda to Kurdish-majority cities. According to the French report to the League of Nations in 1937, the population of Jazira consisted of 82,000 Kurdish villagers, 42,000 Muslim Arab pastoralists, and 32,000 Christian town dwellers (Assyrians and Armenians). Between 1932 and 1939,

1550-526: The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria to introduce an income tax , with citizens' income of above 100,000 Syrian pound (at the time equivalent to around 200 U.S. dollar) per month to be taxed. Like in the other Rojava regions, primary education in the public schools is initially by mother tongue instruction either Kurdish or Arabic, with the aim of bilingualism in Kurdish and Arabic in secondary schooling. Curricula are

1612-709: The Free Syrian Army and 5 by the Syrian Arab Army. In response, the YPG and YPJ signed the Geneva Call Deed of Commitment protecting children in armed conflict, prohibiting sexual violence and against gender discrimination in July 2014, and Kurdish security forces (YPG and Asayish ) began receiving human rights training from Geneva Call and other international organisations with the YPG pledging publicly to demobilize all fighters under 18 within

1674-509: The Kongra Star, an organization focused on the female activities in the AANES. The only significant industrial area is in Hasakah . Jazira Region is home to several oil fields , among them Syria's best producing one at Rmelan . As of summer 2016, oil output in Jazira Region was estimated at 40,000 barrels per day. Some people work at primitive oil refining, which causes health hazards and pollution. The oil wealth in combination with

1736-566: The Kurdish town of Kobanî during the Siege of Kobanî . Liwa Thuwwar al-Raqqa had been expelled by the al-Nusra Front and ISIL from the city of Raqqa for its alliance with the YPG. The group participated in the capture of Tell Abyad from the Islamic State. Geographically focused on the Jazira Region in northeast Syria were the Assyrian Syriac Military Council (Mawtbo Fulhoyo Suryoyo, MFS) and

1798-478: The Kurdish tribes were settled near Mardin in Turkey, and paid the governor of that city for the right to graze their herds in the Syrian Jazira. The Kurdish tribes gradually settled in villages and cities and are still present in Jazira (modern Syria's Hasakah Governorate ). The Ottoman province of Diyarbekir , which included parts of modern-day northern Syria , was called Eyalet-i Kurdistan during

1860-481: The Kurds may be providing the leadership, because they have a capable leader who's stepped up to this challenge. And they are providing some of the organisational skill, but I see a large contingent about 23 to 25, 000 so far and growing, Arabs, who are marching to liberate their part of northern Syria. So, I don't see a Kurdish state. I see a multi-cultural, multi-party, multi-ethnic, multi-sectarian Syrian region being liberated from ISIS. Over." Late June, an analysis by

1922-683: The Operation Inherent Resolve spokesman, stated that the SDF contained around 45,000 fighters, of which more than 13,000 were Arabs. According to a March 2017 statement of the Spokesman for the International Coalition forces, U.S. Colonel John Dorrian, 75 percent of the SDF forces fighting in Operation Wrath of Euphrates to isolate ISIL's de facto capital of Raqqa were Syrian Arabs, a reflection of

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1984-533: The Refugees and the Absentees , under which a real estate owner loses title when he does not make personal use of the property. In particular among the Assyrian community in Jazira Region, persistent opposition was voiced, as their community is disproportionally hit by the measure, for both a high degree of real estate ownership and a particularly high share of outbound civil war refugees. Assyrian organizations of

2046-503: The SDF may relate to the pay levels and conscription going on within the Arab majority Northeast Syria region, as the SDF has a mandatory 1 year of service for all men living in its area of control. As of 2022, the SDF is in control of about 25% of the territory of Syria. In 2018, following a Turkish invasion into north west Syria , the SDF was forced from Afrin . In October 2019, the SDF had to retreat from Tell Abyad and Ras al-Ayn after

2108-496: The SDF. In December, members of the Deir ez-Zor Governorate -based Arab tribe al-Shaitat joined the SDF, sending fighters to al-Shaddadah . With continuous growth in particular due to Arab groups and volunteers joining, in March 2016 only an estimated 60% of the men and women in the SDF fighting force were ethnic Kurds . Growth in particular of Arab, Turkmen and Assyrian participation in the SDF has since continued. In an interview on

2170-721: The Syrian Civil War used to be around 1,8 million tons per year, at the height of the war however dropping as low as 0,5 million tons. The Economy Committee promotes varied vegetable and fruit cultivation instead of the mono-culture of wheat; in Amuda a centre to develop seedlings has been created. Development of a greenhouse economy is promoted. In Al-Qahtaniyah , an ecological village was founded so that local Rojavan population can acquire experience in ecology from international volunteers. By 2020, there have been established 40 workers cooperatives with between five and ten families each. Eighteen are organized by Aborija Jin of

2232-661: The US government of playing a central role in the creation and maintenance of this system. In June 2015 the Turkish government and Amnesty International reported that the YPG was carrying out an ethnic cleansing of non-Kurdish populations as part of a plan to join the Jazira and Euphrates regions into a single territory. The U.S. State Department reacted by stating they would 'scrutinise' Amnesty International's accusations. The U.S. State Department stated it had to determine if there

2294-476: The YPG, which ensures effective, unitary command and control." On 15 March 2017, a video surfaced that showed members of the Northern Sun Battalion reportedly torturing an ISIL fighter, who had been captured while planting mines. One of these mines had reportedly killed nine fighters of the battalion, leading five others to take revenge on the ISIL militant. The Manbij Military Council condemned

2356-533: The act, and announced that the involved Northern Sun Battalion fighters would be held for trial for violating the Geneva Conventions . The five accused were arrested on 17 March. On 24 April 2024, Amnesty International reported that there is a large-scale human rights violation of more than 56,000 people including 30,000 children and 14,500 women held indefinitely in at least 27 detention facilities for those with "perceived IS affiliation". According to

2418-425: The atrocities committed against them. Many Assyrians fled to Syria during the genocide and settled mainly in the Jazira area. Until the 19th century, Kurdistan did not include the lands of Syrian Jazira in some books. According to McDowall, Kurds slightly outnumbered Arabs in Jazira in 1918. Starting in 1926, the region saw an immigration of Kurds following the failure of the Sheikh Said rebellion against

2480-430: The autonomists while others sided with the central government. In the legislative elections of 1936, autonomist candidates won all the parliamentary seats in Jazira and Jarabulus, while the nationalist Arab movement known as the National Bloc won the elections in the rest of Syria. After victory, the National Bloc pursued an aggressive policy toward the autonomists. The Jazira governor appointed by Damascus intended to disarm

2542-399: The basis of ethnicity". In interviews, YPG spokespersons acknowledged that a number of families were in fact displaced. However, they placed the number at no more than 25, and stated military necessity. They stated that the family members of terrorists maintained communications with them, and therefore had to be removed from areas where they might pose a danger. They further reported that ISIL

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2604-402: The battle for Raqqa in 2015 initially made local Arab groups see that Arabs and the SDF could work together. This encouraged increased Arab membership at the time. By 2017, the SDF was reported by the United States Department of Defense to have an Arab majority. A 2019 Wilson Center study also suggested that a majority of the Syrian Democratic Forces' personnel are Arabs. The study was based on

2666-446: The city's airport, the city's train station, the border crossing, the governor's palace, and many other residential neighborhoods with various governmental buildings such as hospitals and fire departments. The economy of Jazira Canton mainly based on agriculture, it accounts for 17 percent of Syria's agricultural production, in particular wheat and cotton grown there in abundance. Being the "bread basket" of Syria, wheat production before

2728-415: The demographic composition of that area. "The Syrian Democratic Forces are a multi-ethnic and multi-sectarian organization, and that is one of the reasons why we're working with them and they have continued to build the Arab element of their force." Concerning the SDF in general, Lieutenant General Stephen Townsend in the same month said that "I'm seeing what is probably a pretty broad coalition of people and

2790-417: The economic blockade of the AANES from the adjacent territories controlled by Turkey, and partially also the KRG, results in a distortion of relative prices; petrol costs only half as much as bottled water. Electricity is supplied by Tishrin Dam on the Euphrates, within Euphrates Region ; apart from that, electricity is produced by diesel generators. In July 2017, Jazira Region became the first region in

2852-527: The first anniversary of the SDF's founding, spokesman Talal Silo , an ethnic Turkmen and former commander of the Seljuq Brigade , stated that "we started with 13 factions and now there are 32 factions", and that "90 percent" of the SDF growth since it began its operations were ethnic Arabs. In the context of the November 2016 Northern Raqqa offensive , The Economist said the SDF fighting force to be composed of "about 20,000 YPG fighters and about 10,000 Arabs". The next month in December 2016, Colonel John Dorrian,

2914-533: The largest concentrations of Christians in Syria . Many of the cities where founded by Christian communities. In 1927 the regions population was recorded as the following table. In the late 10th century, the Kurdish Humaydi tribe had their winter pastures in the Jazira region and clashed with forces of Buyid ruler Adud al-Dawla . During the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922), large Kurdish-speaking tribal groups both settled in and were deported to areas of northern Syria from Anatolia . The largest of these tribal groups

2976-408: The mainstream Syrian opposition for their secular , anti- Islamist views and affiliations. The following groups signed the founding document: On 10 December 2015, after a two-day conference, the Syrian Democratic Council was established. Human rights activist Haytham Manna and Ilham Ehmed were elected co-chairman/woman at its founding. The Assembly establishing the Syrian Democratic Council

3038-512: The movement actively lobbied for autonomy direct under French rule and separation from Syria on the ground that majority of the inhabitants were not Arabs. Syrian nationalists saw the movement as a profound threat to their eventual rule. The Syrian nationalists allied with local Arab Shammal tribal leader and Kurdish tribes. They together attacked the Christian movement in many towns and villages. Local Kurdish tribes who were allies of Shammar tribe sacked and burned Assyrian town of Amuda. In 1941,

3100-419: The population and encourage the settlement of Arab farmers from Aleppo, Homs and Hama in Jazira. In July 1937, armed conflict broke out between the Syrian police and the supporters of the movement. As a result, the governor and a significant portion of the police force fled the region and the rebels established local autonomous administration in Jazira. In August 1937 a number of Assyrians in Amuda were killed by

3162-526: The recruitment of children. On 29 June 2019 Abdi, as representative of the SDF, signed the action plan of the United Nations aiming to prevent the enlistment of child soldiers in the armed forces. The action plan was signed to address the inclusion of the YPG in the SDF. In 2020, United Nations reported SDF as the largest faction in the Syrian civil war by the number recruited child soldiers, with 283 child soldiers followed by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham with 245 child soldiers. Jazira Region According to

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3224-475: The region published several statements making accusations of seizing private property, demographic changing and ethnic cleansing. Assets seized from Assyrians under the law have reportedly since been handed over to Syriac churches. Security is maintained by the Asayish police force and its Assyrian counterpart, the Sootoro . Syrian government loyalists only control a number of demarcated neighborhoods in Qamishli . The government-held areas in Qamishli include

3286-402: The region. In January 2016, Jazira Canton introduced a "self-defense duty" conscription law for its self-defence forces, including an avoidance fee for residents of age for mandatory military service who have moved to Europe, to pay $ 200 for each year of absence upon their return. In September 2015, the legislative council passed the Law for the Management and Protection of the Assets of

3348-639: The report among those held in this detention system are hundreds of Yazidis , Syrians , Iraqis , and foreign citizens from nearly 74 other countries. The report described the trials as "flawed", and many of the people in these camps were detained without charges. Detainees are held in inhumane conditions and subjected to torture including severe beatings, stress positions , and electric shocks with thousands having been forcibly disappeared. Women were also subjected to sexual and gender based violence by SDF security members as well as attacks by other prisoners for perceived "moral" infractions. Agnès Callamard accused

3410-676: The right to teach and be taught in their native language. Religions practiced in the region are Islam , Christianity and Yazidism . The majority of the Arabs and Kurds in the region are Sunni Muslim. Between 20 and 30% of the people of Al-Hasakeh governorate are Christians of various churches and denominations. Cities and towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants according to the 2004 Syrian census are Hasakah (188,160), Qamishli (184,231), Amuda (26,821), Al-Malikiyah (26,311), Al-Qahtaniyah (16,946), Al-Shaddadah (15,806), Al-Muabbada (15,759), Al-Sabaa wa Arbain (14,177) and Al-Manajir (12,156). The Jazira region has been home to one of

3472-404: The territorial defeat of ISIL, the SDF has increasingly been involved with resisting the growing Turkish occupation of northern Syria . The establishment of the SDF was announced on 11 October 2015 during a press conference in al-Hasakah . The alliance built on longstanding previous cooperation between the founding partners. While the People's Protection Units (Yekîneyên Parastina Gel, YPG) and

3534-426: The video, indicating the possibility of YPG cooperation with the FSA. This was proved true later that year, when YPG member started to train FSA members, eventually leading to the establishment of the Euphrates Volcano, which deepened the alliance between the PYD and Kobani FSA. The capture of Tell Abyad from ISIL in July 2015 was a major success of the Euphrates Volcano operations room. On 10 October 2015,

3596-588: Was "any veracity to the claims", but showed concern by calling for any administrator in the area to rule "with respect for all groups regardless of ethnicity". The report makes accusations of looting, coercing civilians to join their armed forces and the forced targeted displacement of 1400 families in the Turkman villages of Hammam al-Turkman , 800 Turkmen from Mela Berho and Suluk residents. The report offers unnamed witness testimony from reported victims, cross referenced with photo and video evidence, media reports, and satellite imagery to substantiate these reports. In

3658-449: Was a joint operations room /coalition established during the Syrian Civil War . It mainly consisted of the Syrian Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) and certain factions of the Free Syrian Army (FSA). The group fought to expel the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant from Aleppo and Raqqa provinces. In an October 2015 publication, the Washington D.C.-based Institute for the Study of War considered Euphrates Volcano as one of

3720-484: Was made up of 13 members of different ethnic, economic and political backgrounds. Initially, the mostly Kurdish YPG/YPJ comprised the majority of SDF and dominated it organizationally. However, it has had smaller minorities of other communities involved in it from the beginning, including Christians, Yezidis, Turkmen and Arabs. The participation of thousands of Arab troops fighting under the SDF, in its military councils as well as various militias and rebel groups, during

3782-541: Was the Reshwan confederation, which was initially based in Adıyaman Province but eventually also settled throughout Anatolia. The Milli confederation, mentioned in 1518 onward, was the most powerful group and dominated the entire northern Syrian steppe in the second half of the 18th century. Danish writer C. Niebuhr who traveled to Jazira in 1764 recorded five nomadic Kurdish tribes (Dukurie, Kikie, Schechchanie, Mullie and Aschetie) and six Arab tribes (Tay, Kaab, Baggara, Geheish, Diabat and Sherabeh). According to Niebuhr,

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3844-424: Was using civilians in those areas to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG. In June 2014, Human Rights Watch criticized the YPG for accepting minors into their ranks, picking up on multiple earlier reports of teenage fighters serving in the YPG, with a report by the United Nations Secretary General stating that 24 minors under age of 18 had been recruited by YPG, with 124 having been recruited by

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