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126-522: During the 17th to 19th century, it was common in Europe to see peddlers offering potions for ailments ranging from heartbreak to the plague. These were eventually dismissed as quackery . Prostitutes, courtesans, enchanters and midwives were also known to distribute potions. The word potion has its origins in the Latin word potus , an irregular past participle of potare , meaning "to drink". This evolved to

252-471: A "particular salt."  He uses the potion successfully to go back and forth between his normal self, Dr. Jekyll, and his evil self, Mr. Hyde. In the Harry Potter series, potions also play a main role. The students are required to attend potion classes, taught by Severus Snape and Horace Slughorn and knowledge of potions often becomes a factor for many of the characters. Throughout the course of

378-774: A 2012 study in Obstetrics & Gynecology , in the United States the risk of maternal mortality is 14 times lower after induced abortion than after childbirth. The CDC estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality was 17.2 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, while the US abortion mortality rate was 0.43 maternal deaths per 100,000 procedures. In the UK, guidelines of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists state that "Women should be advised that abortion

504-532: A child , domestic violence , lack of support, feeling they are too young, wishing to complete education or advance a career, and not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or incest . When done legally in industrialized societies, induced abortion is one of the safest procedures in medicine . Unsafe abortions —those performed by people lacking the necessary skills, or in inadequately resourced settings—are responsible for between 5–13% of maternal deaths , especially in

630-471: A combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion. Vacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion, and can be performed in a primary care office , abortion clinic , or hospital. Complications, which are rare, can include uterine perforation , pelvic infection , and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate. Infections account for one-third of abortion-related deaths in

756-572: A critical role in many pieces of literature.  Shakespeare wrote potions into many of his plays including a love potion in A Midsummer Night's Dream , poison in Hamlet , and Juliet takes a potion to fake her death in Romeo and Juliet . In the fairytale " The Little Mermaid " by Hans Christian Andersen , the Little Mermaid wishes to become human and have an immortal soul.  She visits

882-464: A day. Cannabis and opium has been used in potions throughout human history. Potions containing cannabis and/or opium were particularly popular in Arabia, Persia, and Muslim India after the arrival of the drugs around the 9th century. Cannabis and opium were a common ingredient used in potions and tinctures sold by apothecaries in 19th-century Europe, as the ingredients made patients feel better, and

1008-585: A decent income. In the United States , the travelling salesman became a stock character in countless jokes. Such jokes are typically bawdy, and usually feature small town rubes, farmers and other country folk, and frequently another stock character, the farmer's daughter . Throughout much of Europe, suspicions of dishonest or petty criminal activity was long associated with peddlers and travellers. Regulations to discourage small-scale retailing by hawkers and peddlers, promulgated by English authorities in

1134-953: A delayed/suspended menstruation". Forty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits, while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical, mental, or socioeconomic criteria. While maternal mortality seldom results from safe abortions, unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year. Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of maternal mortalities worldwide, though this varies by region. Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women. The rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44% to 49% between 1995 and 2008. Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address consequences of unsafe abortion. There are two commonly used methods of measuring

1260-511: A drink of immortality made out of nectar. Ayahuasca , is a hallucinogenic plant-based potion used in many parts of the world. It was first created by indigenous South Americans from the Amazon basin as a spiritual medicine. The potion was often administered by a shaman during a ceremony. The potion contains the boiled stems of the ayahuasca vine and leaves from the chacruna plant. Chacruna contains dimethyltryptamine (also known as DMT),

1386-470: A financial income. Jobs that often involved the selling of love potions included prostitutes, courtesans, enchanters and midwives. These practices varied by region. In Rome, up until the period of the civil wars , the only physicians were drug-sellers, enchanters and midwives. In Greece, retired courtesans often both created potions and worked as midwives. Prostitutes in Europe were often expected to be an expert in magic and administer love potions. In

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1512-435: A knack for reading people very accurately coupled with chiromancy and utilized her skills in order to make money. La Voisin would read people's horoscopes and perform abortions, but she also sold potions and poisons to her clients. Her work quickly became well known throughout France and people would quickly become her clients. Around the year 1665, her fortune telling was questioned by Saint Vincent de Paul's Order, but she

1638-510: A mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion ( vacuum aspiration ), especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue. Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98% effective up to 9 weeks gestational age; from 9 to 10 weeks efficacy decreases modestly to 94%. If medical abortion fails, surgical abortion must be used to complete

1764-548: A prostaglandin analog alone. Mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate–misoprostol combination regimens, and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone, particularly in the second trimester. Medical abortion regimens involving mifepristone followed by misoprostol in the cheek between 24 and 48 hours later are effective when performed before 70 days' gestation. In very early abortions, up to 7 weeks gestation , medical abortion using

1890-449: A psychedelic drug. The potion caused users to vomit or 'purge' and induced hallucinations. Potions or mixtures are common within many of local mythologies. In particular, references to love potions are common in many cultures. Yusufzai witches, for example, would bathe a recently deceased leatherworker and sell the water to those seeking a male partner; this practice is said to exist in a modified form in modern times. Potions have played

2016-422: A public health measure. Abortion laws and views of the procedure are different around the world. In some countries abortion is legal and women have the right to make the choice about abortion. In some areas, abortion is legal only in specific cases such as rape, incest, fetal defects , poverty, and risk to a woman's health. An induced abortion is a medical procedure to end a pregnancy. In present-day English,

2142-404: A relatively common sight across Asia. A number of countries have enacted laws to protect the rights of peddlers, and also to protect the public from the sale of inferior goods. In many states of the US, peddlers are required to apply for a license. India has special laws enacted, by the efforts of planners which give mongers higher rights as compared to other businessmen. For example, mongers have

2268-430: A remedy for infertility. Larger doses act as an entheogen of the deliriant class, having the potential to cause profound confusion and dysphoria characterised by realistic hallucinations of an unpleasant character. Classical and Renaissance authors have left certain accounts of the use of the plant by witches in the preparation of potions intended variously to excite love, cause insanity or even kill. Scopolamine ,

2394-507: A reseller. Peddlers played an important role providing services to geographically isolated districts, such as in the mountainous regions of Europe, thereby linking these districts with wider trading routes. A 16th-century commentator wrote of the: many pedlars and chapmen, that from fair to fair, from markett to markett, carieth it to sell in horspakks and fote pakks, in basketts and budgelts, sitting on holydays and sondais in chirche porchis and abbeys dayly to sell all such trifells. By

2520-634: A right of way over motorized vehicles. In Britain, peddling is still governed by the Pedlars Act 1871 , which provides for a "pedlar's certificate". Application is usually made to the police. In the late 20th century, the use of such certificates became rare as other civic legislation including the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 and the Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1982 for England & Wales introduced

2646-440: A role operating on the fringes of the formal economy. During this time it was common to see long-distance peddlers, who sold remedies, potions and elixirs . They called directly on homes, delivering produce to the door thereby saving customers time travelling to markets or fairs. However, customers paid a higher price for this convenience. Some peddlers operated out of inns or taverns, where they often acted as an agent rather than

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2772-577: A significantly increased chance of mortality or morbidity, and reducing the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy . An abortion is referred to as elective or voluntary when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons. Confusion sometimes arises over the term elective because " elective surgery " generally refers to all scheduled surgery, whether medically necessary or not. About one in five pregnancies worldwide ends with an induced abortion. Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies. In

2898-402: A specific abortion procedure. Abortions can be characterized as either therapeutic or elective. When an abortion is performed for medical reasons, the procedure is referred to as a therapeutic abortion. Medical reasons for therapeutic abortion include saving the life of the pregnant woman, preventing harm to the woman's physical or mental health , preventing the birth of a child who will have

3024-401: A story by S.Y. Agnon . The plot concerns a Jewish peddler who takes up residence with a mysterious gentile woman. Residing in a forest setting, the situation is idyllic for the travelling salesman, as the woman provides for all his needs and never asks for anything in return. Soon, however, he comes to realise that the woman is an evil spirit in disguise. The story is thought to be a metaphor for

3150-679: A street trader's licence. As of 2008 the pedlar's certificates remain legal and in use, although several local councils have sought to eradicate peddlers by way of local bylaws or enforcement mechanisms such as making them apply for a street trader's licence. Literal compounds formed from these synonyms are: Metaphoric compounds, since the 16th century mostly pejorative, formed from these synonyms are: Names, most archaic, of product- or industry-specific types of peddlers include: Names, some pejorative, of other sub- or supertypes or close relatives of peddlers include: Individual peddlers (of myth and history) Although there are basic similarities between

3276-476: A string of incidents involving her and her potions. She confessed her crimes of murder and told authorities a majority of everything they needed to know about the people she knowingly murdered. On February 22, 1680, La Voisin was sentenced to a public death wherein she was to be burned as the stake for witchcraft. Jacqueline Felice de Almania was tried in Italy in 1322 for the unlicensed practice of medicine. She

3402-540: A toxic, deliriant alkaloid present in (and named after) Scopolia carniolica and also present in Mandragora , Hyoscyamus and other Solanaceae, was used by the infamous Dr. Crippen to kill his wife. In ancient Greece, the Spanish fly (also known as cantharides) was crushed with herbs and used in love potions. It was believed to be effective due to the bodily warmth that resulted from ingesting it. However, this

3528-454: A variety of different transport modes: they travelled by foot, carrying their wares; by means of a person or animal-drawn cart or wagon or used improvised carrying devices. Abram Goodman, who took to peddling in the US in the 1840s, reports that he travelled by foot, used a sleigh when roads were snowbound and also travelled, with his pack, by boat when traversing longer distances. As market towns flourished in medieval Europe, peddlers found

3654-530: A very small number of peddlers kept diaries and these can be used to provide an insight into the daily life of a peddler. Ephraim Lisitzky (1885–1962), an immigrant from Russia, arrived in the US in 1900 and took up peddling for a brief period following his arrival. His autobiography, published in 1959 under the title, In the Grip of the Cross-Currents, describes his various encounters with householders and

3780-445: A widespread trend towards greater legal access to abortion since 1973, but there remains debate with regard to moral, religious, ethical, and legal issues. Those who oppose abortion often argue that an embryo or fetus is a person with a right to life , and thus equate abortion with murder . Those who support abortion's legality often argue that it is a woman's reproductive right . Others favor legal and accessible abortion as

3906-451: Is a critically acclaimed film about a German fruit-peddler, directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder . The Tin Men (1987), a feature film directed by Barry Levinson and starring Richard Dreyfuss and Danny De Vito , is a comedy set in 1963, concerning two aluminium salesmen and the dirty tricks they use to make a sale as they try to out-compete each other. Abortion Abortion

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4032-483: Is a door-to-door and/or travelling vendor of goods . In 19th-century America the word "drummer" was often used to refer to a peddler or traveling salesman; as exemplified in the popular play Sam'l of Posen; or, The Commercial Drummer by George H. Jessop . In England, the term was mostly used for travellers hawking goods in the countryside to small towns and villages. In London, more specific terms were used, such as costermonger . From antiquity, peddlers filled

4158-623: Is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia . It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and can be used during later stages of pregnancy. Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of the whole uterus while still containing the pregnancy. Hysterotomy and hysterectomy are associated with much higher rates of maternal morbidity and mortality than D&E or induction abortion. First trimester procedures can generally be performed using local anesthesia , while second trimester methods may require deep sedation or general anesthesia . In places lacking

4284-731: Is also cognate with the Spanish words pocion with the same meaning, and ponzoña , meaning "poison"; The word pozione was originally the same word for both "poison" and "potion" in Italian, but by the early 15th century in Italy, potion began to be known specifically as a magical or enchanted drink. The practice of administering potions has had a long history of being illegalised. Despite these laws, there have been several different administrators of potions across history. Quacks or charlatans are people who sell "medical methods that do not work and are only intended to make money". In Europe in

4410-459: Is as safe as provider-administered medical abortion, where a health care professional is present to help manage the medical abortion. Safely permitting women to self-administer abortion medication has the potential to improve access to abortion. The review also noted a research gap concerning methods to support women who take medication at home for a self-administered abortion. Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are

4536-439: Is as safe from 64 to 70 days' gestation as it before 63 days. There is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration) in early first trimester abortions up to 10 weeks gestation. Medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using

4662-524: Is essential for the attainment of the highest possible level of sexual and reproductive health". Historically , abortions have been attempted using herbal medicines , sharp tools, forceful massage , or other traditional methods . Around 73 million abortions are performed each year in the world, with about 45% done unsafely. Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008, before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to family planning and birth control increased. As of 2018 , 37% of

4788-541: Is generally safer than continuing a pregnancy to term." Worldwide, on average, abortion is safer than carrying a pregnancy to term. A 2007 study reported that "26% of all pregnancies worldwide are terminated by induced abortion," whereas "deaths from improperly performed [abortion] procedures constitute 13% of maternal mortality globally." In Indonesia in 2000 it was estimated that 2 million pregnancies ended in abortion, 4.5 million pregnancies were carried to term, and 14–16 percent of maternal deaths resulted from abortion. In

4914-414: Is legal and available. The health risks of abortion depend principally on how, and under what conditions, the procedure is performed. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines unsafe abortions as those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities. Legal abortions performed in the developed world are among the safest procedures in medicine. According to

5040-666: Is legally restricted. They may attempt self-induced abortion or seek the help of a person without proper medical training or facilities. This can lead to severe complications, such as incomplete abortion, sepsis , hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs. Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide. Although data are imprecise, it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, with 97% taking place in developing countries . Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries. Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology, and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in

5166-460: Is legally risky in the United States. Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine . Such herbs include tansy , pennyroyal , black cohosh , and the now-extinct silphium . In 1978, one woman in Colorado died and another developed organ damage when they attempted to terminate their pregnancies by taking pennyroyal oil. Because

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5292-459: Is still used in some parts of the world to treat dysentery." Creating a potion for immortality, was a common pursuit of alchemists throughout history. The Elixir of Life is a famous potion that aimed to create eternal youth . During the Chinese dynasties , this elixir of life was often recreated and drunk by emperors, nobles and officials. In India, there is a myth of the potion amrita ,

5418-417: Is that peddlers travel as they trade, rather than travel to a fixed place of trade. Peddlers travel around and approach potential customers directly whereas street traders set up a pitch or a stall and wait for customers to approach them. When not actually engaged in selling, peddlers are required to keep moving. Although peddlers may stop to make a sale, they are precluded from setting up a pitch or remaining in

5544-642: Is the legal standing of abortion. Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to countries where abortion is legal and available. For example, the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa led to an immediate reduction in abortion-related complications, with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90%. Similar reductions in maternal mortality have been observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws, such as Romania and Nepal . A 2011 study concluded that in

5670-631: Is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus . An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of all pregnancies. When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called an induced abortion , or less frequently "induced miscarriage". The unmodified word abortion generally refers to an induced abortion. The most common reasons given for having an abortion are for birth-timing and limiting family size. Other reasons reported include maternal health , an inability to afford

5796-720: Is uncertain, but is possibly an Anglicised version of the French pied , Latin pes, pedis "foot", referring to a petty trader travelling on foot. A peddler, under English law, is defined as: "any hawker, pedlar, petty chapman, tinker, caster of metals, mender of chairs, or other person who, without any horse or other beast bearing or drawing burden, travels and trades on foot and goes from town to town or to other men's houses, carrying to sell or exposing for sale any goods, wares, or merchandise immediately to be delivered, or selling or offering for sale his skill in handicraft." The main distinction between peddlers and other types of street vendor

5922-577: Is usually termed " stillborn ". Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages, although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap. Studies of pregnant women in the US and China have shown that between 40% and 60% of embryos do not progress to birth. The vast majority of miscarriages occur before the woman is aware that she is pregnant , and many pregnancies spontaneously abort before medical practitioners can detect an embryo. Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon

6048-577: The American Psychological Association concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester, with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain. Some older reviews concluded that abortion was associated with an increased risk of psychological problems; however, later reviews of

6174-652: The Old World tribes Hyoscyameae and Mandragoreae . These potions were known as pharmaka diabolika ("devilish drugs"). The root of Mandragora officinarum , the celebrated mandrake, fabled in legend to shriek when uprooted, was often used to prepare sleeping potions, although it could prove poisonous in excess, due to its tropane alkaloid content. M. officinarum is native to the Mediterranean region . Administered in small doses mandrake root has been used in folk medicine as an analgesic , an aphrodisiac and

6300-490: The Pharmacy Act 1868 anybody could become a pharmacist or chemist. Since the practice was unregulated, potions were often made from scratch. Potions were additionally used to cure illness in livestock. One potion found in a 19th-century pharmacist's recipe book was to be used for "lambs of about 7 years old" and contains chalk, pomegranate and opium. There was a strict hierarchy in the medical community of Europe during

6426-562: The bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld . Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These and other methods to terminate pregnancy may be called "induced miscarriage". Such methods are rarely used in countries where surgical abortion

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6552-436: The cervix and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments and suction. D&E is performed vaginally and does not require an incision. Intact dilation and extraction (D&X) refers to a variant of D&E sometimes used after 18 to 20 weeks when removal of an intact fetus improves surgical safety or for other reasons. Abortion may also be performed surgically by hysterotomy or gravid hysterectomy. Hysterotomy abortion

6678-435: The developing world . However, medication abortions that are self-managed are highly effective and safe throughout the first trimester . Public health data show that making safe abortion legal and accessible reduces maternal deaths. Modern methods use medication or surgery for abortions. The drug mifepristone (aka RU-486) in combination with prostaglandin appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during

6804-748: The first and second trimesters of pregnancy. The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and using a suction device . Birth control , such as the pill or intrauterine devices , can be used immediately following abortion. When performed legally and safely on a woman who desires it, induced abortions do not increase the risk of long-term mental or physical problems. In contrast, unsafe abortions performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities cause between 22,000 and 44,000 deaths and 6.9 million hospital admissions each year. The World Health Organization states that "access to legal, safe and comprehensive abortion care, including post-abortion care ,

6930-436: The 12th to 15th centuries. Male doctors were the most respected and paid followed by female apothecaries, barber-surgeons and surgeons. Women were often the main way that individuals who could not afford doctors or apothecaries could gain medical treatment Potions, in addition to calming teas or soup, were a common homemade treatment made by women. When unable to go to a female house member, early modern people would often go to

7056-457: The 15th and 16th centuries and reinforced by the Church, did much to encourage stereotypical and negative attitudes towards peddlers. From the 16th century, peddlers were often associated with pejorative perceptions, many of which persisted until well into the 19th and 20th centuries. In the modern economy a new breed of peddler, generally encouraged to dress respectably to inspire confidence with

7182-487: The 15th century it was also common to see long-distance peddlers , who sold supposedly magical healing potions and elixirs . During the Great Plague of London in the 17th century, quacks sold many fake potions promising either cures or immunity. Because pills looked less trustworthy to the public, potions were often the top sellers of quacks. These potions often included bizarre ingredients such as floral pomanders and

7308-469: The 18th-century, engravings featuring peddlers and street vendors featured in numerous volumes dedicated to representations of street life. One of the first of such publications was a French publication, Etudes Prises Dans let Bas Peuple, Ou Les Cris de Paris (1737) (roughly translated as Studies Taken of the Lower People, Or The Cries of Paris ). In 1757, the first English publication in this genre

7434-430: The 18th-century, some peddlers worked for industrial producers, where they acted as a type of travelling sales representative. In England, these peddlers were known as "Manchester men." Employed by a factory or entrepreneur, they sold goods from shop to shop rather than door to door and were thus operating as a type of wholesaler or distribution intermediary. They were the precursors to the modern sales representative. In

7560-502: The Middle Ages and the early modern period, using potions to induce sterility and abortion was widely practiced in Europe. The majority of abortive potions were made using emmenagogue herbs (herbs used to stimulate menstruation) which were intended to cause a period and end a pregnancy. Additionally abortive potions could also be prepared by infusion of a herb or tree. The willow tree was a common ingredient in these potions, as it

7686-586: The Prince's love.  The Little Mermaid decides to take the potion which successfully turns her into a human so that she can try to win the love of the Prince and an immortal soul. In the novella The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson, Dr. Henry Jekyll creates a potion that transforms him into an evil version of himself called Edward Hyde.  Dr. Jekyll does not explain how he created this potion because he felt his "discoveries were incomplete," he only indicates that it requires

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7812-500: The Sea Witch who sells her a potion, in exchange for which she cuts out the Little Mermaid's tongue.  The Sea Witch makes the potion using her own blood that she cuts from her breast.  She warns the Little Mermaid that it will feel as if she had been cut with a sword when her fin becomes legs, that she will never be able to become a mermaid again, and risks turning into seafoam and not having an immortal soul if she fails to win

7938-551: The U.S., historian Linda Gordon states: "In fact, illegal abortions in this country have an impressive safety record." According to Rickie Solinger , A related myth, promulgated by a broad spectrum of people concerned about abortion and public policy, is that before legalization abortionists were dirty and dangerous back-alley butchers.... [T]he historical evidence does not support such claims. A 1940s American physician spoke of his pride in having performed 13,844 illegal abortions without any fatalities. In 1870s New York City,

8064-523: The US from 2000 to 2009, abortion had a mortality rate lower than plastic surgery , lower or similar to running a marathon, and about equivalent to traveling 760 miles (1,220 km) in a passenger car. Five years after seeking abortion services, women who gave birth after being denied an abortion reported worse health than women who had either first or second trimester abortions. The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth. Outpatient abortion

8190-504: The United Kingdom, 1 to 2% of abortions are done because of genetic problems in the fetus. Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th week of gestation . A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is a " premature birth " or a "preterm birth". When a fetus dies in utero after viability , or during delivery , it

8316-403: The United States where 96% of second trimester abortions are performed surgically by dilation and evacuation . A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that providing women with medications to take home to complete the second stage of the procedure for an early medical abortion results in an effective abortion. Further research is required to determine if self-administered medical abortion

8442-726: The United States, some state-level anti-abortion laws are correlated with lower rates of abortion in that state. The analysis, however, did not take into account travel to other states without such laws to obtain an abortion. In addition, a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion. It has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75% (from 20 million to 5 million annually) if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally. Rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage, "induced miscarriage", "menstrual regulation", "mini-abortion", and "regulation of

8568-501: The United States, there was an upsurge in the number of peddlers in the late 18th century and this may have peaked in the decades just before the American Civil War . However, their numbers began to decline by the 19th century. Advances in industrial mass production and freight transportation as a result of the war laid the groundwork for the beginnings of modern retail and distribution networks, which gradually eroded much of

8694-565: The United States. The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital, surgical center, or office. Preventive antibiotics (such as doxycycline or metronidazole ) are typically given before abortion procedures, as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection; however, antibiotics are not routinely given with abortion pills. The rate of failed procedures does not appear to vary significantly depending on whether

8820-461: The abortion is performed by a doctor or a mid-level practitioner . Complications after second trimester abortion are similar to those after first trimester abortion, and depend somewhat on the method chosen. The risk of death from abortion approaches roughly half the risk of death from childbirth the farther along a woman is in pregnancy; from one in a million before 9 weeks gestation to nearly one in ten thousand at 21 weeks or more (as measured from

8946-411: The abortionist/midwife Madame Restell (Anna Trow Lohman) is said to have lost very few women among her more than 100,000 patients —a lower mortality rate than the childbirth mortality rate at the time. In 1936, obstetrics and gynecology professor Frederick J. Taussig wrote that a cause of increasing mortality during the years of illegality in the U.S. was that With each decade of the past fifty years

9072-537: The activities in the Old World and the New World there are also significant differences. In Britain the word was more specific to an individual selling small items of household goods from door to door. It was not usually applied to Gypsies . Peddlers have been the subject of numerous paintings, sketches and watercolours in both Western art and in the Orient, where they depict familiar scenes of everyday life. Some of

9198-467: The actual and proportionate frequency of this accident [perforation of the uterus] has increased, due, first, to the increase in the number of instrumentally induced abortions; second, to the proportionate increase in abortions handled by doctors as against those handled by midwives; and, third, to the prevailing tendency to use instruments instead of the finger in emptying the uterus. Women seeking an abortion may use unsafe methods, especially when abortion

9324-469: The addictive nature of the drug meant it sold well. Nepenthes pharmakon is a famous type of magical potion recorded in Homer's Odyssey, intended to cure sorrow. In Ancient Greek Pharmakon was the word for medicine and Nepenthes meant no ( ne) sorrow ( penthes). Since the 18th century it is believed to be made from opium. Peddler A peddler ( American English ) or pedlar ( British English )

9450-435: The age and health of the pregnant woman. 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester. The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo or fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses. Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus ), diabetes , other hormonal problems , infection, and abnormalities of

9576-444: The availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and the antiprogestogen mifepristone (also known as RU-486) in the 1980s. The most common early first trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with misoprostol (or sometimes another prostaglandin analog, gemeprost ) up to 10 weeks (70 days) gestational age, methotrexate in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation, or

9702-513: The brain. Willow contains salicylic acid, which is a component of aspirin. Fennel , cinnamon and ginger are all carminatives, which help relieve gas in the intestines. The cormorant blood adds iron to treat anemia. If used in small doses, Mandrake is a good sleeping draught (though in large doses Mandrake can be poisonous.) Dragon's blood refers to the bright red resin of the tree Dracaena draco . According to Toni Mount "it has antiseptic, antibiotic, anti-viral and wound-healing properties, and it

9828-494: The business to her stepdaughter Gironima Spana , who expanded it to a substantial business in the 1650s. The organization was exposed in 1659 and resulted in the famous Spana Prosecution , which became a subject of sensationalistic mythologization for centuries. Paula de Eguiluz was born into slavery in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic in the 17th century. Within the area in which she lived, sickness and disease ravaged

9954-481: The cervix (dilation) and removing tissue (curettage) via suction or sharp instruments. D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. The World Health Organization recommends sharp curettage only when suction aspiration is unavailable. Dilation and evacuation (D&E), used after 12 to 16 weeks, consists of opening

10080-713: The church. Emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness are universal and as such potions have been created across history and cultures in response to these human emotions. Love potions have been used throughout history and cultures. Scandinavians often used love-philtres, which is documented in the Norse poem The Lay of Gudrun . In 17th-century Cartagena , Afro-Mexican curer ( curanderos/as ) and other Indigenous healers could gain an income and status from selling spells and love potions to women trying to secure men and financial stability. These love potions were sold to women of all social classes, who often wished to gain sexual agency. In

10206-601: The difficulties he experienced making a sale as door after door was slammed in his face. After arriving in America in 1842, Abram Vossen Goodman also maintained a diary of his experiences, which has been published by the American Jewish Archives . Excerpts from the diary detail his experiences and thoughts about the life of a peddler. When, Goodman's initial attempts to find employment as a clerk were unsuccessful, he wrote on September 29, "I had to do as all

10332-589: The dislocation and destruction of European Jews. St Patrick and the Peddler by Margaret Hodges is a novel about a peddler who is visited by St Patrick in his dreams and through a circuitous route uncovers great riches. Robin Hood and the Peddler is a ballad that now forms part of the collection at the American Folklife Center , Library of Congress . The Merchant of Four Seasons (1972)

10458-496: The earliest paintings of peddlers were made in China. The 12th-century Chinese artist, Su Hanchen made several paintings of peddlers as did one of his contemporaries, Li Song , both of whom painted The Knick knack Peddler. The Wayfarer by Hieronymous Bosch is perhaps the most iconic image of a peddler. Painted in about 1500, the peddler in this painting wears a costume almost identical to thieves in other Bosch paintings. From

10584-463: The early 9th century, Arab physician Yuhanna ̄ Ibn Masawaih used the dye kermes to create a potion called Confectio Alchermes . The potion was "intended for the caliph and his court and not for commoners." The potion was intended to cure heart palpitations, restore strength and cure madness and depression. During the Renaissance in Europe, Confectio Alchermes was used widely. Recipes for

10710-510: The fair, which only returned once a year." Typically, peddlers operated door-to-door , plied the streets or stationed themselves at the fringes of formal trade venues such as open air markets or fairs . In the Greco-Roman world, open-air markets served urban customers, while peddlers filled in the gaps in distribution by selling to rural or geographically distant customers. In the Bible

10836-466: The first trimester because of fetal abnormalities, more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively. Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called " post-abortion syndrome ", but this is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the United States. A 2020 long term-study among US women found that about 99% of women felt that they made

10962-677: The gaps in the formal market economy by providing consumers with the convenience of door-to-door service. They operated alongside town markets and fairs where they often purchased surplus stocks which were subsequently resold to consumers. Peddlers were able to distribute goods to the more geographically-isolated communities such as those who lived in mountainous regions of Europe. They also called on consumers who, for whatever reason, found it difficult to attend town markets. Thus, peddlers played an important role in linking these consumers and regions to wider trade routes. Some peddlers worked as agents or travelling salesmen for larger manufacturers and so were

11088-493: The general public, has been sent into the field as an aggressive form of direct marketing by companies pushing their specific products, sometimes to help launch novelties, sometimes on a permanent basis. In a few cases this has even been used as the core of a business. Very few peddlers left written records. Many were illiterate and diaries are rare. Most peddlers handled cash transactions leaving behind few or no accounting records such as receipts, invoices or day- books. However,

11214-508: The incidence of abortion: In many places, where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma, medical reporting of abortion is not reliable. For this reason, estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error . The number of abortions performed worldwide was characterized as stable in the early 2000s, with 41.6 million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8 million having been performed in 2008. The abortion rate worldwide

11340-482: The indiscriminant use of herbs as abortifacients can cause serious—even lethal—side effects, such as multiple organ failure , such use is not recommended by physicians. Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage . In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage. One of

11466-631: The last menstrual period). It appears that having had a prior surgical uterine evacuation (whether because of induced abortion or treatment of miscarriage) correlates with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth in future pregnancies. The studies supporting this did not control for factors not related to abortion or miscarriage, and hence the causes of this correlation have not been determined, although multiple possibilities have been suggested. Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions and mental health problems other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy. A report by

11592-412: The medical literature found that previous reviews did not use an appropriate control group. When a control group is utilized, receiving abortion is not associated with adverse psychological outcomes. However, women seeking abortion who are denied access to abortion have an increase in anxiety after the denial. Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after

11718-615: The most common surgical methods of induced abortion. Manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) consists of removing the fetus or embryo , placenta , and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while electric vacuum aspiration (EVA) uses an electric pump. Both techniques can be used very early in pregnancy. MVA can be used up to 14 weeks but is more often used earlier in the U.S. EVA can be used later. MVA, also known as "mini-suction" and " menstrual extraction ", or EVA can be used in very early pregnancy when cervical dilation may not be required. Dilation and curettage (D&C) refers to opening

11844-418: The necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction, or when preferred by practitioners, an abortion can be induced by first inducing labor and then inducing fetal demise if necessary. This is sometimes called "induced miscarriage". This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States, more than 80% of induced abortions throughout

11970-539: The need for travelling salesmen. The rise of popular mail order catalogues (e.g. Montgomery Ward began in 1872) offered another way for people in rural or other remote areas to obtain items not readily available in local stores or markets. A relatively short-lived upsurge in the number of peddlers was witnessed in the period following the second World War, when the wartime manufacturing boom came to an abrupt end, and returning soldiers finding themselves unable to secure suitable work, turned to peddling which generally offered

12096-432: The origin of the term, lubok , may have come from the word lubki - a type of basket typically carried by peddlers as they carried a myriad of different wares into villages in old Russia. Korobeiniki is a Russian folk song that describes a meeting between a peddler and a girl. Their haggling is a metaphor for their courtship. The Lady and the Peddler, (1947) is an American play by Yosefa Even Shoshan and adapted from

12222-501: The others; with a bundle on my back I had to go out into the country, peddling various articles." (p. 95) In the first few weeks, he found the lifestyle onerous, uncertain and solitary. Today, peddlers continue to travel by foot, but also use bicycle, hand-held carts, horse-drawn carts or drays and motorized vehicles such as motor-bikes as transport modes. To carry their wares, peddlers use purpose-built back-packs, barrows, hand-carts or improvised carrying baskets. Rickshaw peddlers are

12348-470: The past decade; deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all maternal deaths . The World Health Organization believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s. To reduce the number of unsafe abortions, public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion, training of medical personnel, and ensuring access to reproductive-health services. A major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not

12474-414: The peddler is "perhaps the only substantiated type of retail marketing practice that evolved from Neolithic times to the present." The political philosopher John Stuart Mill wrote that "even before the resources of society permitted the establishment of shops, the supply of [consumer] wants fell universally into the hands of itinerant dealers, the pedlars who might appear once a month, being preferred to

12600-521: The potion appeared in the work of the popular English apothecary Nicholas Culpeper and the official pharmacopoeia handbooks of London and Amsterdam. Queen Elizabeth 's French ambassador was even treated with the remedy; however, the recipe was altered to include a "unicorn's horn" (possibly a ground-up narwhal tusk ) in addition to the traditional ingredients. The ingredients for the potion mainly included ambergris, cinnamon, aloes, gold leaf, musk, pulverized lapis lazuli, and white pearls. St Paul's potion

12726-491: The precursor to the modern travelling salesman. Images of peddlers feature in literature and art from as early as the 12th century. Such images were very popular with the genre and Orientalist painters and photographers of the 18th and the 19th centuries. Some imagery depicts peddlers in a pejorative manner, and others portray idealised romantic visions of peddlers at work. The origin of the word, known in English since 1225,

12852-571: The procedure. Early medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in Britain , France , Switzerland , United States , and the Nordic countries . Medical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second trimester abortions in Canada , most of Europe, China and India , in contrast to

12978-553: The quality of the merchandise." The Cheap Jack stereotype appears often in 19th-century literature. The most famous example is probably Charles Dickens' ‟Doctor Marigold‟. A short story it was originally written for one of his Christmas editions of All the Year Round . In collected editions of Dickens' works, it appears in the volume Christmas Stories. Russian lubok prints (popular prints) also feature peddlers along with other popular stereotypes. Some scholars suggest that

13104-485: The question of a link between induced abortion and breast cancer has been investigated extensively. Major medical and scientific bodies (including the WHO, National Cancer Institute , American Cancer Society , Royal College of OBGYN and American Congress of OBGYN ) have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer. In the past even illegality has not automatically meant that the abortions were unsafe. Referring to

13230-557: The right decision five years after they had an abortion. Relief was the primary emotion with few women feeling sadness or guilt. Social stigma was a main factor predicting negative emotions and regret years later. The researchers also stated: "These results add to the scientific evidence that emotions about an abortion are associated with personal and social context, and are not a product of the abortion procedure itself." Some purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by anti-abortion groups, but lack scientific support. For example,

13356-495: The same place for lengthy periods. Although peddlers normally travel by foot, there is no reason why they cannot use some means of assistance, such as a cart or a trolley, to assist in the transportation of goods. Peddlers have been known since antiquity. They were known by a variety of names throughout the ages, including Arabber , hawker , costermonger (English), chapman (medieval English), huckster, itinerant vendor or street vendor. According to marketing historian, Eric Shaw,

13482-456: The second trimester are labor-induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries. Only limited data are available comparing labor-induced abortion with the dilation and extraction method. Unlike D&E, labor-induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor-induced abortion

13608-654: The smoke of fragrant woods. The well known Wessex quack Vilbert was known to sell love potions made of pigeon hearts.  By the 18th century in England, it was common for middle class households to stock potions that claimed to solve a variety of ailments. Quackery grew to its height in the 19th century. In 18th- and 19th-century Britain, pharmacies or apothecaries were often a cheaper, more accessible option for medical treatment than doctors. Potions distributed by chemists for illnesses were often derived from herbs and plants, and based on old beliefs and remedies. Prior to

13734-547: The story, several characters take Polyjuice Potion to impersonate other characters, while the use of Felix Felicus potion in Book 6 helps Harry Potter gain vital information about horcruxes. In the 11th century, plants belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae were often used as an ingredients in the potions - aphrodisiac or otherwise - and flying ointments of witches. The specific nightshades used in such concoctions were usually tropane alkaloid -containing species belonging to

13860-416: The term abortion , when used without further qualification, generally refers to induced abortion. A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways. The abortion method depends upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus, which gains mass as the pregnancy progresses. Abortion laws , regional availability, and the personal preference of the women and her doctor may inform the women's choice of

13986-515: The term 'peddler' was used to describe those who spread the word of God for profit. The book of Corinthians has the following phrase, "For we are not as so many, peddling the word of God" (Corinthians 2:17). The Greek term translated "peddling" referred to small-scale merchant who profited from acting as a middleman between others. The Apocrypha has the following, "A merchant shall hardly keep himself from doing wrong; and an huckster shall not be freed from sin" (Ecclesiasticus 26:29). In some economies

14112-427: The towns and major cities. Paula de Eguiluz decided to research and find her own cures to these maladies. Because of this, she is widely known for being involved in health care and healing. Once her healing and health care practice took off, she started to sell potions and serums to clients. de Eguiluz's business attracted a following and slowly got her into a bit of trouble. Due to Paula's healing accomplishments, she

14238-619: The use of herbal potions or suppositories to provoke menstruation. Giulia Tofana (1581-1651) was an Italian poisoner, known as the inventor of the famous poison Aqua Tofana . Born in Sicily, she invented and started to sell the poison in Palermo in Sicily. She later established herself in Rome , where she continued the business, specialising in selling to women in abusive marriages who wanted to become widows. She died peacefully in 1651 and left

14364-476: The uterus. Advancing maternal age and a woman's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma ; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide . Medical abortions are those induced by abortifacient pharmaceuticals. Medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with

14490-449: The wise women of their village. Wise women (who were often supposed witches ) were knowledgeable in health care and could administer potions, lotions or salves in addition to performing prayers or chants. This was often free of charge or significantly less expensive than the potions of apothecaries. The limited jobs available to women during the 17th to 18th century in Europe often involved a knowledge of potions as an additional way to gain

14616-457: The word potionem (nominative potio ) meaning either "a potion, a drinking" or a "poisonous draught, magic potion". In Ancient Greek, the word for both drugs and potions was "pharmaka" or "pharmakon". In the 12th century, the French had the word pocion , meaning "potion", "draught", or "medicine". By the 13th century, this word became pocioun , referring to either a medicinal drink, or a dose of liquid medicine (or poison). The word "potion"

14742-499: The work of itinerant selling was left to a greater or lesser extent to nomadic minorities, such as gypsies , travellers , or Yeniche who offered a varied assortment of goods and services, both evergreens and (notoriously suspicious) novelties. In 19th-century USA, peddling was often the occupation of immigrant communities including Italians, Greeks and Jews. The more colourful peddlers were those that doubled as performers , healers , or fortune-tellers . Historically, peddlers used

14868-425: The world's women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason. Countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed. Abortion rates are similar between countries that restrict abortion and countries that broadly allow it, though this is partly because countries which restrict abortion tend to have higher unintended pregnancy rates. Globally, there has been

14994-459: Was The Cries of London Calculated to Entertain the Minds of Old and Young; illustrated in variety of copper plates neatly engrav'd with an emblematical description of each subject , was published. and followed by Cries of London (1775) These were followed by numerous illustrated works which continued into the 20th century. Bonnie Young has pointed out that the theme of the monkey and the peddler

15120-557: Was actually a result of inflammation from toxins in the tissues of the beetle. Ferdinand II of Aragon drank many potions and elixir contains the Spanish fly. Cochineal , another type of dye, replaced kermes as an ingredient in Confectio Alchermes in the 17th and 18th centuries. Cochineal was also heavily used as an ingredient in potions for jaundice . Jaundice potions were a mix of Cochineal, cream of tartar and Venetian soap and patients were directed to take it three times

15246-599: Was arrested approximately 3 times. During these inquisitions, she was forced to tell the jury that she performed witchcraft. In response to these false confessions, she was imprisoned and whipped several times. Catherine Monvoisin , better known to some as La Voisin, was born within the year 1640 in France. Catherine Monvoisin married Antoine Monvoisin who was a jeweler in Paris. His business plummeted and Catherine had to find work in order for her and her family to survive. She had

15372-432: Was fabled to cause sterility. Several key theological and legal literature of the time condemned this practice, including Visigothic law and the Church. Many herbal potions containing emmenagogues did not contain abortifacients (substances that induce abortion) and were instead used to cure  amenorrhoea (a lack of period). There are several different types of literature in the humoral tradition that propose

15498-498: Was intended to cure epilepsy, catalepsy and stomach problems. Many ingredients used in the potion had medicinal value. According to Toni Mount the list of ingredients included "liquorice, sage, willow, roses, fennel, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, cormorant blood, mandrake, dragon's blood and three kinds of pepper". Many of these ingredients still have medicinal value in the 21st century. Liquorice can be used to treat coughs and bronchitis. Sage can help memory and improve blood flow to

15624-425: Was mainly accused of doing a learned male physicians job and accepting a fee. This job involved "examining urine by its physical appearance; touching the body; and prescribing potions, digestives, and laxatives." Eight witnesses testified to her medical experience and wisdom. However, as she had not attended university, her knowledge was dismissed. Jacqueline Felice was then found guilty and fined and excommunicated from

15750-414: Was quick to dismiss the allegations of witchcraft. Catherine would then begin making potions whether it be for love, murder, or everyday life. Her love potion consisted of bones, the teeth of moles, human blood, Spanish fly beetles, and even small amounts of human remains. Her predecessor and major influence was Giulia Tofana . On March 12, 1679, Catherine was arrested Notre- Dame Bonne- Nouvelle due to

15876-491: Was relatively common in Medieval art across Europe. These scenes, which appear in books and on silverware, often depict bands of monkeys robbing the peddler while he sleeps. Such images may have been popular in medieval society, because the peddler shared many of the same vices as a monkey; he was seen as "a showman, a bit of a trickster and not always acquiring his wares by honest means and plying them without too much regard for

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