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163-619: On Misplaced Pages, PNT may refer to Misplaced Pages:Pages needing translation into English PNT may refer to: National Peasants' Party , a Romanian political party National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing National Workers' Party (Spain) , a small far-right party in Spain Pontiac Transportation Center , Michigan, Amtrak station code Postnormal times , in post-normal science Prime number theorem Pacific Northwest Trail ,

326-581: A Radical Peasants' Party (PȚR) in 1933. Schisms and competition were compensated by recruitment, including in the intellectual sphere. Writer Șerban Cioculescu , who entered in early 1928, described the PNȚ as "the only political factor which may democratize Romania". In the early 1930s, new arrivals included philosophers Petre Andrei and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru , linguist Traian Bratu , and painter Rudolf Schweitzer-Cumpăna ; also joining were leaders of

489-632: A Soviet occupation , Maniu still counted on direct contacts with the West, sending Constantin Vișoianu to negotiate with them in Cairo. These "feelers" were again tolerated by Antonescu. However, a "stumbling-block in all subsequent negotiations" was the demand for Romania's unconditional surrender, which Maniu found unpalatable. The PNȚ advised against toppling Antonescu in February 1944, as had been proposed by

652-477: A Transylvanian Directorate , which functioned as that region's transitional government to April 1920. This body was explicitly against regional autonomy, and its distinct initiatives were in the field of social welfare . As regional Minister of Social Welfare, the PNR doctor Iuliu Moldovan introduced eugenics , which also appeared as nativism in the political thought a PNR leader, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod . Based in

815-668: A death sentence at home, Beza made his way to Cairo , where he formed a Free Romania Movement under British supervision. Viorel Tilea and Ion Rațiu opted not to return from England, serving as liaisons between the PNȚ and the British war ministry . Towards the end of 1940, Antonescu became dissatisfied with the Guard partnership. The Guard organized the Jilava Massacre and various other murders of old-regime politicians, including Madgearu. This caused alarm for other figures of

978-573: A military dictatorship and a cabinet. After agreeing, Antonescu, with support from various political forces and the Romanian Army , pressured Carol to step down and be replaced with his son Mihai . On September 6, 1940, the monarch agreed to leave his throne and country, settling in Brazil at the start of 1941; what contributed to this decision was Sima's support for Antonescu, and threat to assassinate Carol. Eight days after Carol's departure,

1141-611: A BPD confrontation with the authorities. The Bloc existed largely because Maniu believed he could obtain Soviet lenience toward Romania following an armistice, and "only stood to enhance [the communists'] position". The plot involved statistician Sabin Manuilă , who acted as a PNȚ representative; a disciple of Moldovan, he had been involved with Antonescu's project to persecute Jews and deport Romanies , but also protected some 5,000 Jewish specialists working under his watch. Shortly before

1304-615: A Committee of the Liberated Regions. This was presided upon by Ionel Pop. Commissariat rule often veered into an antimagyarism that was only ever curbed by the Red Army after a "six-week killing spree". Various reports, including oral testimonies by Peasant Guard members and volunteers who answered calls printed in Ardealul , suggest that local Hungarians were victims of numerous lynchings, either tolerated of encouraged by

1467-499: A PCdR militant Mihail Roșianu and a communist-sympathizing priest, Ioan Marina . Carol rejected Maniu's proposals, and used the opportunity for an anti-democratic self-coup . Despite vocal protests by Maniu and the PNL's Dinu Brătianu , he inaugurated a royal dictatorship, leading to the creation of a catch-all National Renaissance Front (FRN). The PNȚ attempted to sabotage the authoritarian Constitution , instructing members to cast

1630-516: A cabinet of "national resistance", which Maniu refused to do. One such proposal came from the PCdR and the Soviet Union, and promised Romania military assistance from the Red Army ; Maniu was outraged by the proposal, arguing that the Soviet Union was " imperialistic by definition ". Carol assigned the task of forming a cabinet to General Ion Antonescu , who obtained backing from both the PNȚ and

1793-540: A coup against the Regency, which ended with Carol's return and enthronement. The PNȚ briefly divided itself into backers of the coup and those who, like Maniu, remained more cautious. From July 1930, Carlist ideologue Nae Ionescu proposed a National Peasantist "mass dictatorship", which implied dissolving all other parties. Such ideas were contained by Maniu, who spoke out in favor of maintaining and cultivating electoral democracy, and by Carol, who would have rather formed

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1956-762: A de facto united front during the county elections of 1936 and early 1937 ; also signing up where satellite parties: the Ploughmen's Front, the Hungarian People's Union , the Popovici Socialists , the Conservative Party , and Dobrescu's Committees. In Bessarabia, the PCdR made noted efforts of reconciling the PNȚ and PȚR. Wherever the PNC appeared stronger, pacts also involved local PNL chapters. Similar pacts were signed in mid 1936 with

2119-524: A discrepancy in repression statistics: while the elites were allowed to carry out a "paper war" with the regime, regular PNȚ militants risked imprisonment for expressing anti-fascist beliefs. From 1942, the camp in Târgu Jiu accommodated various PNȚ-ists, including Nicolae Carandino , who had published an article critical of Antonescu, and Anton Alexandrescu , who, as leader of the TNȚ, had been approached by

2282-596: A hiking trail Palestinian National Theatre para -Nitrotoluene or mononitrotoluene Pontic Greek 's ISO 639-3 code Positioning, navigation and timing Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title PNT . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PNT&oldid=1168870730 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

2445-503: A historic impasse, whereby the PNL failed to clearly win elections organized under its watch. It dropped to 152 parliamentary seats, with the PNȚ holding on to 86 (and 20% of the vote); this was just 20 seats ahead of the Guard, which had emerged as Romania's third party. Carol opted to use his royal prerogative and bypassed all groups opposing his policies, handing power to a PNC minority cabinet, under Goga. Goga's arrival signaled Romania's rapprochement toward Germany, which had emerged as

2608-520: A key regional player following the Munich Agreement . Concerns about German re-armament also pushed Maniu into "demand[ing] an alignment with Berlin". However, he punished attempts by other PNȚ figures to collaborate with Goga, and expelled Călinescu, who had accepted a ministerial position. This move lost the PNȚ its party organization in Argeș County , which obeyed Călinescu. Maniu had

2771-530: A large number of Iron Guard activists, including Codreanu himself, was prosecuted and jailed on orders from Călinescu, the Minister of Internal Affairs . As Carol witnessed the failure of European countries to defend themselves from Nazi German advances, consecrated by the Anschluss and the Munich Agreement , he met with Adolf Hitler at Berghof (November 24, 1938), and became convinced that Romania faced

2934-776: A minority cabinet. The National Peasantists were defeated by their PNL rivals in the election of June 1931 , taking just 15% of the vote. Again called to power, with Vaida at the helm, they had a comeback with the early election of 1932 , taking 40%. Carol persuaded Maniu to become Prime Minister in October. He resigned again in January 1933, after a row with Carol, who wanted Mihalache stripped of his post at Internal Affairs . Vaida returned as PNȚ Prime Minister, holding on to that position until November 13. Maniu had stepped down as PNȚ leader in June 1931, leaving Mihalache in charge to July of

3097-810: A multi-party coalition. Ionescu's dictatorial optimism was published just as the Carol was antagonizing the PNȚ mainstream. Soon after his victory, the new King informed Maniu that he did not intend to honor his promises, causing a rift between monarch and government; Maniu resigned, was persuaded to return within days, and then resigned for good in October, handing the premiership to party colleague Gheorghe Mironescu . Historian Barbara Jelavich sees Maniu's resignation as "ill-considered", effectively leaving Romania's electorate without an administration that "best represented [its] option". Carol ultimately asked Mironescu to resign in April 1931, and replaced him with Iorga, who led

3260-569: A nation-wide clampdown against the Iron Guard, including Codreanu's physical liquidation. This resulted in a series of retaliatory attacks, peaking in September 1939, when a Guardist death squad managed to assassinate Călinescu. During November, Carol made one final attempt to establish a "national alliance" around the FRN, inviting Maniu to join in; the offer was dismissed. Mihalache held a seat in

3423-562: A negative vote in the February 24 plebiscite . The attempt was unsuccessful, and the party continued to lose ground over the following months. On March 30, it was outlawed together with all other traditional parties. The new government integrated much of the PNȚ's center, with Călinescu at Interior Affairs; Andrei, Ghelmegeanu, and Ralea, alongside Grigore Gafencu and Traian Ionașcu , became prominent FRN dignitaries, as did Moldovan. Gusti and Rădulescu-Motru were also co-opted into joining

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3586-438: A new cabinet. Party unity was enforced by the decision of centrist Transylvanians such as Corneliu Coposu to side with democratic traditions and reject Vaida's penchant for far-right authoritarianism. In 1935, Coposu became leader of the national youth wing, called Tineretul Național Țărănesc (TNȚ), proceeding to purge Vaidists from the various party organizations. Maniu's nephew and potential successor, Ionel Pop , also took

3749-612: A new majority coalition with the Iron Guard and the PNȚ (though demanding that Maniu be kept out of any such formula). Goga was deposed on February 10, 1938, when all political groups prepared for repeat elections. The Peasant Guards had been revived in January, taking the name of "Maniu Guards", and were divided into two main commands: Lazăr took over in Transylvania, and General Rujinschi in the Old Kingdom. The project also involved Victor Jinga , tasked by Maniu with supervising

3912-414: A peace protest signed by 69 academics, which was "overtly pro-Soviet in sentiment". At least in part, this was a grassroots PNȚ initiative. In June 1944, the PNȚ and PNL agreed to form a Bloc of Democratic Parties (BPD) alongside the PCdR and Social Democrats, preparing for the " King Michael Coup " of August 23. By then, Coposu and Cezar Spineanu were stockpiling firearms in PNȚ buildings, preparing for

4075-593: A position in Sănătescu's cabinet. Maniu was additionally assisted by a Permanent Delegation, whose members included Halippa, Hudiță, Lazăr, Teofil Sauciuc-Săveanu , Gheorghe Zane , as well as, with the introduction of women's suffrage, Ella Negruzzi . Overall, the party was seeing a rejuvenation of its leadership, with Coposu and Virgil Veniamin taking over as junior party secretaries. Noted militants included young academics—among them Radu and Șerban Cioculescu, as well as Vladimir Streinu . The party lost its control over

4238-495: A preliminary agreement that June. During this process, the PȚ shed much of its radical platform. However, left-wing Peasantists supported their ideologue Stere, who had a controversial past, for a leadership position in the unified body. This proposal was strongly opposed by figures on the PNR's right-wing such as Vaida and Voicu Nițescu . The unification was only made possible once Mihalache "sacrificed" Stere. The two-party collaboration

4401-470: A result of Maniu's refusal to follow Antonescu's ideological command; the Nazis had repeatedly called for a multiparty alliance. The PNȚ continued to exist semi-clandestinely, obtaining repeated assurances from Antonescu that the various territorial chapters would not be harassed by the Iron Guard, and complaining whenever he failed to keep them. According to Siguranța reports, it was always more active than

4564-432: A return as the opposition leader, speaking out against Carol and Goga, and promising a "national revolt" against their regime—while making note of his intention to form an "opposition bloc" alongside the Iron Guard. During the early days of 1938, the PNȚ was negotiating with the PNL to also join this alliance. The project was vetoed by Tătărescu, whose "Young Liberals" supported Carol's policies, and by Mihalache, who resented

4727-664: A revenge against the regime's officials, including Carol. The FRN itself was created as the first monopoly party in Romania's history, through the Royal Decree of December 15, 1938. The legislation proclaimed that, ex officio , all members of the Royal Council were its members, while all citizens over the age of 20 could apply to join; by law, people who engaged in any other political activity faced being stripped of their civil rights for as long as 5 years. Writing at

4890-512: A similar fate. He subsequently ordered the Iron Guard, whom he perceived as a fifth column for the Germans, to be decapitated: during the following days, Codreanu and the majority of top-ranking Guardists were assassinated, while secondary ones, led by Horia Sima , fled the country and took refuge in Germany, where they remained after the outbreak of World War II . There, they began plotting

5053-564: A stand against antisemitism, expressing horror at any attempt to align Romania with Nazi Germany . Anti-Nazism was likewise voiced by Facla , causing its editorial offices to be stormed by the National-Christian Defense League (LANC). The Vaidist dissidence resulted in scuffles throughout Transylvania. In one such incident, PNȚ-ist Ilie Lazăr was reportedly shot in the arm. Only some 10% or 15% of PNȚ cadres were attracted by Vaida's group. Overall, however,

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5216-560: A web of tactical alliances, it reconfirmed its pact with the BMȚ, while still shunning the PP. The PNȚ's first general congress was held on May 6, 1928 at Alba Iulia . It marked an early peak of PNȚ revolutionary activity, gathering between 100,000 and 200,000 supporters. Observers expected that the columns would then "march on Bucharest ", by analogy with the March on Rome . This never happened, but

5379-549: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages National Peasants%27 Party With its attacks on the PNL establishment, the PNȚ came to endorse an authoritarian monarchy, mounting no resistance to a conspiracy which brought Carol II on the Romanian throne in 1930. Over the following five years, Carol manoeuvred against the PNȚ, which opposed his attempts to subvert liberal democracy . PNȚ governments were in power for most of

5542-589: The Reichswerke joined Nicolae Malaxa in taking over the businesses of Max Auschnitt , who had been arrested in September. The property of other Jewish businessmen, in the oil industry ( Astra Română ), as well as in the sugar industry and in logging , was taken over by the state over the following months. Eventually, as Germany completed its invasion of Poland and continued to voice support for Hungary in relation to Romanian-ruled Transylvania , Romania conceded to German economic demands (on March 7, 1940,

5705-537: The Assembly of Deputies . As the PȚ agreed to a full merger, the PNR lost support from Nicolae Iorga 's semi-independent faction, who went on to reestablish itself as a Democratic Nationalist Party . The fusion was enshrined at a PNR–PȚ congress on October 10, 1926. Also then, Maniu was voted in as chairman; Mihalache, Lupu, Vaida-Voevod and Paul Brătășanu were vice presidents, while Madgearu became general secretary and Mihai Popovici cashier. From October 17, 1927,

5868-573: The Crown Council in early 1940, possibly because doing so toned down pressures on his friend Madgearu, whom Carol had placed under arrest. A political crisis began in Romania during June 1940, when the FRN government gave in to a Soviet ultimatum and withdrew its administration from Bessarabia . Maniu referred to this as a Soviet invasion, and believed that the Army should have resisted. In August 1940, after reassurances from both Nazi Germany and

6031-522: The Gheorghe Tătărescu executive agreed to direct almost all cereal and oil exports towards Berlin ). Romania did however offer assistance to Polish troops fleeing their country immediately after the start of Nazi occupation ( see Polish–Romanian alliance ). The country's position became even more precarious after the fall of France in May—as a direct consequence, Romania renounced its alliance with

6194-594: The Iron Guard . The latter's "Captain", Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , took up elements from the PNȚ program and planned ahead for its downfall. In 1932, PNȚ enjoys approached the newly formed National Socialist Party with an offer to share electoral lists; the offer was rejected. National Peasantism also met competition from a hard-right version of itself: the National Agrarian Party , formed by Octavian Goga (a poet and activist, once affiliated with

6357-472: The Magyar Party , although the latter withdrew, fearful of association with the communists. Many PNȚ sections also resisted alliances with far-leftist groups, but, even in such cases, the PCdR urged its followers to vote National Peasantist. Mihalache's solution was to impose and vet a single platform for the alliance, which prevented the PCdR from using it as a means to popularize socialism. At around

6520-585: The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , which effected an agreement between Romania's most powerful adversaries, and the regime began preparing for war: it organized military training for the population beginning in late August, and invested large sums into arms production (it was announced that the Romanian Naval Forces were fitted with one vessel each month). These measures signified that salaries of state employees fell by as much as 40%, to which

6683-468: The Parliament of Romania was dissolved. Portfolio as of 16 December 1938 Individuals who did not join was: Iuliu Maniu (former Prime Minister 1928-1930, 1930, 1932-1933, PNȚ), Virgil Madgearu , Mihai Popovici , Grigore Iunian , Nicolae L. Lupu , Dinu Brătianu and Gheorghe I. Brătianu The conflict between Carol II and the Iron Guard became noted during the election of December 1937 , when

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6846-616: The Police cellars, your head will be crushed or put up against the wall. It is as if we were living under the terror of the GPU in Lubyanka . […] Constitutional guarantees have disappeared. We know a man can be arrested, killed. Individual security is a trifle. We have no representatives in Parliament to decide our taxes and tell our grievances." Iorga also made an angry remark in respect to

7009-537: The Republic of Poland for Romania to review the centralist policies set by Ion Nistor in 1919. Notably, the FRN also incorporated much of the leftist tendency inside the PNȚ (Călinescu, Mihail Ghelmegeanu , Petre Andrei , Mihai Ralea , Cezar Petrescu ), drawing on a Poporanist legacy, while enlisting support from well-known socialists such as Gala Galaction , Ioan Flueraș , and George Grigorovici . The corporatist structure, which, in theory, covered

7172-423: The Romanian Army , including Nicolae Alevra and Ioan Mihail Racoviță . The PNȚ's left earned endorsements from poet Ion Vinea and his Facla newspaper, as well as from lawyer Haralambie Marchetti , known as a protector of the communists. The PNȚ's more leftist youth published the magazine Stânga , which attracted collaborations from Petru Comarnescu and Traian Herseni . A highly visible left-wing cell

7335-769: The Romanian Old Kingdom , the Peasants' Party was founded in December 1918 by schoolteacher Ion Mihalache , with assistance from academics such as Virgil Madgearu and Dimitrie Gusti . The group soon established itself in Bessarabia , also recently united with Romania . This was due to it absorbing much of the Bessarabian Peasants' Party , under Pan Halippa and Constantin Stere . In 1921,

7498-545: The Romanian Police (in theory, as reprisal for the killing of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu ). At the same time, three former Police commissioners, held under arrest in Bucharest precincts, were also assassinated. On the evening of November 27, Iron Guard members stormed into the houses of Nicolae Iorga and the PNȚ's Virgil Madgearu —the two were kidnapped and shot; earlier in the day, Army officials intervened to save

7661-690: The Second Vienna Award , which assigned Northern Transylvania to Hungary (which also brought the German military presence within hours of the oil fields in Prahova County ). Through the cession of Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria (the Treaty of Craiova ) in early September, Greater Romania had come to an end, ending up in the shape it had at the end of World War I . As Hungarian troops entered Northern Transylvania, Bucharest became

7824-577: The United Kingdom threatened Romania with sanctions, and the Soviet Union withdrew its embassy from Bucharest . After an initial violent confrontation with the Iron Guard, Goga, assisted by the Polish envoy Mirosław Arciszewski , signed a pact with its leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (February 8, 1938), a move which threatened to topple Carol's original designs. Two days later, the PNC

7987-424: The arms industry ( Nicolae Malaxa , an industrialist and personal friend of Carol, collected profits of 300–1,000% during the FRN period). In January–February 1939, a conflict erupted between Carol and Nicolae Iorga , following the latter's refusal to wear the FRN uniform during public ceremony, and worsened by his protest against Constantin Rădulescu-Motru 's proposal to have all Romanian Academy members join

8150-680: The "Citizen Committees". Overall, however, the party became more sympathetic to left-wing causes. At his arrest in 1936, communist liaison Petre Constantinescu-Iași nominated the PNȚ and PȚR as anti-fascist parties; in 1935, he had tried but failed to forge a PCdR alliance with both groups, as well as with the Social Democrats and the Jewish Party . Communist support and endorsement by the Ploughmen's Front were relevant in ensuring victories for PNȚ candidates Lupu and Ghiță Pop in

8313-474: The "non-aggression pact". The scandal divided Romania's left-wing press: newspapers such as Adevărul remained committed to Maniu, though communist sympathizers such as Zaharia Stancu and Geo Bogza went back on their support for a PNȚ-led popular front, and switched to endorsing the PȚR. By contrast, Dobrescu and his Committees deserted Iunian on December 1, and were folded back into the PNȚ. The election marked

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8476-472: The 10 new ținuturi and Bucharest ). The Senate , whose eligible members could only be voted into office by high-ranking members of corporations or guilds ( bresle ), comprised a number of members for life (in addition to those already holding the office by the time the law was adopted, these were religious leaders and various members of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen —a seat was reserved for Mihai ,

8639-582: The 1920s and early 1930s, and had survived inside the country by infiltrating the left wings of other groupings. After 1939, the PCdR received an order from the Comintern to attempt infiltrating the FRN at a local level and attract its members to the far left . The main left-wing group, of the Social Democrats , continued to function in the same terms as other traditional parties, and organized several cultural and social events, all tolerated by

8802-460: The Allies. During March 1944, Voice of America implied that, if PNȚ leaders still refused to take up armed opposition to the regime, they could expect to be bypassed or deposed. In April, Maniu was finally ready to accept Soviet promises that Romania would be allowed to fight the Germans as an equal partner, and that its territory would not be occupied militarily. The same month, Antonescu was sent

8965-421: The Army at various locations in Bucharest. Following the events, Antonescu had renewed hopes that he could co-opt the PNȚ and then PNL on his cabinet. Both parties refused the offer. During February, Maniu openly criticized Antonescu for abandoning Northern Transylvania and for previously condoning Guardist abuse. He also argued that a legalized PNȚ would have been a more efficient and legitimate actor in purging

9128-526: The Assembly by-elections of Mehedinți and Hunedoara (February 1936). While the PNȚ elite took measures to downplay its far-left connection, left-wingers such as Dobrescu openly celebrated it as a winning combination. As summarized by historian Armin Heinen, PNȚ leftists also refrained from calling it a " popular front ", and only viewed socialist groups as subordinate. The PNȚ, PSDR, PCdR and PȚR created

9291-475: The Commissariat. By then, the PCdR had sparked a government crisis over Maniu's rejection of its communization programs; in the aftermath, communists spuriously claimed that Maniu had personally masterminded the killing of Transylvanian Hungarians. Upon taking over at Internal Affairs, PNȚ-ist Nicolae Penescu found himself accused of stalling democratization, and was pushed into resigning. After Maniu

9454-537: The FR, it earned Carol's blessing to establish a "nationalist parliamentary bloc", specifically designed to keep the PNȚ out of power. The danger was sensed by Mihalache, who presided over massive anti-fascist rally in November 1935, amassing a reported 500,000 participants nation-wide. Following an audience with Carol, he claimed that the PNȚ would be called to power. In December 1935, the PNȚ reinforced discipline against left-wing dissent, expelling from its ranks Dem. I. Dobrescu , who went on to create his own movement,

9617-504: The FRN took inspiration from three main sources. It fused messages borrowed from and used against the Iron Guard with those of the traditional Right , while also stressing several left-wing tenets. Among the far right tendencies it absorbed was the small-scale fascist-inspired feminist and racist movement formed by Alexandrina Cantacuzino ( Gruparea Națională a Femeilor Române , the National Grouping of Romanian Women). Although Cantacuzino's ideology remained relatively influential for

9780-413: The FRN was the last of several attempts to counter the popularity of the fascist and antisemitic Iron Guard . In mid-1940, Carol reorganized the FRN into the more radical Party of the Nation ( Partidul Națiunii or Partidul Națiunei , PN), designed as a "totalitarian unity party". The party's anthem was " Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire ". It effectively ceased to function the following year when

9943-463: The FRN's focus on modernization (which it imposed from top to bottom), special mobile teams visited villages and provided hot showers for peasants. While, arguably, most Romanian citizens accepted the new political context, the FRN had relatively few convinced cadres —its upper ranks were occupied by traditional politicians who were popularly associated with corruption and Carol's, and much of its membership comprised civil servants whose affiliation

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10106-404: The Front continued to find sympathy inside his own party, and some of its figures (including Mihalache, Virgil Madgearu , and Mihai Popovici ) allegedly considered affiliating with it. In this context, social opposition and the labor movement were insignificant. Having always been a minor grouping, the Communist Party of Romania (PCdR) had been driven in the underground by repression during

10269-425: The Front. When Iorga used the Academy hall to publicize his opinion, the king sent Colonel Ernest Urdăreanu to end the proceedings. Censored, Iorga appealed to other means of making his opinions known, and, during a seminar he held in his home, voiced harsh criticism of the FRN: "See the outings of the tyrant [Carol] among silent crowds with eyes sparkling [out of anger] and yet the next day journals announce that

10432-477: The Guard. Călinescu and Ghelmegeanu's group was alienated, openly describing the pact as morally unsound, and preferring full cooperation with Carol; Mihalache also dissented, but on democratic grounds. The events caught the PCdR underground by surprise: in November, its leader Ștefan Foriș had urged his colleagues to vote PNȚ, even in preference to the PSDR. A "workers' delegation", made up of PSDR and PCdR activists, visited Maniu and insisted that he should revise

10595-439: The Guard. In April, he attempted to organize a rally against the invasion of Yugoslavia , but called it off when Antonescu warned him that demonstrators would be fired upon. Later that year, Maniu and Coposu engaged in encrypted correspondence with the Western Allies, preparing for an anti-Nazi takeover in Romania; they aligned themselves closely with Britain, seeking to obtain direct advice from Winston Churchill . The PNȚ and

10758-437: The Guards' creation, and resorted to kidnapping and threatening Madgearu in order to have them called off. At Iași , Bratu narrowly survived a stabbing, for which he blamed the Iron Guard. The mid 1930s also consolidated a PNȚ "centrist" wing, represented by Armand Călinescu , and supported by Ghelmegeanu. This faction favored a full clampdown on the Iron Guard, but hoped to achieve its defeat in close alliance with Carol. At

10921-425: The Guards' expansion into the provinces. Beza had left the project and, in January 1938, was attempting to form his own "Workers and Peasants' Party". At the height of the electoral campaign, the PNȚ and the PNL sought to obtain a new understanding with Carol, fearing that the PNC and the Iron Guard would form a powerful fascist alliance, and then a totalitarian state. Under pressure from the PNȚ base, Maniu revoked

11084-556: The Iron Guard joined Conducător Antonescu in government, thereby establishing the National Legionary State (in existence until the Legionnaires' Rebellion of January 1941). Right after dealing with opposition inside his own camp (by marginalizing the radical faction of Ion Zelea Codreanu ), Sima issued calls for a violent reprisal against the former top FRN and PN politicians. On the night of November 26–27, 1940, sixty-four political prisoners were massacred in Jilava by Corpul Muncitoresc Legionar and Iron Guard affiliates in

11247-419: The Iron Guard on behalf of Maniu. In 1944, government agents caught Augustin Vișa and Rică Georgescu, who had handled radio communications between Maniu and the Allies. Both were imprisoned, with Vișa being put on trial for high treason. The Conducător dismissed Nazi suggestions that he should have Maniu killed, noting that doing so would only push Romania's peasantry into anti-fascist rebellion. By 1944, he

11410-440: The Iron Guard, whose affiliates joined into the effort to terrorize Hungarians into leaving the area. Any such recruitment drive was curbed by the PCdR, which obtained assurances from leading Guardists that they would prevent their followers from entering the PNȚ. The PNȚ's vice presidents in the coup's aftermath were Mihalache, Lupu, and Mihai Popovici . Ghiță Pop was a fourth member of this team, but has to resign upon taking up

11573-465: The Maniu–Codreanu rapprochement. Though Mihalache rallied with the party line in calling out the PNC ministers as "scoundrels", he secretly collaborated with Călinescu against Maniu. The latter viewed himself and his fellow defectors as a "pro-government" splinter of the PNȚ, and counted on Mihalache's contextual support. An international backlash against Goga's staunch antisemitism had also made Carol reconsider his choices. Initially, he favored creating

11736-538: The Nation", as well as "publicly removing, destroying, deteriorating, out of contempt or derision, the Party of the Nation's badges, emblems, uniforms, manifestos or publications". However, the FRN had been taking on a more fascist character for a time before then; as early as 1939, ministers greeted Carol with a fascist-style salute. Carol also decided to appeal to Iron Guard assistance, allowed its freed activists to join

11899-487: The National Liberals. The PNL's return to power came with the adoption of a new constitution , and with the enactment of land reform, which massively expanded Romania's smallholding class. The latter had an unintended consequence in that it created an electoral pool for the opposition parties; it also gave Peasantists hopes that Romania's economy could still be built around peasant consumers. At this stage, both

12062-638: The National Peasantist failure to address the economic needs of its own constituents resulted in a steady decrease of its voting share—many peasants switched to supporting the Iron Guard or any of the other far-right parties. The explicitly fascist National Christian Party (PNC), founded as a merger of the LANC and Goga's National Agrarians, was especially adept at canvassing the peasant vote in Bessarabia, veering it toward antisemitism. Alongside

12225-516: The PCdR also revived the Ploughmen's Front . This move was specifically intended to destabilize the PNȚ by recruiting smallholders. In November 1944, it absorbed the Socialist Peasants' Party , a small group established by Ralea and Ghelmegeanu. In order to counteract such moves, Maniu also established a PNȚ Workers' Organization, with Lazăr as its overseer. This body was successful in countering FND propaganda. As part of this conflict,

12388-523: The PCdR. Detainees also included a selection of militants from all party factions: Lazăr, Zaharia Boilă , Radu Cioculescu , Victor Eftimiu , Augustin Popa , and Emanoil Socor . Released before May 1943, these men became vocal supporters of an understanding between Romania and the Soviets. Boilă, Coposu, Ghiță Pop and Virgil Solomon were also rounded up and threatened for having maintained contacts with

12551-549: The PN if they chose to do so, and, on June 25, 1940, he signed an agreement with Sima. Consequently, Sima became Minister of Culture in the Gigurtu cabinet, and two other Guardists were appointed to similar positions (Sima himself was to resign after just four days). The notorious Antisemite Nichifor Crainic , who was sympathetic to the Guard, was also assigned a cabinet post, as Minister of Propaganda. The new authorities produced

12714-400: The PN's creation depicted it as a "single and totalitarian party under the supreme leadership of His Majesty, King Carol II." The party restated its goal as "lead[ing] the moral and material life of the Romanian nation and state." A law passed during the same interval criminalized "activities against the interests of the Party of the Nation", " propaganda against the interests of the Party of

12877-519: The PNL and the communists, it executed the Coup of August 1944 , emerging as the most powerful party of the subsequent democratic interlude (1944–1946). In this final period, National Peasantists were repressed as instigators of anti-communist resistance . The PNȚ was registered as having lost the fraudulent elections in 1946 , and was banned following the " Tămădău Affair " of 1947. The communist regime imprisoned its members in large numbers, though some on

13040-552: The PNL welcomed Romania's participation in the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union , since it returned Bessarabian lands to Romania. However, both parties protested when Antonescu gave the order to advance beyond interwar borders and annex Transnistria . This period also signaled Romania's participation in the Holocaust , heralded by the Iași pogrom . These crimes were also vocally condemned by

13203-407: The PNL's Dinu Brătianu , the PNȚ's Ion Mihalache , and the dissident left-winger Nicolae N. Lupu , attempting to persuade each to merge their groupings with the FRN. Reacting to the collaboration between PNL and PNŢ, he offered the former a chance to form a new cabinet, but the offer was refused following its rejection by Gheorghe I. Brătianu . According to the leading PNȚ member Ioan Hudiță ,

13366-516: The PNL. Its quarters were informally acknowledged as being Ciulei House, an apartment complex located at Sfinților Street 10, Bucharest. From late 1940, Maniu channeled anti-Nazi discontent by forming an association called Pro Transilvania and a newspaper, Ardealul , both of which reminded Romanians that Antonescu was not interested in a reversal of the Vienna Award. The Guardist takeover also pushed some National Peasantists into exile: facing

13529-599: The PNL. Both groups insisted that Antonescu could take over only after Carol agreed to abdicate. This put an end to Carol's rule, bringing the country under an Iron Guard regime—the National Legionary State , with Antonescu as Conducător ; though still neutral to 1941, Romania was now openly aligned with the Axis Powers . Widely seen as a German arrangement, the Legionary State was in fact

13692-399: The PNR leadership expelled if they did not comply to his agenda. Under his watch, the PNȚ adopted a new statute in 1934, and a new program at the second party congress in April 1935. These pledged the party to a careful selections of cadres from the ranks of peasantry and youth, fully committing them to the project of establishing a "peasant state". The architects were figures on the left of

13855-547: The PNR). From 1931, PNȚ ministers issued regulations banning the Guard, but these proved unsuccessful. This interval witnessed the first clashes between the PNȚ and the Guardists, including one at Vulturu . A first effort at organizing a self-defense force for PNȚ politicians resulted in the 1928 "civic guards". In 1929, the party had begun organizing another set of squads, called Voinici ("Braves"). Originally integrated with

14018-426: The PNȚ and PNL to preserve parts of their infrastructures, including some local offices. In early 1939, the regime proposed allowing the PNȚ a share of parliamentary mandates, to which Mihalache responded: "Mr Carol would do best to leave us alone." During the sham election of June 1939 , the FRN administration took care to prevent interference by "intermediary groups" such as the PNȚ, PNL, PNC and Iron Guard. In May,

14181-519: The PNȚ and the PNL in letters to Antonescu. Maniu still refused to believe that Antonescu had a genocidal agenda and, when interviewed by American diplomats, played down the pogrom's importance. By 1942, having been informed that Britain and the US intended to assess and punish all antisemitic crimes, he told Romanian ministers that the deportation of Bessarabian Jews risked destroying Romania; Mihalache also added his input, describing deportations as "alien to

14344-401: The PNȚ moved office to Clemenceau Street 6, which would remain its headquarters until dissolution. Maniu was initially offered the premiership, but opted out, arguing that the position should go to a military man for the war's duration. Historian Vlad Georgescu singles this out as Maniu's "real mistake": "[It] deprived the country of the only leadership that could have been strong and popular,

14507-732: The PNȚ's representatives. The promotion of such comparatively minor figures was criticized by the party's youth, leaving Maniu to acknowledge the brain drain which had affected National Peasantism ever since Călinescu and Ralea's defections. As described by scholar Lucian Boia , from 1945 the PNȚ emerged from the coup "believing itself the country's great party", which made it adopt a policy of "political and moral intransigence". By 1947, it had 2.12 million card-carrying members; as noted by Georgescu, it ranked ahead of all other parties, albeit "neither numbers nor popularity could bring it to power." Maniu preserved regional influence in reconquered Northern Transylvania, organized from September 1944 under

14670-434: The PNȚ, PNL and PCdR engaged in talks to form an "opposition parliament" and "united front"; authorities subsequently reported that protest votes had been cast for PNȚ leaders, whereas candidacies of PNȚ defectors such as Alexandru Mîță had been publicly booed. Maniu, Mihalache, Lupu and Iunian still qualified as lifetime Senators , but refused to wear the FRN uniform, and were expelled. By then, Călinescu had masterminded

14833-511: The PNȚ, and in particular its left, favored a Romanian popular front . From 1935, most of the centrist wing embraced anti-fascism , outvoting the PNȚ's far-right, which split of as a Romanian Front , under Alexandru Vaida-Voevod ; in that interval, the PNȚ set up pro-democratic paramilitary units, or Peasant Guards . However, the party signed a temporary cooperation agreement with the fascist Iron Guard ahead of national elections in 1937 , sparking much controversy among its own voters. The PNȚ

14996-585: The PNȚ, in particular Mihalache and Lupu; Ghiță Pop took Madgearu's position at the party secretariat. In the aftermath, Maniu pleaded with the Conducător that he should reinstate order and individual security. After a brief civil war in January 1941 , the Guard was removed from power and again repressed. German reports identified PNȚ-ist generals as most active in destroying the National Legionary regime; armed PNȚ civilians, including Lupu, assisted

15159-491: The Peasant Guards (now also known as the "Maniu Guards"); they continued to be active throughout most of 1934, until the party leadership asked them to dissolve. From March 1933, Lupu began attacking his former colleagues by bringing up alleged government corruption, in what became known as the " Škoda Affair ". Maniu dismissed this as Carol's attempt to weaken the PNȚ, though the king's maneuvering permanently damaged

15322-450: The Ploughmen's Front, as Prime Minister. The PNȚ remained in the opposition, viewing the takeover as a coup. Although it sent representatives when Groza celebrated the full recovery and pacification of Northern Transylvania, these were purposefully selected from among the party youth. Groza engineered a takeover of all local administration, only failing to do so in six counties. These were progressively made to submit by selective arrests among

15485-532: The Printers' Syndicate, which was under communist control, imposed censorship on the opposition press: in February 1945, the PNȚ could only print nine newspapers, whereas the PCdR had thirty-one. Rădescu was toppled following a massacre of communist-and-allied protesters, later revealed as a false flag operation carried out by PCdR militias. In early March 1945, the FND took over in government, with Petru Groza , of

15648-512: The PȚ and the PNR were opposed to the Constitution, seeing it as imposed on the Romanian public by the PNL, and arguing that it left the country open to future abuse of power. The two opposition groups embarked on a long series of negotiations, eventually producing a set of principles for merger. They began in May 1924, as informal talks between Stere and the PNR's Vasile Goldiș , resulting in

15811-514: The PȚ had been joined by Nicolae L. Lupu , formerly of the Labor Party . In 1919–1920, the PNR was able to outmaneuver the PNL, and, backed by the PȚ, formed Romania's national government, headed by Vaida-Voevod. Mihalache was personally involved in drafting the land reform project , taking a revolutionary stand which greatly increased the proportion of smallholders . Vaida's cabinet was brought down by King Ferdinand I , who openly favored

15974-881: The Royal Commissioner Victor Iamandi , as well as to a Transylvanian faction formed around Alexandru Vaida-Voevod (successor to the Romanian Front ), and the latter grouping to the one around A. C. Cuza , emerged from the National Christian Party . Argetoianu stressed that this process was similar to "the era of elections". Despite such contradictions, the regime did exert an attraction on lower middle class people who had been underrepresented in previous decades. In contrast with official ideology, Carol allowed other opposition parties to exist in all but on paper, kept contacts with them, and, in early 1940, had meetings with

16137-463: The Soviet Union, Regency Hungary asked Romania to negotiate territorial cessions in Transylvania. Maniu issued a public protest, demanding no reduction of territorial integrity. The same month, Carol's regime yielded to Nazi pressures and Romania signed the Second Vienna Award , which divided the region roughly in half, with Northern Transylvania assigned to Hungary. This sparked major unrest, with "huge protest rallies" asking for Maniu to establish

16300-612: The TNȚ, with Alexandrescu favoring a PCdR alliance. Consequently, Maniu ordered Coposu to establish a loyalist youth group, called Organizația M . On February 3, 1945, the youth wing broke away from the PNȚ as the Alexandrescu Peasantists . It rallied with a communist-run National Democratic Front (FND), established in October 1944, being identified in PNȚ propaganda as "lackeys of the Communist Party". While Alexandrescu's group remained exceedingly small,

16463-575: The United Kingdom and began attempts to join the Axis . The change in policy also resulted in the reorganisation of the FRN as the Party of the Nation (June 21–2), under the leadership of Ion Gigurtu . The PN's character was significantly more fascist and totalitarian than the FRN had been, to the point where it has been described as a newly founded grouping. Indeed, the decree announcing

16626-549: The adoption of laws which set the working day at a maximum 10 hours and limited child labor ; the effort to unify social insurance was completed in 1933. Endorsed by the Social Democratic Party (PSDR), this government team was put to the test during the December 1928 elections , which are often recognized as free from abuse and government interference, and which it still won in a landslide—with almost 78% of

16789-429: The center of all that was happening in Romanian society". Boia concluded that, despite his innovative stance, Carol encouraged similar praise of his predecessor, Carol I of Romania , to whom he was frequently associated in iconography and cultural reference (notably manifested in the 1939 inauguration of a massive equestrian statue of the first Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen king, crafted by Ivan Meštrović and erected near

16952-423: The cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina . As a result, Romania withdrew its administration from the region, leaving room for Soviet annexation . On July 3, after the retreat had been completed, Carol remarked: "News from Bessarabia is even sadder. Unfortunately I was right about the so-called [National Renaissance Front], as some of its leaders there seem to have converted to Bolshevism and were among

17115-580: The clampdown. During May 1945, while organizing Antonescu's trial by a Romanian People's Tribunal (with which it hoped to discredit Maniu as a Nazi collaborator), the government also ordered massive arrests among its cadres. A large number of PNȚ regional activists, as well as PNȚ youth who had participated in the November rally, were detained at camps in Caracal and Slobozia , but ultimately released in December 1945. While Maniu dissociated himself from

17278-444: The country's borders"). In parallel, several assassination attempts, ordered by Horia Sima from Germany, were foiled by Siguranța Statului before a death squad was able to murder Armand Călinescu , who had previously replaced Cristea as Premier, on September 21, 1939. At the same time, Romania began offering Germany a series of deals, hoping to dissuade its hostility: the latter received advantageous clearing agreements, while

17441-590: The coup, Maniu clashed with PCdR envoy Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , who had wanted the BPD to be joined by Ralea and other FRN eminences. Though largely unaware about any conspiracy, the PNȚ's lower echelons organized a pro-Allied rally at Bellu cemetery on August 20. Meeting with its leaders, Maniu expressed the hope that Antonescu himself would take Romania out of the Axis. Dreptatea , which had been banned in 1938, reentered print on August 27, 1944. Openly active from September,

17604-739: The entire Romanian society, was centered on newly founded guilds, overseen by Flueraș and forming the basis for representation in Parliament . A minimum wage was imposed on private enterprises, while a body regulating leisure , Muncă și Voe Bună , was created on the model set by the Nazi Strength Through Joy and the Italian fascist Opera nazionale dopolavoro . The organization grouping youth, Straja Țării , had been functioning since 1934–35; in addition, university students were enrolled in work teams and required to assist in harvests and other countryside projects. As part of

17767-451: The exodus during late 1938. More junior PNȚ-ists such as Adrian Brudariu abandoned the National Peasantist cause, allegedly joining the FRN for material benefits. Maniu and Popovici could still count on their core Transylvanian constituency, which helped them circulate a December 1938 memorandum calling on Carol to restore civil liberties. Coposu was arrested and detained for distributing copies of that document. Călinescu tacitly allowed

17930-525: The first racial segregation laws, based on the Nuremberg Legislation and aimed at the Jewish community —these notably introduced the legal concept of români de sânge ("Romanians by blood"), as a distinct category inside the body of Romanian citizens. In the wake of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , on June 26, 1940, Romania was presented by the Soviet Union with an ultimatum demanding

18093-537: The first to welcome Soviet troops with red flags and flowers." The process described by Carol is known to have occurred in Soroca , where FRN officials (the former Prefect Petre Sfeclă, the Mayor Gheorghe Lupașcu, party branch leader Alexandru Anop, and school inspector Petre Hrițcu) hosted a ceremonial welcome for the Red Army . On August 30, 1940, Germany and Fascist Italy pressured Romania into signing

18256-496: The following year; he then returned and held on to his seat to January 1933, when he was replaced by Vaida. Maniu and his supporters were now in the minority, issuing reprimands against Vaida's alliance with Carol. Despite its unprecedented success, the party was pushed into a defensive position by the Great Depression , and failed to enact many its various policy proposals; its support by workers and left-wing militants

18419-556: The following years, the Grouping itself was dissolved in 1939. The FRN continued to make use of antisemitism , and appealed to nationalists by promising to find an answer to the " Jewish Question ". Before 1940, no Antisemitic law was passed, but, as a rule, Jews were denied FRN membership. The arbitrary measure of the Octavian Goga cabinet, through which hundreds of thousands of Jews had been stripped of their citizenship,

18582-520: The foreign elements, as long as they are sincerely integrated in the life of the State". Also according to Călinescu, the FRN rejected all notion of territorial reshaping ("There are not, and cannot be any territorial problems […]"). In one notable example, Carol chose to reestablish the seat held in Parliament by the Polish minority of Bukovina, and awarded it to Tytus Czerkawski — this followed intense campaigning from politicians and journalists in

18745-559: The formation of a right-wing section in Bucharest. Its leader, Ilariu Dobridor , openly argued for Lupu to be expelled from the party. The PNȚ completely revised its alliances, agreeing to limited cooperation with the Iron Guard and the Georgist Liberals . The three parties agreed to support "free elections" and still competed against each other; however, the pact's very existence shocked the liberal mainstream, especially after revelations that PNȚ cadres could no longer criticize

18908-715: The heir to the throne and " Grand-Voivode of Alba Iulia ", from the date of his coming of age). Carol's regime has generally been viewed as (if at all) superficially fascist, and endorsed by the United Kingdom and France as a means to present a line of defense against Nazism in the Balkans (the Western press held, overall, a sympathetic view of the FRN). The Front adopted fascist symbols and discourse. After January 1939, party members wore uniforms ( navy blue or white in color), with various ceremonial hats. The Roman salute

19071-526: The humanitarian traditions of our people." Antonescu largely tolerated such insubordination, but also curbed it at regular intervals. In August 1942, he threatened to "castigate in due course" Maniu and others who opposed "cleansing this nation totally of the [Jewish] blight." In November 1941, Maniu also publicized his complete opposition to war in the East , prompting Antonescu to order a clampdown against Anglophile resistance centers . Communist sources noted

19234-583: The lives of former Premiers Constantin Argetoianu and Gheorghe Tătărescu . Carol's regime in general and the FRN period in particular were noted for their large-scale cultural ventures. This was an integral part of Carol's designs to impose himself on collective memory as a new founder and a modernizing monarch, with a claim that Romania was undergoing full development under his rule. Lucian Boia indicated that, in contrast with his predecessors, Carol depicted himself as "a modern, dynamic king, present in

19397-535: The monarch backed the National Liberal Party (PNL) of incumbent Premier Tătărescu, expecting it to carry the vote; in effect, the result was inconclusive, with none of the parties receiving enough of a percentage to be awarded a majority bonus , and with political rivalries preventing any single coalition. Faced with this outcome, Carol chose to back the antisemitic National Christian Party (PNC) of Octavian Goga and A. C. Cuza , appointing Goga as

19560-710: The movement, Groza was supported by the communists' "popular assemblies", which openly called for the PNȚ and PNL to be outlawed and repressed. Churchill's electoral defeat in July was read as an additional bad omen by Maniu, who noted that Labour had no sympathy for Romanian anti-communists. He asked Rațiu not to return from England, but continue to serve as his lobbyist. National Renaissance Front The National Renaissance Front ( Romanian : Frontul Renașterii Naționale , FRN; also translated as Front of National Regeneration , Front of National Rebirth , Front of National Resurrection , or Front of National Renaissance )

19723-478: The new Constitution: "Our Constitution should be the product of the nation, relying on strict principles of the soul and the manifestations of our people. Our first Constitution was created by a certain Alecu Constantinescu , and that of last February by Istrate Micescu , an idiotic jurist who only sees that which is written in his manuals and that which the king has told him." Similar criticism

19886-539: The new Prime Minister on December 26, 1937—effectively, this led the two main traditional parties, the PNL and the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ), to become marginalized. Instead, the new regime's establishment caused a migration of politicians from the PNȚ, comprising Armand Călinescu , who chose to support the new policies and joined the Goga cabinet. A paramilitary grouping, the blue-shirted Lăncieri ,

20049-561: The only party that could have rallied the people around a truly democratic program. In refusing to take over in 1944, Maniu [...] caused a power vacuum into which the Communist Party moved." A military-civilian cabinet was formed by General Constantin Sănătescu . Since the National Peasantists and PCdR envoys could not agree on a list of ministers, these were recruited from Michael I's courtiers, with party men serving only as ministers without portfolio; Leucuția and Solomon were

20212-590: The opposition activists and by the institution of political censorship , resulting in the closure of other PNȚ newspapers. Emil Hațieganu reported that 40 party newspapers had been shut down since 1944; Dreptatea itself was banned in March, and could only briefly reemerge in January 1946. A standoff between the King and Groza was saluted by the National Peasantists, who participated in a massive monarchist rally in November 1945. Many, including Coposu, were arrested during

20375-473: The pact with the Iron Guard, leaving that group entirely isolated on the political scene. He had instead initiated talks with the PȚR. This produced a "common constitutional front" before January 18, with negotiations continuing for the PNL's adherence to it. The PNȚ again sought grassroots communist support: in Vâlcea County , it shared a list with the "Democratic Union", assigning eligible positions to

20538-637: The party central organ became Dreptatea , though the party continued to publish various other periodicals, including Patria . On November 21 of that year, the party was admitted into the International Agrarian Bureau . The National–Peasantist fusion could not lead to an immediate challenge to the PNL supremacy. The party dropped to 22% and 54 deputies after the June 1927 election . With Ferdinand terminally ill, it reluctantly backed Barbu Știrbey 's nominally independent cabinet, which

20701-499: The party—Ralea, Andrei, Mihail Ghelmegeanu , and Ernest Ene —, who worked from drafts first presented in Ralea's Viața Românească . During their ascendancy, in March 1934, Lupu and his followers were welcomed back into the PNȚ. This merger saw the party being joined by historian Ioan Hudiță , who later became one of Maniu's dedicated supporters. From May 1935, the PNȚ held massive rallies, showcasing Mihalache's ambition of forming

20864-417: The pro-Allied King Michael I —Maniu feared that doing so would leave Romania exposed to Nazi retribution. " Operation Autonomous ", a British attempt to mediate between Maniu and the Soviets, ended abruptly when Alfred Gardyne de Chastelain and Ivor Porter were captured in Romania. In the aftermath, Antonescu again protected Maniu, reassuring the Axis that the Romanian opposition had no real contact with

21027-577: The pro-communist left were allowed to go free. Both Maniu and his more leftist deputy, Ion Mihalache , died in prison. PNȚ cells were revived in the Romanian diaspora by youth leaders such as Ion Rațiu , and had representation within the Romanian National Committee . The release of political prisoners also allowed the PNȚ to claim existence inside Romania. Corneliu Coposu emerged as the underground leader of this tendency, which

21190-409: The regime and part of them copied or arrogated. At the other end of the political spectrum, Corpul Muncitoresc Legionar , the Iron Guard's answer to trade unions , had only marginal appeal and was also driven underground. The decline of the FRN came largely as a result of German successes in the early stages of World War II . In late summer 1939, the Romanian public opinion was shocked by news of

21353-441: The reputation of PNȚ-ists such as Romulus Boilă . Won over by Carol's political vision, Vaida lost the party chairmanship in March 1935, and inaugurated a new schism, creating his very own far-right party, the Romanian Front (FR), during the following month. Maniu also lost his grip on the PNȚ, and Mihalache was voted in for his second term. His relationship with Maniu reached a low point, with Mihalache hinting that he could order

21516-415: The same time, Gheorghe Beza , a political conspirator with known links to the Iron Guard, began exposing Codreanu's various secrets, including his erstwhile cultivation by Vaida. From 1936, Beza was a card-carrying PNȚ man, assigned leadership over the Peasant Guards, following their reactivation by Mihalache. The Guards were supervised by a Military Section, comprising Army officials: Admiral Dan Zaharia

21679-453: The scene of massive public rallies, which called for the PN government to be replaced with one that would support the recovery of lost regions. The Iron Guard also maneuvered into action: on September 3, its cells in various cities attempted to take over the administration, but failed due to the authorities' response. Faced with such incidents, Carol chose to reform his own government, and appealed to his rival, General Ion Antonescu , to form

21842-464: The showing impressed the Regents into deposing the PNL cabinet and handing power to Maniu. Carol reportedly watched on as the events unfolded: at the time, Maniu "remain[ed] silent" as to whether he would back him for the throne. In fact, Maniu and Aurel Leucuția promised him the PNȚ's backing if he accepted a set of conditions, including un-divorcing Helen of Greece ; Carol reluctantly agreed. Maniu

22005-430: The sovereign was acclaimed… No book can be published without reaching the tyrant. The sovereign disposes of public opinion each morning, as soon as he wakes up. There is no public opinion, there is a committee of public opinion coordinating the wishes of the crowd. Raise not your voice, or else a will spy betray you, a plain clothes man will arrest you, a gendarme or a butcher will beat you up savagely, and occasionally, in

22168-404: The third general congress of April 4–5, 1937, which was to be the PNȚ's last, inner-party stability appeared to be threatened by "intrigue and ambition", although shows of unity were made in various rallies. During that interval, prosecutors brought R. Boilă to trial for his participation in the "Škoda Affair". He and all other defendants were acquitted. Coposu, who attempted to show that the case

22331-484: The time between 1928 and 1933, with the leader Iuliu Maniu as its longest-serving Prime Minister . Supported by the Romanian Social Democrats , they expanded Romania's welfare state , but failed to tackle the Great Depression , and organized clampdowns against radicalized workers at Lupeni and Grivița . This issue brought Maniu into conflict with the outlawed Romanian Communist Party , though

22494-562: The time, Călinescu defined the FRN as "mainly a spiritual movement", proclaiming the FRN's goals of "re-establishing the rights of the State, its natural parts", "promoting the general interests of the collectivity" and "[giving] life a sense of moral value". In May 1939, the electoral law suffered drastic changes: the voting age was raised to 30, voters had to be literate and employed in one of three fields (agriculture and manual labor, commerce and industry, intellectual professions), and new, fewer precincts were drawn up (11 in all, standing for

22657-674: The vote. This result was partly owed to its alliance with the PSDR, the Jewish National People's Party , the German Party , and the Ukrainian Nationalists . At this early stage, the PNȚ was fully controlled by Maniu, who ordered PNȚ members of Parliament to sign resignations that he would file and enact upon in case of insubordination. In June 1930, a trans-party group of Carlist supporters engineered

22820-537: The youth organization, they later became a nucleus for the paramilitary Peasant Guards . By that time, Maniu's guidelines had eroded left-wing support for the party. In February 1927, Lupu and Ion Buzdugan founded a rival group, the Peasants' Party–Lupu . Stere was finally expelled from the PNȚ after a heated controversy in 1930. In 1931, he established an agrarian socialist group called Democratic Peasants' Party–Stere . Another left-wing dissidence broke away with Grigore Iunian in late 1932, establishing itself as

22983-530: Was a Romanian political party created by King Carol II in 1938 as the single monopoly party of government following his decision to ban all other political parties and suspend the 1923 Constitution , and the passing of the 1938 Constitution of Romania . It was the party of Prime Ministers Armand Călinescu , Gheorghe Argeșanu , Constantin Argetoianu , Gheorghe Tătărescu , and Ion Gigurtu , whose regimes were associated with corporatism and antisemitism . Largely reflecting Carol's own political choices,

23146-450: Was a National Liberal sweep, leaving the PNȚ with less than 15% of the votes cast. Duca took on the task of dissolving the Iron Guard, and was murdered by a death squad on December 29; the premiership passed to another PNL man, Gheorghe Tătărescu . The PNȚ viewed Tătărescu's appointment as arbitrary, and protested on the issue. The spread of credible rumors according to which Maniu was slated for assassination by Carol's partisans rekindled

23309-622: Was a mandatory greeting. Ever since the years of its existence, the FRN and its government have been the target of ridicule, and their ideology has been described as " operetta fascism". After attending a Parliament session in 1939, Marthe Bibesco mocked the sight of uniforms: "It is a garden of lilies and daisies , a colonial parliament. […] Argetoianu looks like a white elephant. […] The old politicians […] have [thus] been whitewashed, like fruit trees or train station water-closets—like anything requiring disinfection." Ideologically,

23472-474: Was a member, alongside generals Ștefan Burileanu , Gheorghe Rujinschi , Gabriel Negrei , and Ioan Sichitiu . Zaharia was directly involved with the Peasant Guards of Muscel County , whom he used to quell violence by the LANC militia, or Lăncieri . Clashes also occurred at Faraoani , where PNC men ambushed a PNȚ column, and at Focșani , where the Peasant Guards were called in to break up an Iron Guard rally. Codreanu's followers were especially incensed by

23635-523: Was adamant that Carol's mistress Elena Lupescu stay exiled, and for this reason earned the Prince's eternal enmity. Maniu was sworn in as Prime Minister on October 10, 1928, leading the first of eight PNȚ government teams. This saw an extension of the welfare state and the regulation of labor through collective bargaining . Maniu's first cabinet had Moldovan as Labor Minister , using this position to advance his program in " biopolitics ". His tenure saw

23798-405: Was added the toll of expropriations . The United Kingdom significantly increased its imports from Romania, attempting to prevent products from reaching Germany, while Minister of Finance Mitiță Constantinescu imposed a tax on many outgoing products (according to Argetoianu, the decision was approved due to "the exceptional times we are living through, when we must sacrifice all interest to save

23961-565: Was admitted into the Christian Democrat World Union . Its legal successor, called Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party , was one of the first registered political groups after the December 1989 Revolution . Future PNȚ leader Maniu had had its first government experience during the union of Transylvania with Romania . In alliance with the Transylvanian Socialists , his PNR had organized

24124-405: Was affected during the strike actions of Lupeni and Grivița , which its ministers repressed with noted expediency. The former incident in particular was received as a shock by working-class voters, and led journalist Romulus Cioflec to hand in his resignation from the party, in what became a public scandal. All PNȚ cabinets were also confronted by the rise of revolutionary fascism, heralded by

24287-717: Was again offered the premiership, and again declined, power went to General Nicolae Rădescu . Maniu and his followers agreed with the PCdR on the need for "de-fascization" in Romania, overseeing a purge of Romania's police agencies and appointing Ghiță Pop as PNȚ representative on the Special Committee for the investigation of war crimes. However, as noted by Boia, "curious solidarities" continued to be formed locally by anti-Carol PNȚ-ists and their Guardist counterparts. Noted Guardists who were accepted as PNȚ members include Horațiu Comaniciu and Silviu Crăciunaș . National Peasantists in Transylvania no longer screened against

24450-548: Was banned under the National Renaissance Front (1938–1940), which also absorbed its centrists. Regrouped under Maniu, it remained active throughout World War II as an underground organization , tolerated by successive fascist regimes , but supportive of the Allied Powers ; it also organized protests against the deportation of minorities and for the return of Northern Transylvania . Together with

24613-482: Was called by Ferdinand to take power. Maniu was a first choice, but eventually discarded for his association with Mihalache, whom Ferdinand regarded as a dangerous radical. Weakened when Goldiș and others defected to the PP, the PNR became "second-fiddle" to the Peasantist caucus. In the subsequent national election of June , the PNR and PȚ formed a National–Peasant Bloc, which took 27% of the vote and 69 seats in

24776-430: Was continued through a requirement that all those excluded be registered as foreigners. Members of the community were encouraged to leave the country. Nevertheless, violence was reduced, especially since its main agents, the Iron Guard and the National Christian Party , had been outlawed. The Front's policies in respect to other ethnic minorities , as Călinescu reported, aimed to "show [the new regime's] benevolence to

24939-723: Was deposed and the monarch created a national government around Miron Cristea , Patriarch of the Romanian Orthodox Church , backed by right-wing figures such as Tătărescu, Alexandru Averescu , Alexandru Vaida-Voevod , Nichifor Crainic , and Nicolae Iorga . The new corporatist and authoritarian Constitution of Romania , promulgated on February 20, 1938, proclaimed stately interest to be above individual ones. According to its text, "all Romanians, regardless of their ethnicity and their religious faith" were required to "sacrifice themselves in defending [the country's] integrity, independence and dignity", while it

25102-535: Was established as the new arm of the regime, and soon began acting against both groups of Iron Guard agitators and members of the Jewish community . The incidents had negative effects on Romanian society: the Jewish middle class boycotted the system by withdrawing their investments and refusing to pay taxes (to the point where the National Bank of Romania declared the regime's insolvency ), while France and

25265-566: Was formed at the University of Iași by Bratu and Andrei, gathering new members and sympathizers: Constantin Balmuș , Octav Botez , Iorgu Iordan , Andrei Oțetea , and Mihai Ralea . Unable to obtain a reduction of the foreign debt, and harangued by an increasingly confident PNL, the Vaida cabinet fell in November 1933. A PNL team under Ion G. Duca took over. The election of December 1933

25428-415: Was in practice a National Liberal front. Its leadership also rejected a pact with Averescu's group, pushing it into further into political insignificance. These events also overlapped with a dynastic crisis: after Ferdinand's death in July 1927, the throne went to his minor grandson Michael I —Michael's disgraced father Carol II having been forced to renounce his claim and pushed into exile. The arrangement

25591-669: Was instrumented by Carol as revenge against his PNȚ opponents, was found guilty of lèse-majesté and spent three months in prison. Ahead of legislative elections in December 1937 , Carol invited Mihalache to form a cabinet, but also tried to impose some of his own selections as ministers; Mihalache refused to comply. As a result of this failure, Maniu returned as chairman of the PNȚ—he would serve as such uninterruptedly, to July 1947. Immediately after taking over, he proceeded to reinforce party discipline, obtaining promises of compliance from left-wingers Lupu and Madgearu. His return also allowed

25754-475: Was mandatory. According to Marthe Bibesco : "Among [the parliamentarians], many have daubed the king in mud and, at the smallest proof of weakness on his part, are ready to daub him anew. This is probably why he has given them clothes that stain easily—to prevent them from smirching themselves. But who could ever stop them?" Businessmen associated with Carol continued to make the bulk of their income from state contracts, progressively orienting themselves towards

25917-475: Was resented by both the PNL and the PNR. For different reasons, both groups sketched out plans to depose Michael and turn Romania into a republic. The unexpected death of PNL chairman Ion I. C. Brătianu pushed the PNȚ back into full-blown opposition: "All hopes [...] focused on the democratic movement of renewal, outstandingly represented by Iuliu Maniu." The party withdrew its elected representatives and pushed citizens to engage in tax resistance . In creating

26080-543: Was stipulated that "no one can consider oneself free from civil and military, public or private duties on the grounds of one's religious faith or any other kind of faith". A law passed in April, defining the "defense of state order", restricted all other forms of political association, forbade political chants and paramilitary displays, banned the press organs of political parties, and condemned political contacts between Romanian forces and outside patrons. In April, following an orchestrated conflict between Iorga and Codreanu,

26243-577: Was successfully tested during the August 1925 elections for the Agricultural Chambers, a professional consultative body. In the local election of early 1926 , both parties ran a United Opposition Bloc, in conjunction with Alexandru Averescu 's People's Party (PP); also joining them was a Peasant Workers' Bloc (BMȚ), which acted as a legal front for clandestine Romanian Communist Party (PCdR). The PP withdrew from this pact once Averescu

26406-640: Was tolerating the transit through Romania of Northern Transylvanian Jews fleeing extermination in Hungary , some of whom were assisted on their journey by a PNȚ-ist network. By early 1942, Maniu and Brătianu had come to favor an anti-Nazi coup, and had asked for direct British support. The Soviets were informed of this, but fully rejected Maniu's demands for a restoration of Greater Romania. In January 1943, with over 100,000 Romanian soldiers trapped at Stalingrad , PCdR members approached Maniu with concrete offers for collaboration. Hoping to obtain full peace without

26569-534: Was voiced in respect to Armand Călinescu, who had repeatedly pressured him to accept wearing the uniform. Eventually, Carol reconciled with the academic, and Iorga even agreed to wear the FRN uniform (while specifying that he was doing it upon the monarch's request, and not for "those […] who believe themselves to be the founding-figures of a country" —in likely reference to Călinescu). The political structure continued to be marked by rivalries between various politicians—according to Argetoianu, these opposed Tătărescu to

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