The 1840s (pronounced "eighteen-forties") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1840, and ended on December 31, 1849.
113-466: Poinsett most often refers to Joel Roberts Poinsett (1779-1851), American physician and diplomat, namegiver for many of the other meanings. Poinsett may also refer to: Joel Roberts Poinsett Joel Roberts Poinsett (March 2, 1779 – December 12, 1851) was an American physician , botanist , politician , and diplomat . He was the first U.S. agent in South America ,
226-577: A Christian sector . There was a wave of revolutions in Europe, collectively known as the Revolutions of 1848 . It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history , but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed. The revolutions were essentially bourgeois-democratic in nature with the aim of removing the old feudal structures and
339-648: A Junta that was very well established. He managed to negotiate a commercial agreement with the Junta by which American articles of general consumption were admitted free of duty. As American shipping had been driven from the South Atlantic, it took some time to find passage back to the United States. Poinsett finally secured passage aboard a vessel going to Bahia , a state in the northeastern part of Brazil. From there he transferred to another ship bound for
452-659: A Tartar dignitary claimed that this would only provoke danger, the escort was bypassed for the security of the Tartar chiefs. This new security increased the numbers in Poinsett's company, which they believed made it less vulnerable to attack as it passed out of Russia proper. Thus, they were joined by a Persian merchant, who was transporting young girls he had acquired in Circassia to Baku , Azerbaijan and harems in Turkey. With
565-611: A battery of flying artillery to the Bay of Concepción, where ten American vessels had been seized. He arrived at dark near the seaport of Talcahuano, and began firing on the town. At dawn he sent an emissary to demand the surrender of the bay to the Junta of Chile. The Peruvian royalists surrendered on May 29, 1813. In early September 1813, the United States Frigate Essex arrived in Chilean waters, forcibly seizing
678-584: A confidential agent of President Andrew Jackson, keeping Jackson abreast of situation in South Carolina between October 1832 and March 1833. In 1833, Poinsett married the widow Mary Izard Pringle (1780–1857), daughter of Ralph and Elizabeth (Stead) Izard. Poinsett served as Secretary of War from March 7, 1837, to March 5, 1841, overseeing the Trail of Tears , and presided over the continuing suppression of Native American raids by removal of Indians west of
791-665: A letter from his old friend General Jose Miguel Carrera. Since Poinsett's departure, the Chilean Royalists had consolidated their hold on Chile, and after spending a year in exile in the provinces of the Río de la Plata , Carrera came to the United States in January 1816 to stimulate interest for a revolution in Chile. Poinsett wrote Carrera back stating that he intended to urge the U.S. government to develop decisive policy regarding
904-529: A majority wanted to establish trade relations with the U.S. The official reception finally occurred on February 24, 1812. Poinsett was the first accredited agent of a foreign government to reach Chile. Poinsett's main adversary in Chile was the junta of Peru. The Colonial Viceroy of Peru resented the Chileans' disregard for Spanish authority. He declared the laws of the new Chilean government relative to free commerce null and void and sent privateers to enforce
1017-486: A meeting between Carrera and General Bertrand Count Clausel . Clausel had distinguished himself in the Napoleonic Wars and was given the distinction of Peer of France by Napoleon in 1815. Although Carrera's movement never benefited from the experience of these French officers, Poinsett did succeed in obtaining contracts with the firm D'Arcy and Didier of Philadelphia to supply arms for the expedition which Carrera
1130-717: A member of the South Carolina Legislature in the South Carolina State Capitol , at the state capital town of Columbia , and later a United States Representative (congressman) in the U.S. House of Representatives (the lower chamber of the Congress of the United States ), serving 1821-1825. He was appointed by 6th President , John Quincy Adams as the first United States Minister to Mexico ( ambassador ), He replaced U.S. Army General James Wilkinson (1757-1825), who had been in
1243-586: A position as colonel in the Russian Army. However, news had reached Russia of the attack of the Chesapeake affair , and war between the United States and Great Britain seemed certain. Poinsett eagerly sought to return to his homeland. Before leaving Russia, Poinsett met one last time with Czar Alexander. The Czar declared that Russia and the United States should maintain friendly relations . Poinsett again met with Foreign Minister Count Romanzoff where
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#17327839253741356-493: A puppet regime on Afghanistan under Shuja Shah , but the regime was short lived and proved unsustainable without British military support. By 1842, mobs were attacking the British on the streets of Kabul and the British garrison was forced to abandon the city due to constant civilian attacks. During the retreat from Kabul , the British army of approximately 4,500 troops (of which only 690 were European) and 12,000 camp followers
1469-544: A strong Persian and Kopak guard, the party left Derbent and entered the realm of the Khan of Kuban . While traveling through the Khanate, a tribal chief stole some of the horses in Poinsett's party. Poinsett boldly decided to go out of his way to the court of the Khan in the town of Kuban to demand their return. As there were normally never any foreigners in this place, the Khan was surprised. Of course, he had never heard of
1582-532: Is now the southwest United States. He also negotiated a split of the Oregon Territory with Great Britain. In the U.S. presidential election of 1848 , Whig Zachary Taylor of Louisiana defeated Democrat Lewis Cass of Michigan . Taylor's term in office was cut short by his death in 1850. In the first part of the 1840s, the modern state of California was part of a larger province of Mexico , called " Alta California ". The region included all of
1695-660: The 1850s . The 1840s saw the rise of the Daguerreotype . Introduced in 1839, the Daguerreotype was the first publicly announced photographic process and came into widespread use in the 1840s. Numerous events in the 1840s were captured by photography for the first time with the use of the Daguerreotype. A number of daguerreotypes were taken of the occupation of Saltillo during the Mexican–American War, in 1847 by an unknown photographer. These photographs stand as
1808-517: The 1880s would have as many. Martin Van Buren was president when the decade began, but was defeated by William Henry Harrison in the U.S. presidential election of 1840 . Harrison's service was the shortest in history, starting with his inauguration on March 4, 1841, and ending when he died on April 4, 1841. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler , replaced him as President (the first such Presidential succession in U.S. history), and served out
1921-694: The British Crown , which began in February 1840. Due to the differences between the Māori and English versions of the texts, the British claimed Māori had ceded sovereignty and proclaimed a new Colony, leading to more than 25 years of asymmetric armed conflict until the Colony secured substantive control. The Mexican–American War led to the redrawing of national boundaries in North America. In
2034-607: The California Gold Rush . In October 1848, the SS California left New York Harbor , rounded Cape Horn at the tip of South America, and arrived in San Francisco after the 4-month-21-day journey. Thereafter, regular steamboat service continued from the west to the east coast of the United States. During 1848, only an estimated 6,000 to 6,500 people traveled to California to seek gold that year. By
2147-695: The Constitution of 1824 , ending the Centralist Republic and beginning the Second Federal Republic of Mexico . After the conclusion of the Mexican–American War, José Joaquín de Herrera became the second president of Mexico to finish his term (Mexico's first president completed his in 1829). It was during this time that Yucatán reunited with Mexico. A decisive factor for the reunion was the Caste War of Yucatán (a revolt by
2260-736: The February Revolution led to the overthrow of the Orléans dynasty by Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte . In 1848, the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx would help lay the groundwork for the global socialist movement. Arguably the first major event of the decade was the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in the United Tribes (modern-day New Zealand ) between Māori rangatira and representatives of
2373-658: The Kingdom of Spain and its longtime colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain , in the Americas portion of the world-wide Spanish Empire . He served to represent the American government during his term to the subsequent another Mexican provisional interim government and then following the First Mexican Republic regime in a tumultuous period of their history in their capital city of Mexico City . Poinsett
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#17327839253742486-512: The Madeira Islands , located 535 miles from mainland Europe. Poinsett finally reached Charleston on May 28, 1815. Returning to Charleston in 1815, Poinsett spent the first few months putting his personal affairs in order. From then until 1825 Poinsett stayed in South Carolina seeking to build a reputation in his home state, and hold office. Yet, he came to be respected as an authority on Latin American affairs. In 1816 Poinsett received
2599-610: The Mexican–American War (1846–1848). Combat operations lasted a year and a half, from the spring of 1846 to the fall of 1847. U.S. forces quickly occupied the capital town of Santa Fe de Nuevo México along the upper Rio Grande and began the Conquest of California in Mexico's Alta California Department. They then invaded to the south into parts of central Mexico (modern-day northeastern Mexico and northwest Mexico). Meanwhile,
2712-601: The Mississippi and over the Seminole War ; reduced the fragmentation of the army by concentrating elements at central locations; equipped the light batteries of artillery regiments as authorized by the 1821 army organization act; and again retired to his plantation at Georgetown, South Carolina, in 1841. During the 1820s, Poinsett was a member of the prestigious society, the Columbian Institute for
2825-544: The Mount Lebanon Emirate at the beginning of the 1840s. Bashir allied with Muhammad Ali of Egypt , but Muhammad Ali was driven out of the country. Bashir was deposed in 1840 when the Egyptians were driven out by an Ottoman-European alliance, which had the backing of Maronite forces. His successor, Emir Bashir III , ruled until 1842, after which the emirate was dissolved and split into a Druze sector and
2938-508: The Nueces River to be part of Texas. This border dispute between the newly expanded United States and Mexico triggered the Mexican–American War . When the war concluded, Mexico relinquished its claim on Texas, as well as other regions in what is now the southwestern United States. Texas' annexation as a state that tolerated slavery had caused tension in the United States among slave states and those that did not allow slavery. The tension
3051-647: The Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute , extending the border westward along the 49th parallel . This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858) . Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce was predicted to have been born in the 1840s. The United States had five different Presidents during the decade. Only
3164-529: The Ottoman Empire , the party proceeded to the Crimea, then through Ukraine, reaching Moscow late in 1807. The trip had been hazardous and Poinsett's health was much impaired. Furthermore, of the nine who had set out on the journey the previous March, Poinsett and two others were the only survivors. Upon his return to Moscow, Czar Alexander discussed the details of Poinsett's trip with him and offered him
3277-732: The Pacific Squadron of the United States Navy conducted a blockade and took control of several garrisons on the Pacific coast farther south in lower Baja California Territory . The U.S. Army eventually captured the capital Mexico City , having marched west from the port of Veracruz , where the Americans staged their first amphibious landing on the Gulf of Mexico coast. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , forced onto
3390-612: The Royal Spanish colony of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (of Mexico ) as an envoy for a decade, 1816-1825. Minister Poinsett served 1825-1829. (continuing into the first year of the successor Andrew Jackson presidential administration). Mexico had recently declared its independence in 1821, and formed a new brief provisional government then later as the First Mexican Empire (1823-1824), ( Mexico ), from
3503-518: The Tariff of 1824 . Poinsett simultaneously served as a special envoy to Mexico from 1822 to 1823, when the government of James Monroe became concerned about the stability of newly independent Mexico. Poinsett, a supporter of the Monroe Doctrine , was convinced that republicanism was the only guarantee of a peaceful, free form of government for North American countries, and tried to influence
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3616-465: The Texas Revolution of 1836. Mexico did not accept the annexation, while also continuing to claim the Nueces River as its border with Texas , and also still considering Texas to be a province of Mexico. In 1845, newly elected U.S. President James K. Polk sent troops to the disputed area, and a diplomatic mission to Mexico. After Mexican forces attacked American forces , the U.S. declared
3729-512: The Texas Revolution . The following year, an ambassador from Texas approached the United States about the possibility of becoming an American state. Fearing a war with Mexico, which did not recognize Texas independence, the United States declined the offer. In 1844, James K. Polk was elected the United States president after promising to annex Texas. Before he assumed office, the outgoing president, John Tyler , entered negotiations with Texas. On February 26, 1845, six days before Polk took office,
3842-691: The Treaty of Wanghia with the Qing Empire. The treaty established five U.S. treaty ports in China with extraterritoriality and was the first unequal treaty that the United States imposed on the dynasty. The 1840s comprised the end of the Tenpō era (1830–1844), the entirety of the Kōka era (1844–1848), and the beginning of the Kaei era (1848–1854). The decade saw the end of the reign of Emperor Ninko in 1846, who
3955-552: The United States , mass migration to the new West Coast occurred, following the annexation of California from Mexico with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , and the California Gold Rush beginning, following the discovery of gold there, both in early 1848. On its northern border, the United States settled the Oregon boundary dispute with the United Kingdom in 1846, thereby solving a domestic political crisis in
4068-671: The United States Army . He was a co-founder of the earlier National Institute for the Promotion of Science and the Useful Arts in the 1840s , (a predecessor of the modern Smithsonian Institution , endowed by James Smithson (1765-1829, a British scientist - chemist / mineralogist ), and its system of museums and cultural / scientific agencies in Washington, D.C. and New York City ). Joel Roberts Poinsett
4181-680: The Volga River , and then by boat to Astrakhan , situated at the mouth of the river. Poinsett's company now entered the Caucasus, containing a very diverse population, and only recently acquired by Russia through conquests by Czars Peter the Great and Catherine the Great . Because of ethnic conflict, the area was extremely dangerous. They were provided with a Cossack escort as they traveled between Tarki and Derbent in Dagestan , but when
4294-532: The reign of Isabella II of Spain . Since she was only 10 years old in 1840, her true reign started in 1843, for which the first portion was referred to as Década moderada . The Affair of the Spanish Marriages (1846) was a series of intrigues between France , Spain , and the United Kingdom relating Isabella II's marriages, which was shortly followed by Second Carlist War (1847–1849). In
4407-438: The Bay of Concepción. With little guidance from the Madison administration, Poinsett decided that something had to be done to halt violations of American neutral rights. Poinsett urged Chile to close its ports to Peru, but the authorities in Santiago did not feel they were strong enough to take such a step. Instead they urged Poinsett to aid them in obtaining arms and supplies from the United States. Although Poinsett furnished
4520-447: The British whalers in the area. When Commodore David Porter of the U.S.S. Essex arrived in Santiago, Poinsett received the first authoritative news of the War of 1812. He now desired more than ever to return to his home. However, this could not happen until Commodore Porter completed his cruise of the Pacific. Finally, as the Essex set out with Poinsett aboard, the British frigates HMS Phoebe and HMS Cherub were spotted in
4633-435: The Charleston aristocracy, Poinsett had his son study law under Henry William DeSaussure , a prominent lawyer of Charleston. Poinsett was not interested in becoming a lawyer, and convinced his parents to allow him to go on an extended tour of Europe in 1801. DeSaussure sent with him a list of law books including Blackstone's Commentaries and Burn's Ecclesiastical Law , just in case young Poinsett changed his mind regarding
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4746-449: The Committee on Naval Affairs to inquire into the expediency of authorizing the construction of ten additional sloops of war. As a member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Poinsett took strong views on developments in South America. Poinsett's political views were aligned with such nationalists as Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun . Poinsett, like many opponents of Clay's American system, opposed
4859-450: The Middle East, where, in 1806, the Persian khan showed him a pool of petroleum , which he speculated might someday be used for fuel. Attracted by the military movements in the Caucasus Mountains, Poinsett visited Erivan , which was then besieged by the Russian Army. After a time with the troops, Poinsett and company journeyed through the mountains of Armenia to the Black Sea. Avoiding Constantinople because of conflict between Russia and
4972-423: The Promotion of Arts and Sciences , who counted among their members former presidents Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams and many prominent men of the day, including well-known representatives of the military, government service, medical and other professions. He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1825 and as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1827. In 1840 he
5085-536: The Russian disclosed to Poinsett that the Czar ardently desired to have a minister from the United States at the Russian Court. He served as a "special agent" to two South American countries from 1810 to 1814, Chile and Argentina. President James Madison appointed him in 1809 as Consul in General. Poinsett was to investigate the prospects of the revolutionists, in their struggle for independence from Spain. On December 29, 1811, he reached Santiago. The Larrain and Carrera families were jockeying for power in Chile. By
5198-488: The Sikh Empire began to fall into disorder. There was a succession of short-lived rulers at the central Durbar (court), and increasing tension between the Khalsa (the Sikh Army) and the Durbar. In May 1841, the Dogra dynasty (a vassal of the Sikh Empire) invaded western Tibet, marking the beginning of the Sino-Sikh war . This war ended in a stalemate in September 1842, with the Treaty of Chushul . The British East India Company began to build up its military strength on
5311-434: The Spanish colonies. President James Madison received General Carrera warmly, but never offered him any official encouragement because he worried that seriously entertaining Carrera might jeopardize gaining Florida that was under Spanish rule. Carrera's only hope of help came from his former comrade. In July 1816, Poinsett traveled to New York to meet Carrera. While there, Poinsett attempted to interest John Jacob Astor ,
5424-416: The U.S. Congress approved the annexation. The Texas legislature approved annexation in July 1845 and constructed a state constitution . In October, Texas residents approved the annexation and the new constitution, and Texas was officially inducted into the United States on December 29, 1845, as the 28th U.S. state. Mexico still considered Texas to be a renegade Mexican state, and never considered land south of
5537-401: The U.S.–Mexico boundary, and urging the adoption of a constitution patterned on that of the U.S. After visiting an area south of Mexico City near Taxco de Alarcón , Poinsett saw what later became known in the United States as the poinsettia . (In Mexico it is called Flor de Nochebuena , Christmas Eve flower, or Catarina ). Poinsett, an avid amateur botanist, sent samples of the plant to
5650-528: The United States minister to France, was invited for a visit while he was touring Savoy, France, and Switzerland. Poinsett was compelled to assume the role of interpreter between the deaf Livingston and the aged Necker, whose lack of teeth made his speech almost incomprehensible. Fortunately, Madame de Stael tactfully assumed the duty of translation for her elderly father. In October 1803, Poinsett left Switzerland for Vienna, Austria , and from there journeyed to Munich. In December he received word that his father
5763-415: The United States, and Poinsett did the best he could to answer all the questions the Khan had. In order to convey the greatness of the U.S., Poinsett spoke at length on its geography. The Khan referred to President Thomas Jefferson as the Shah of America. Finally, Poinsett stated that the theft of his horses would reflect badly on the fair name of the Khanate. The Khan was impressed and told Poinsett that
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#17327839253745876-438: The United States, and by 1836 the plant was widely known as the "poinsettia". Also a species of Mexican lizard, Sceloporus poinsettii , is named in Poinsett's honor. Although Poinsett was a proponent of the slave system and owned slaves, he returned to South Carolina in 1830 to support the Unionist position during the Nullification Crisis, again serving in the South Carolina state legislature (1830–1831). Poinsett also became
5989-400: The War of 1812 was that of federally funded internal improvements . As a member of the state legislature, this was one of Poinsett's passions. After being re-elected to the South Carolina House in 1818, he became a member of the Committee on Internal Improvements and Waterways. Poinsett also served on the South Carolina Board of Public Works as president. One of the main plans of this board
6102-432: The abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, and the definitive end of the Capetian monarchy in France. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Italy, and the Austrian Empire, but did not reach Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, and most of southern Europe (Spain, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Portugal, the Ottoman Empire). Queen Victoria
6215-466: The beginning of 1849, word of the Gold Rush had spread around the world, and an overwhelming number of gold-seekers and merchants began to arrive from virtually every continent. In 1849, an estimated 90,000 people arrived in California in 1849—of which 50,000 to 60,000 were from the United States. In 1850, California joined the union as the 31st state . The Republic of Texas had declared independence in 1836, as part of breaking away from Mexico in
6328-399: The biggest American supporter for Spanish American independence in the next few years. From Lexington, the travelers made their way to Louisville , and then on to Nashville, Tennessee. While in Nashville, Poinsett and his companions had breakfast with Andrew Jackson . Poinsett, after traversing more than two thousand miles, finally returned to Charleston in early November 1816. Poinsett
6441-404: The borders of the Punjab. Eventually, the increasing tension goaded the Khalsa to invade British territory, under weak and possibly treacherous leaders. The hard-fought First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) ended in defeat for the Khalsa. With the Treaty of Lahore , the Sikh Empire ceded Kashmir to the East India Company and surrendered the Koh-i-Noor diamond to Queen Victoria . The Sikh empire
6554-447: The company either collapsed due to poor financial planning, was bought out by a larger competitor before it could build its line, or turned out to be a fraudulent enterprise to channel investors' money into another business. Fashion in European and European-influenced clothing is characterized by a narrow, natural shoulder line following the exaggerated puffed sleeves of the later 1820s fashion and 1830s fashion . The narrower shoulder
6667-538: The country's epidemic. A two-year outbreak began in England and Wales in 1848, and claimed 52,000 lives. In London, it was the worst outbreak in the city's history, claiming 14,137 lives, over twice as many as the 1832 outbreak. Cholera hit Ireland in 1849 and killed many of the Irish Famine survivors, already weakened by starvation and fever. In 1849, cholera claimed 5,308 lives in the major port city of Liverpool , England , an embarkation point for immigrants to North America, and 1,834 in Hull , England. In 1849,
6780-461: The creation of independent national states. The revolutionary wave began in France in February , and immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. Six factors were involved: widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership; demands for more participation in government and democracy; demands for freedom of press;
6893-431: The demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally, the regrouping of the reactionary forces based on the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants. The uprisings were led by ad hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more forced into exile. The only significant lasting reforms were
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#17327839253747006-475: The end of the centralist government and the waning years the "Age of Santa Anna". In 1834, President Antonio López de Santa Anna dissolved Congress, forming a new government. That government instituted the new Centralist Republic of Mexico by approving a new centralist constitution (" Siete Leyes "), From its formation in 1835 until its dissolution in 1846, the Centralist Republic was governed by eleven presidents (none of which finished their term). It called for
7119-432: The first ever photos of warfare in history. Widespread interest to invest in rail technology led to a speculative frenzy in Britain , known there as Railway Mania . It reached its zenith in 1846, when no fewer than 272 Acts of Parliament were passed, setting up new railway companies, and the proposed routes totalled 9,500 miles (15,300 km) of new railway. Around a third of the railways authorised were never built –
7232-571: The first treaty between the United States and Mexico, the Treaty of Limits , a treaty that recognized the U.S.-Mexico border established by the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty between Spain and the U.S. Because some U.S. political leaders were dissatisfied with the Treaty of Limits and the Adams–Onís Treaty, Poinsett was sent to negotiate acquisition of new territories for the United States, including Texas , New Mexico , and Upper California , as well as parts of Lower California , Sonora , Coahuila , and Nuevo León ; but Poinsett's offer to purchase these areas
7345-486: The former nation. Meanwhile in Ireland, the Great Famine began in 1845, causing the deaths of one million Irish people and forcing over a million more to emigrate. In 1848, the women's rights movement began with the Seneca Falls Convention in New York. The last living person from this decade was Robert Early , who died in 1960. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate , to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē
7458-441: The fortunes of what would become the Smithsonian Institution. It is unknown when Poinsett became a Master Mason , but it is known that he was a Past Master of Recovery Lodge #31, Greenville, and Solomon's Lodge, Charleston . Poinsett played a prominent role in defining Freemasonry in Mexico ; he favoured promoting the York Rite , which was allied to the political interests of the United States . This became one of three strands,
7571-436: The government of Agustín de Iturbide , which was beginning to show signs of weakness and divisiveness. The U.S. recognized Mexican independence but it was not until 1825 and the establishment of the Mexican Republic that it sent a minister plenipotentiary. Andrew Jackson and several others turned down the appointment, but Poinsett accepted and resigned his congressional seat. On January 12, 1828, in Mexico City, Poinsett signed
7684-405: The head of the guilty chief was his for the asking, yet since the thief had made it possible for him to accept such a distinguished visitor, perhaps a pardon might be in order. Poinsett's company traveled to Baku on the Caspian Sea. He noted that because of the petroleum pits in the region, it had long been a spot of pilgrimage for fire-worshipers. He became one of the earliest U.S. travelers to
7797-403: The indigenous Maya population) for which Yucatán initially sought help from Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States, but ultimately reunited with Mexico for help. Herrera peacefully turned over the presidency to the winner of the Federal Elections of 1850, General Mariano Arista . Despite being exiled from Mexico in 1848, Santa Anna would return to the presidency one last time during
7910-453: The institution of serfdom made it difficult for Russia to have a merchant marine or become industrialized. In January 1807, Czar Alexander and Poinsett dined at the Palace. Czar Alexander attempted to entice Poinsett into the Russian civil or military service. Poinsett was hesitant, which prompted Alexander to advise him to "see the Empire, acquire the language, study the people", and then decide. Always interested in travel, Poinsett accepted
8023-447: The invitation and left St. Petersburg in March 1807 on a journey through southern Russia. He was accompanied by his English friend Philip Yorke, Viscount Royston and eight others. With letters recommending them to the special care of all Russian officials, Poinsett and Royston made their way to Moscow. They were among the last westerners to see Moscow before its burning in October 1812 by Napoleon's forces. From Moscow they traveled to
8136-568: The loss of their province, later the Republic of Texas (and now the State of Texas ), and thereafter cited and acknowledged the Rio Grande as its future northern national border with the United States. Including Texas, Mexico ceded an area of approximately 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi) – by its terms, around 55% of its former national territory. The 1840s for Mexico were
8249-566: The mission would not lead to any substantial decision for recognition and was unwilling to give up his seat in the House. In the same letter, Poinsett offered his knowledge of South America to the service of whomever the Monroe administration appointed. Poinsett's political values mirrored those of others at the time who considered themselves Jeffersonian Republicans . One of the most important measures supported by Jeffersonian Republicans following
8362-586: The modern American states of California , Nevada and Utah , and parts of Arizona , Wyoming , Colorado and New Mexico . The United States , embarked on the Conquest of California in an early military campaign of the Mexican–American War in Alta California. The California Campaign was marked by a series of small battles throughout 1846 and early 1847. The Treaty of Cahuenga was signed on January 13, 1847, and essentially terminated hostilities in Alta California. Shortly thereafter, John C. Frémont
8475-539: The names of certain dealers, many of them were already too involved with the conflict between the U.S. and Britain to give any attention to the Chileans. During this time Poinsett also urged the Chileans to create a national constitution. A commission consisting of Camilo Henríquez and six others was named for the purpose of drawing up a constitution. The first meeting of the group was held at Poinsett's residence on July 11, 1812. The seizure of American ships by royalist Peru continued. Poinsett's commission stated that he
8588-408: The old colonial system. Seizure of ships and confiscation of cargoes followed, to the dismay of foreign traders, especially Americans. Poinsett learned of the seizure of an American whaler searching for supplies from an intercepted letter from the governor of San Carlos de Chiloe to the viceroy of Lima. Furthermore, he received intelligence that ten other American vessels were seized at Talcahuano in
8701-541: The opportunity to intervene as the tide of Khmer discontent rose against Vietnamese rule. Emperors Minh Mạng , Thiệu Trị and Tự Đức ruled Vietnam during the 1840s under the Nguyễn dynasty. The First Anglo-Afghan War had started in 1838, started by the British as a means of defending India (under British control at the time) from the Russian Empire's expansion into Central Asia. The British attempted to impose
8814-726: The other to being allied to Continental Freemasonry and the other an "independent" National Mexican Rite . He died of tuberculosis , hastened by an attack of pneumonia , in Stateburg, South Carolina , in 1851, and is buried at the Church of the Holy Cross Episcopal Cemetery. Lindsay Schakenbach Regele, Flowers, Guns, and Money: Joel Roberts Poinsett and the Paradoxes of American Patriotis m (The University of Chicago Press, 2023). 1840s The decade
8927-553: The port of Valparaiso. Commodore Porter returned to Santiago to utilize the guns of the fort there. After waiting six weeks, Porter decided to launch a desperate breakout but was easily defeated by Captain James Hillyar of the Phoebe . The British decided to send their American prisoners of war back to the United States in a cartel . Poinsett was forced to stay behind in Chile. When Poinsett returned to Buenos Aires, he found
9040-500: The position of special commissioner to South America stating, "No one has better qualifications for this trust than yourself." Rush also added that he would be personally gratified by Poinsett's acceptance. Nevertheless, Poinsett declined the honor. In May, Poinsett explained to President James Monroe that he had recently accepted a seat in the legislature of South Carolina and could not resign it "without some more important motive than this commission presents." Poinsett perceived that
9153-716: The practice of law. Beginning in 1801, Poinsett traveled the European continent. In the spring of 1802, Poinsett left France for Italy traveling through the Alps and Switzerland. He visited the cities of Naples and hiked up Mount Etna on the island of Sicily. In the spring of 1803 he arrived in Switzerland and stayed at the home of Jacques Necker and his daughter, Madame de Stael . Necker, French Finance Minister from 1776 to 1781 under Louis XVI , had been driven into exile by Napoleon I . On one occasion, Robert Livingston ,
9266-483: The prior decade, the desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837–1838 . The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849. The signing of
9379-501: The rebellious southern "Palmetto State", during the presidential administration of 7th President Andrew Jackson (1767-1845, served 1829-1837). Poinsett was subsequently appointed 15th U.S. Secretary of War in the Presidential Cabinet under Jackson's successor, 8th President , Martin Van Buren (1782-1862, served 1837-1841), of New York state , supervising the U.S. Department of War and it's military forces of
9492-522: The region of Soconusco was annexed by Mexico as part of the state of Chiapas , following the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America . In 1846, President Paredes and the Congress of Mexico declared war at the beginning of the Mexican–American War. Paredes' presidential successor was deposed in a coup, replaced by José Mariano Salas . Salas issued a new decree that restored
9605-551: The remnant Mexican government, ended the war and specified its major consequence, the Mexican Cession of the northern territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México to the United States. The U.S. agreed to pay $ 15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $ 3.25 million of debt already owed earlier by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico acknowledged
9718-601: The rest of his term. Tyler spent much of his term in conflict with the Whig party. He ended his term having made an alliance with the Democrats, endorsing James K. Polk and signing the resolution to annex Texas into the United States. In the Presidential election of 1844 , James K. Polk defeated Henry Clay . During his presidency, Polk oversaw the U.S. victory in the Mexican–American War and subsequent annexation of what
9831-594: The sole remaining heir, Poinsett inherited a small fortune in town houses and lots, plantations, bank stock, and "English funds." The entire Poinsett estate was valued at a hundred thousand dollars or more. Poinsett arrived in the Russian capital of St. Petersburg in November 1806. Levett Harris, consul of the United States at St. Petersburg, and the highest American official in the country, hoped to introduce Poinsett at court to Czar Alexander . Learning that Poinsett
9944-493: The state militias to disarm, but many states resisted, including Mexican Texas , which won its independence in the Texas Revolution of 1836. The Republic of the Rio Grande declared its independence from Mexico in January 1840. However, the border with Texas was never determined (whether the Nueces River or the Rio Grande ). The new Republic fought a brief and unsuccessful war for independence, returning to Mexico late in
10057-560: The time Poinsett arrived, the Carreras gained control under their leader, José Miguel Carrera . Carrera's government was split on how to receive Poinsett. The Tribunal del Consulado, the organization with jurisdiction over commercial matters opposed his reception on the grounds that his nomination had not been confirmed by the U.S. Senate. Moreover, many of the members of this group were royalists, hoping for closer relations with Spain or Britain. Nevertheless, Poinsett received recognition as
10170-625: The wealthy owner of the American Fur Company, in supplying Carrera's Chilean revolutionists with weapons; however, Astor declined to get involved. In August 1816, Poinsett was able to arrange some conferences in Philadelphia between the Chilean leader and some of Napoleon's former officers. Among them were Marshal de Grouchy who had commanded Napoleon's body guards during the Russian Campaign. Poinsett also arranged
10283-538: The west in 1816, Poinsett understood that his country could benefit from transportation facilities. In 1820, Poinsett won a seat in the United States House of Representatives for the Charleston district. As a congressman, Poinsett continued to call for internal improvements, but he also advocated the maintenance of a strong army and navy. In December 1823, Poinsett submitted a resolution calling upon
10396-525: The year. In 1841, Generals Santa Anna and Paredes led a rebellion against President Bustamante , resulting in Santa Anna becoming president of the centralist government for a fifth time . Local officials in Yucatán declared independence in 1841, opposing strong autocratic rule and demanding the restoration of the Constitution of 1824 , thus establishing the second Republic of Yucatán . In 1842,
10509-513: Was a cofounder of the National Institute for the Promotion of Science and the Useful Arts, a group of politicians advocating for the use of the " Smithson bequest" for a national museum that would showcase relics of the country and its leaders, celebrate American technology, and document the national resources of North America. The group was defeated in its efforts, as other groups wanted scientists, rather than political leaders, guiding
10622-588: Was a strong supporter of Andrew Jackson during the early to mid- 19th century in favor of his policies of Jacksonian democracy . He was Unionist leader in South Carolina during that state's threatened refusal to accept and enforce certain federal laws and tariff levies on imported goods in the earlier secessionist rebellion of the Nullification Crisis of the 1830s . Jackson threatened in return to subdue by military force if necessary
10735-687: Was accompanied by a lower waistline for both men and women. The third cholera pandemic happened during the 1840s, which researchers at UCLA believe may have started as early as 1837 and lasted until 1863. This pandemic was considered to have the highest fatalities of the 19th-century epidemics. It originated in India (in Lower Bengal ), spreading along many shipping routes in 1846. Over 15,000 people died of cholera in Mecca in 1846. In Russia , between 1847 and 1851, more than one million people died in
10848-715: Was appointed Governor of the new California Territory, and Yerba Buena, California , was renamed San Francisco . The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , signed in February 1848, marked the end of the Mexican–American War. By the terms of the treaty, Mexico formally ceded Alta California along with its other northern territories east through Texas , receiving $ 15,000,000 in exchange. This largely unsettled territory constituted nearly half of its claimed territory with about 1% of its then population of about 4,500,000. The discovery of gold in Northern California (and subsequent discourse about that discovery in 1848) led to
10961-552: Was aware that his friends had nominated him to represent Charleston, South Carolina, in the state legislature. In Greenville on his way back home, he learned that he had won the nomination and had a seat in the State House of Representatives. As he was beginning his first term in April 1817, the rumored position of American envoy to South America became reality. On April 25, 1817, acting Secretary of State Robert Rush offered Poinsett
11074-545: Was born in 1779 in Charleston , South Carolina , to a wealthy physician , Elisha Poinsett, and his wife Katherine Ann Roberts. He was educated in Connecticut and University of Edinburgh , gaining expertise in languages, the law, and military affairs. In 1800 Poinsett returned to Charleston hoping to pursue a military career. His father did not want his son to be a soldier. Hoping to entice his son to settle into
11187-482: Was dead, and that his sister, Susan, was seriously ill. He immediately secured passage back to Charleston. Poinsett arrived in Charleston early in 1804, months after his father had been laid to rest. Hoping to save his sister's life, Poinsett took her on a voyage to New York, remembering how his earlier voyage to Lisbon had intensified his recovery. Yet, upon arriving in New York City, Susan Poinsett died. As
11300-666: Was finally dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the British province of Punjab . Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the British Crown . The decade was near the beginning of the Tanzimât Era of the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Abdülmecid I ruled during this period. Emir Bashir Shihab II controlled
11413-418: Was founded in 1843. In 1845, George Tupou I united Tonga into a kingdom, and reigned as Tuʻi Kanokupolu . On August 29, 1842, the first of two Opium Wars ended between China and Britain with the Treaty of Nanking . One of the consequences was the cession of modern-day Hong Kong Island to the British. Hong Kong would eventually be returned to China in 1997. On July 3, 1844 the United States signed
11526-688: Was from South Carolina, the Empress asked him if he would inspect the cotton factories under her patronage. Poinsett and Consul Harris traveled by sleigh to Cronstadt to see the factories. Poinsett made some suggestions on improvement, which the Dowager Empress accepted. Poinsett did not believe the cotton industry could be successful in Russia because of the necessity of employing serfs who received no compensation and therefore could have no interest in its prosperity. Furthermore, he believed that
11639-705: Was full of political confrontation. A more radical Young Ireland group seceded from the Repeal movement and attempted an armed rebellion in the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 , which was unsuccessful. This period saw the 1840 end of the First Carlist War , a civil war in Spain over the succession to the throne and the nature of the Spanish monarchy . This was the first full decade of
11752-593: Was noted in Europe for featuring the largely unsuccessful Revolutions of 1848 , also known as the Springtime of Nations . Throughout the continent, bourgeois liberals and working-class radicals engaged in a series of revolts in favor of social reform . In the United Kingdom , this notably manifested itself through the Chartist movement, which sought universal suffrage and parliamentary reform. In France ,
11865-406: Was on the throne 20 June 1837 until her death 22 January, 1901. The wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha took place in 1840. The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it. It is sometimes referred to, mostly outside Ireland, as the "Irish Potato Famine" because one-third of the population
11978-465: Was partially defused with the Compromise of 1850 , in which Texas ceded some of its territory to the federal government to become non-slave-owning areas but gained El Paso. American territorial expansion to the Pacific coast was a major goal of U.S. President James K. Polk . In 1845, the United States of America annexed Texas , which had won independence from Centralist Republic of Mexico in
12091-589: Was planning. On August 29, 1816, Poinsett, along with four free men and one enslaved man from Charleston, set out from Philadelphia on a tour of the western United States. They made stops in Pittsburgh and Cincinnati, before stopping in Lexington, Kentucky. While in Lexington, the group stayed with Congressman Henry Clay . It is possible that in relating his experiences in Chile, Poinsett may have made quite an impression on Clay, who would distinguish himself as
12204-517: Was rejected by the Mexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs headed by Juan Francisco de Azcárate. (Poinsett wrote Notes on Mexico , a memoir of his time in the First Mexican Empire and at the court of Agustín de Iturbide.) He became embroiled in the country's political turmoil until his recall in 1830, but he did try to further U.S. interests in Mexico by seeking preferential treatment of U.S. goods over those of Britain, attempting to shift
12317-479: Was subjected to a series of attacks by Afghan warriors. All of the British soldiers were killed except for one and he and a few surviving Indian soldiers made it to the fort at Jalalabad shortly after. After the Battle of Kabul (1842) , Britain placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power (1842–1863) and withdrew from Afghanistan. The Sikh Empire was founded in 1799, ruled by Ranjit Singh . When Singh died in 1839,
12430-617: Was succeeded by his son, Emperor Kōmei . The Siamese-Vietnamese War (1841–1845) in Cambodia erupted between Vietnam (then under the rule of the Nguyễn dynasty ) and Siam (under the House of Chakri ). In the increasingly confrontational rivalry between Vietnam and Siam, the conflict was triggered by Vietnam's absorption of Cambodia and the demotion of the Khmer monarchs. Siam under Rama III seized
12543-472: Was then solely reliant on this cheap crop for a number of historical reasons. The proximate cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known as potato blight . A census taken in 1841 revealed a population of slightly over 8 million. A census immediately after the famine in 1851 counted 6,552,385, a drop of almost 1.5 million in 10 years. The period of the potato blight in Ireland from 1845 to 1851
12656-553: Was to link the interior of the state with the seaboard. Another important project was the construction of a highway from Charleston through Columbia, to the northwestern border of South Carolina. It was designed to promote interstate commerce as well as to draw commerce from eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina to Charleston. Poinsett, a seasoned traveler, knew better than anyone the importance of good roadways. Through his journeys in New England in 1804 and especially to
12769-594: Was to protect all American property and provide for American citizens. After a consultation with Carrera, Poinsett accepted a commission into the Chilean army to fight against the Spanish Royalists based in Peru. Poinsett was later given the rank of general in Carrera's army. He led a charge at the head of the Chilean cavalry in the Battle of San Carlos and secured a victory for Chile. From there, he went with
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