136-566: Pokhran-II ( Operation Shakti ) was a series of five nuclear weapon tests conducted by India in May 1998. The bombs were detonated at the Indian Army 's Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan . It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India, after the first test, code-named Smiling Buddha , was conducted in May 1974. The test consisted of five detonations, the first of which
272-513: A misnomer , as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom, just as it does with fusion weapons. In fission weapons, a mass of fissile material ( enriched uranium or plutonium ) is forced into supercriticality —allowing an exponential growth of nuclear chain reactions —either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compression of a sub-critical sphere or cylinder of fissile material using chemically fueled explosive lenses . The latter approach,
408-518: A nuclear explosion . Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter . The first test of a fission ("atomic") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000 tons of TNT (84 TJ ). The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ). Nuclear bombs have had yields between 10 tons TNT (the W54 ) and 50 megatons for
544-665: A policy of deliberate ambiguity , it does not acknowledge having them. Germany , Italy , Turkey , Belgium , the Netherlands , and Belarus are nuclear weapons sharing states. South Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons aims to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons, but there are different views of its effectiveness. There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive
680-696: A conference—called for in the manifesto—in Pugwash, Nova Scotia , Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs , held in July 1957. By the 1960s, steps were taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing . The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing , to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, whereas
816-552: A discussion with Abdul Kalam and Chidambaram to conduct nuclear tests. On 28 March 1998, he asked to make preparations for a test. The Indian Intelligence Bureau had been aware of the capability of the United States spy satellites in detecting Indian test preparations. Therefore, the tests required complete secrecy and the 58th Engineer Regiment of the Indian Army Corps of Engineers was tasked with preparing
952-458: A faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. More advanced systems, such as multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile, reducing
1088-614: A few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and acknowledge possessing them—are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States , the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia ), the United Kingdom , France , China , India , Pakistan , and North Korea . Israel is believed to possess nuclear weapons, though, in
1224-492: A fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required the development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, "...made
1360-421: A fusion weapon as of January 2016 , though this claim is disputed. Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it results in an explosion hundreds of times stronger than that of a fission bomb of similar weight. Thermonuclear bombs work by using
1496-472: A nation's economic electronics-based infrastructure. Because the effect is most effectively produced by high altitude nuclear detonations (by military weapons delivered by air, though ground bursts also produce EMP effects over a localized area), it can produce damage to electronics over a wide, even continental, geographical area. Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs : nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring
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#17327720342041632-537: A new nuclear strategy, one that is distinct from that which gave relative stability during the Cold War. Since 1996, the United States has had a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with weapons of mass destruction . Robert Gallucci argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, Gallucci believes that "the United States should instead consider
1768-457: A nuclear test device in September 1972. On 18 May 1974, India tested a implosion-type fission device at the Indian Army 's Pokhran Test Range under the code name Smiling Buddha . The test was called as a Peaceful Nuclear Explosive (PNE) and the yield was estimated to be between 6 and 10 kilotons . Premiership [REDACTED] While India continued to state that the test
1904-425: A nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction . This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism. Critics from the peace movement and within
2040-411: A nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence . The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During
2176-465: A nuclear weapon is a gravity bomb dropped from aircraft ; this was the method used by the United States against Japan in 1945. This method places few restrictions on the size of the weapon. It does, however, limit attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. With miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers . This method
2312-409: A nuclear weapon to its target is an important factor affecting both nuclear weapon design and nuclear strategy . The design, development, and maintenance of delivery systems are among the most expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program; they account, for example, for 57% of the financial resources spent by the United States on nuclear weapons projects since 1940. The simplest method for delivering
2448-433: A nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold ) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb . This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of long-lived radioactive contamination . It has been conjectured that such a device could serve as a "doomsday weapon" because such a large quantity of radioactivities with half-lives of decades, lifted into the stratosphere where winds would distribute it around
2584-421: A policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently leak nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.". Graham Allison makes a similar case, arguing that the key to expanded deterrence
2720-638: A rapid offensive easier. By early to mid December, the Himalayan passes would be closed by snow, limiting China's ability to intervene. The news media's mood in Pakistan had turned increasingly jingoistic and militaristic against East Pakistan and India when the Pakistani news media reported the complexity of the situation in the East, though the reactions from Pakistan's news media pundits were mixed. By
2856-514: A result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people fled the country to seek refuge in India. During the 1971 Bangladesh war for independence , members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro-Pakistani Islamist militias called the Razakars raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women and girls in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape . The Indo-Pakistani conflict
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#17327720342042992-447: A significant portion of their energy from fission reactions used to "trigger" fusion reactions, and fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions. Only six countries—the United States , Russia , the United Kingdom , China , France , and India —have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. Whether India has detonated a "true" multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial. North Korea claims to have tested
3128-496: A single province in 1970, in order to restore it to its original heterogeneous status comprising four provinces , as defined at the time of establishment of Pakistan in 1947. In addition, there were religious and racial tensions between Bengalis and the multi-ethnic West Pakistanis, as Bengalis looked different from the dominant West Pakistanis. The East Pakistan's Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman stressed his political position by presenting his Six Points and endorsing
3264-465: A statement condemning India and threatened economic sanctions . The intelligence community felt humiliated for its failure to detect the preparations for the test. In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades , and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law , the United States imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning
3400-584: A strict no first use policy. In 1989 , V.P. Singh formed the government , which collapsed within two years and this period of instability caused a snag in the nuclear weapons programme. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan severely worsened when India accused Pakistan of supporting the Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir . During this time, the Indian Missile Program succeeded in
3536-550: A substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon", and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment". Nuclear isomers provide a possible pathway to fissionless fusion bombs. These are naturally occurring isotopes ( Hf being a prominent example) which exist in an elevated energy state. Mechanisms to release this energy as bursts of gamma radiation (as in
3672-409: Is a 2018 Bollywood movie was based on the nuclear tests. War and Peace is a documentary by Anand Patwardhan , which details the events of the tests. Nuclear weapon A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions , either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions ( thermonuclear bomb ), producing
3808-420: Is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron radiation . Such a weapon could, according to tacticians, be used to cause massive biological casualties while leaving inanimate infrastructure mostly intact and creating minimal fallout. Because high energy neutrons are capable of penetrating dense matter, such as tank armor, neutron warheads were procured in
3944-456: Is analogous to identifying a criminal by fingerprints. "The goal would be twofold: first, to deter leaders of nuclear states from selling weapons to terrorists by holding them accountable for any use of their weapons; second, to give leaders every incentive to tightly secure their nuclear weapons and materials." According to the Pentagon's June 2019 " Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations " of
4080-403: Is coming up with ways of tracing nuclear material to the country that forged the fissile material. "After a nuclear bomb detonates, nuclear forensics cops would collect debris samples and send them to a laboratory for radiological analysis. By identifying unique attributes of the fissile material, including its impurities and contaminants, one could trace the path back to its origin." The process
4216-481: Is for the purpose of achieving different yields for different situations , and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size, radiation hardness or requirements for special materials, especially fissile fuel or tritium. Some nuclear weapons are designed for special purposes; most of these are for non-strategic (decisively war-winning) purposes and are referred to as tactical nuclear weapons . The neutron bomb purportedly conceived by Sam Cohen
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4352-503: Is no evidence that it is feasible beyond the military domain. However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War , and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself. A fourth generation nuclear weapon design is related to, and relies upon, the same principle as antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion . Most variation in nuclear weapon design
4488-409: Is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. There are two types of boosted fission bomb: internally boosted, in which a deuterium-tritium mixture is injected into the bomb core, and externally boosted, in which concentric shells of lithium-deuteride and depleted uranium are layered on the outside of
4624-490: Is not clear that this has ever been implemented, and their plausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of dispute. The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs ), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen ( deuterium and tritium ). All such weapons derive
4760-454: Is the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61 , which is being improved upon to this day. Preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted on a missile , which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. Although even short-range missiles allow for
4896-545: The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that India's nuclear program was intended only for peaceful purposes, preliminary work on a fusion bomb was initiated. In the aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the government , the program continued under M.R. Srinivasan , but made slow progress. Though the nuclear program did not receive much attention from incoming Prime Minister Morarji Desai at first,
5032-611: The Mukti Bahini , consisting of a conventional force and a guerilla force, was formed under the retired colonel Mohammad Ataul Gani Osmani . There was also a meeting between Prime Minister Gandhi and President Nixon in November 1971, where she rejected the US advice against intervening in the conflict. After the resignations of Admiral S.M. Ahsan and Lieutenant-General Yaqub Ali Khan, the media correspondents began airing reports of
5168-555: The Pakistani capitulation in Dhaka on 16 December 1971. The war began with Pakistan's Operation Chengiz Khan , consisting of preemptive aerial strikes on eight Indian air stations . The strikes led to India declaring war on Pakistan, marking their entry into the war for East Pakistan's independence, on the side of Bengali nationalist forces . India's entry expanded the existing conflict with Indian and Pakistani forces engaging on both
5304-480: The Soviet Union , who responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles . The Soviet response demonstrated the deterrent value and significance of nuclear weapons to India. After India gained military and political initiative over Pakistan in the war, the work on building a nuclear device continued. The hardware began to be built in early 1972 and the Prime Minister authorized the development of
5440-695: The Starfish Prime high-altitude nuclear test in 1962, an unexpected effect was produced which is called a nuclear electromagnetic pulse . This is an intense flash of electromagnetic energy produced by a rain of high-energy electrons which in turn are produced by a nuclear bomb's gamma rays. This flash of energy can permanently destroy or disrupt electronic equipment if insufficiently shielded. It has been proposed to use this effect to disable an enemy's military and civilian infrastructure as an adjunct to other nuclear or conventional military operations. By itself it could as well be useful to terrorists for crippling
5576-625: The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) with the aid of Tata Group . After Indian Independence , the Atomic Energy Act was passed on 15 April 1948, that established the Indian Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC). In 1954, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established which was responsible for the atomic development programme and was allocated a significant amount of the defence budget in
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5712-1958: The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military nuclear technology to member countries without fear of proliferation. Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Eastern Front: Western Front: [REDACTED] Indira Gandhi [REDACTED] Swaran Singh [REDACTED] Sam Manekshaw [REDACTED] J.S. Arora [REDACTED] G.G. Bewoor [REDACTED] Sagat Singh [REDACTED] J. F. R. Jacob [REDACTED] S. M. Nanda [REDACTED] S. N. Kohli [REDACTED] Nilakanta Krishnan [REDACTED] Pratap C. Lal [REDACTED] H. C. Dewan [REDACTED] Sheikh Mujibur Rahman [REDACTED] M. A. G. Osmani [REDACTED] Yahya Khan [REDACTED] A.A.K. Niazi [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Rao Farman [REDACTED] Tikka Khan [REDACTED] Iftikhar Janjua † [REDACTED] Muzaffar Hassan [REDACTED] Rashid Ahmed [REDACTED] Md Shariff [REDACTED] [REDACTED] M.A.K. Lodhi [REDACTED] Leslie Norman [REDACTED] Abdul Rahim Khan [REDACTED] Inamul Haq [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Z.A. Khan [REDACTED] Indian Armed Forces : 825,000 – 860,000 Pakistan Armed Forces : 350,000 – 365,000 [REDACTED] India 2,500 –3,843 killed 9,851 –12,000 injured Neutral claims Indian claims Pakistani claims [REDACTED] Pakistan 9,000 killed 25,000 wounded 93,000 captured 2 destroyers 1 Minesweeper } 1 Submarine 3 Patrol vessels 7 gunboats Neutral claims Indian claims Pakistani claims Systematic events § indicates events in
5848-554: The Tsar Bomba (see TNT equivalent ). A thermonuclear weapon weighing as little as 600 pounds (270 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 megatonnes of TNT (5.0 PJ). A nuclear device no larger than a conventional bomb can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation . Since they are weapons of mass destruction , the proliferation of nuclear weapons is a focus of international relations policy. Nuclear weapons have been deployed twice in war , both by
5984-676: The Tsar Bomba of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 megatons of TNT (210 PJ), was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements. In the early 1950s the Livermore Laboratory in the United States had plans for the testing of two massive bombs, Gnomon and Sundial , 1 gigaton of TNT and 10 gigatons of TNT respectively. Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to
6120-556: The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 , condemning the Indian and Pakistani tests. The Government of India declared 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five successful nuclear weapon tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998. The day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology. Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran
6256-424: The hafnium controversy ) have been proposed as possible triggers for conventional thermonuclear reactions. Antimatter , which consists of particles resembling ordinary matter particles in most of their properties but having opposite electric charge , has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there
6392-614: The head of government or head of state . Despite controls and regulations governing nuclear weapons, there is an inherent danger of "accidents, mistakes, false alarms, blackmail, theft, and sabotage". In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from making progress on arms control agreements. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955, by Bertrand Russell in
6528-436: The tropopause into the stratosphere , where the calm non-turbulent winds permit the debris to travel great distances from the burst, eventually settling and unpredictably contaminating areas far removed from the target of the explosion. There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small number of fusion reactions, but it
6664-537: The "implosion" method, is more sophisticated and more efficient (smaller, less massive, and requiring less of the expensive fissile fuel) than the former. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons (500 kilotons ) of TNT (4.2 to 2.1 × 10 GJ). All fission reactions generate fission products ,
6800-586: The 1980s (though not deployed in Europe) for use as tactical payloads for US Army artillery shells (200 mm W79 and 155 mm W82 ) and short range missile forces. Soviet authorities announced similar intentions for neutron warhead deployment in Europe; indeed, they claimed to have originally invented the neutron bomb, but their deployment on USSR tactical nuclear forces is unverifiable. A type of nuclear explosive most suitable for use by ground special forces
6936-514: The Bengali domination and prevent formation of the central government in Islamabad , the controversial One Unit programme established the two wings of East and West Pakistan . West Pakistanis' opposition to these efforts made it difficult to effectively govern both wings. In 1969, President Yahya Khan announced the first general elections and disestablished the status of West Pakistan as
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#17327720342047072-655: The Bengalis to draft the constitution based on the six-points and liberalism. To resolve the crisis, the Admiral Ahsan Mission was formed to provide recommendations. Its findings were met with favourable reviews from the political leaders of West Pakistan, with the exception of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , the chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party. However, the military top brass vetoed the mission's proposal. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto endorsed
7208-635: The Bengalis' right to govern. The 1970 Pakistani general election , resulted in Awami League gaining 167 out of 169 seats for the East Pakistan Legislative Assembly , and a near- absolute majority in the 313-seat National Assembly , while the vote in West Pakistan was mostly won by the socialist Pakistan Peoples Party . The League's election success caused many West Pakistanis to fear that it would allow
7344-425: The Cold War, policy and military theorists considered the sorts of policies that might prevent a nuclear attack, and they developed game theory models that could lead to stable deterrence conditions. Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against
7480-523: The Indian Chief of Army Staff Gen Sam Manekshaw if he was ready to go to war with Pakistan. According to Manekshaw's own personal account, he refused, citing the onset of monsoon season in East Pakistan and also the fact that the army tanks were being refitted. He offered his resignation, which Gandhi declined. He then said he could guarantee victory if she would allow him to prepare for
7616-426: The Indian army conducted multiple incursions into East Pakistani territory, generally withdrawing to India after completing their mission. From 21 November, however, Indian forces with Mukti Bahini support entered East Pakistan and remained there in preparation for a formal war that India expected to launch on 6 December. An Indian-Pakistani war seemed inevitable. The Soviet Union reportedly warned Pakistan against
7752-601: The Indian refugee camps for recruitment and training of Mukti Bahini guerrillas that were to be trained against Pakistan. By November 1971, the Indian military was providing direct fire against Pakistani troops and even made several incursions into Pakistani territory. Indian authorities also attempted to carry on psychological warfare and keep up the morale of comrades in East Pakistan. The Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra (Free Bangladesh Radio Centre), which had broadcast Major Rahman's independence declaration,
7888-494: The Joint Chiefs of Staffs website Publication, "Integration of nuclear weapons employment with conventional and special operations forces is essential to the success of any mission or operation." Because they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation and possible use of nuclear weapons are important issues in international relations and diplomacy. In most countries, the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by
8024-503: The Nuclear Age (1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase international stability . Some prominent neo-realist scholars, such as Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer , have argued, along the lines of Gallois, that some forms of nuclear proliferation would decrease the likelihood of total war , especially in troubled regions of
8160-544: The Pakistan Armed Forces, including some Bengali soldiers who had remained loyal to Pakistan. The remaining 10,324 to 12,500 prisoners were civilians, either family members of the military personnel or collaborators ( Razakars ). It is estimated that members of the Pakistani military and supporting pro-Pakistani Islamist militias killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000 civilians in Bangladesh. As
8296-529: The Pakistani forces under the command of Brig Mohammad Mumtaz Khan advanced towards the village of Hussainiwala with 2000 troops and artillery support. The Indian side had deployed one battalion, 15 Punjab, under the command of Lt Col Shastry comprising 900 soldiers with support from the IAF. The 15 Punjab could not hold the village and had to retreat on 4 December towards the fortress called Kaiser-i-Hind outside Hussainiwala. The Indian forces were eventually pushed from
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#17327720342048432-598: The Pakistani military's widespread genocide against their Bengali citizens, particularly aimed at the minority Bengali Hindu population, which led to approximately 10 million people seeking refuge in the neighbouring states of Eastern India. The Indian government opened the East Pakistan–India border to allow the Bengali refugees to find safe shelter; the governments of West Bengal , Bihar , Assam , Meghalaya and Tripura established refugee camps along
8568-664: The USAAF detonated a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb nicknamed " Fat Man " over the Japanese city of Nagasaki . These bombings caused injuries that resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel . The ethics of these bombings and their role in Japan's surrender are to this day, still subjects of debate . Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , nuclear weapons have been detonated over 2,000 times for testing and demonstration. Only
8704-777: The USAF AIR-2 Genie , the AIM-26 Falcon and US Army Nike Hercules . Missile interceptors such as the Sprint and the Spartan also used small nuclear warheads (optimized to produce neutron or X-ray flux) but were for use against enemy strategic warheads. Other small, or tactical, nuclear weapons were deployed by naval forces for use primarily as antisubmarine weapons. These included nuclear depth bombs or nuclear armed torpedoes. Nuclear mines for use on land or at sea are also possibilities. The system used to deliver
8840-527: The United States against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 during World War II . Nuclear weapons have only twice been used in warfare, both times by the United States against Japan at the end of World War II . On August 6, 1945, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) detonated a uranium gun-type fission bomb nicknamed " Little Boy " over the Japanese city of Hiroshima ; three days later, on August 9,
8976-526: The United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as suitcase bombs ), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition , have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility. Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by
9112-550: The afternoon. Santhanam, in-charge of the test site, handed over the site to M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying the test indicators. After the safety clearance, the countdown system was activated and at 3:45 PM IST , the three devices were detonated simultaneously. On 13 May, at 12.21 PM IST, two sub-kiloton devices ( Shakti IV and V ) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station. Having tested weaponized nuclear warheads, India became
9248-524: The air strikes were a declaration of war against India and the Indian Air Force (IAF) responded with initial air strikes the same night. These expanded to massive retaliatory air strikes the next morning. This air action marked the start of all-out war; Gandhi ordered the mobilisation of troops and launched a full-scale invasion of East Pakistan. This involved Indian forces in coordinated air , sea and land assaults. The main Indian objective on
9384-464: The bombs, including the detonators , the implosion and high-voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for systems engineering, aerodynamics and safety. The bombs were transported moved from BARC at 3 am on 1 May 1998 to Bombay airport , then flown in an Indian Air Force 's AN-32 aircraft to Jaisalmer Airport . It was then transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to
9520-527: The border. The resulting flood of impoverished East Pakistani refugees strained India's already overburdened economy. The Indian government repeatedly appealed to the international community for assistance, but failed to elicit any response, despite the External Affairs minister Swaran Singh meeting foreign ministers of other countries. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 27 March 1971 concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it
9656-414: The capability to build fission and thermonuclear weapons with yields up to 200 kilotons . Then chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission described each one of the explosions to be equivalent to several tests carried out over the years by various nations. The Indian government convened a press conference to announce the tests and declared India as a full-fledged nuclear state. As a consequence of
9792-591: The capture of around 15,010 km (5,795 sq mi) of Pakistani territory; this land gained by India in Azad Kashmir , Punjab and Sindh sectors was later ceded in the Simla Agreement of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill Casualties inflicted to Pakistan Army's I Corps , II Corps , and Pakistan Marines' Punjab detachment were very high, and many soldiers and marines perished due to lack of operational planning and lack of coordination within
9928-485: The chance of a successful missile defense . Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be difficult. Tactical weapons have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells, land mines , and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare . An atomic mortar has been tested by
10064-435: The conflict on his terms, and set a date for it; Gandhi accepted his conditions. In reality, Gandhi was well aware of the difficulties of a hasty military action, but she needed to get the military's views to satisfy her hawkish colleagues and the public opinion, which were critical of India's restraint. By mid July, India had settled on a plan of attack. The ground in the East would be drier by mid November, which would make
10200-640: The conservative print media outlets in the country had published jihad related materials to boost the recruitment in the military. On the evening of 3 December, at about 17:35, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched surprise pre-emptive strikes on eight Indian airfields, including Agra , which was 480 kilometres (300 mi) from the border. At the time of the attack, the Taj Mahal had been camouflaged with lots of twigs and leaves and draped with burlap, because its marble glowed prominently in
10336-527: The country had a total of $ 44bn in loans in 1998, from the IMF and the World Bank . The industrial sectors of the Indian economy were likely to be hurt by sanctions with the foreign companies, which had invested heavily in India, facing consequences of impending sanctions. The Indian government announced that it had factored the economic response and was willing to take the consequences. The United States issued
10472-435: The creation of nuclear fallout than fission reactions, but because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons. Furthermore, high yield thermonuclear explosions (most dangerously ground bursts) have the force to lift radioactive debris upwards past
10608-455: The decision process. The prospect of mutually assured destruction might not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless terrorist instead of a sovereign nation, there might not be a nation or specific target to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the September 11, 2001, attacks , that this complication calls for
10744-456: The decision was reversed owing to pressure from the United States as it might end-up in nuclear brinkmanship with Pakistan and potential foreign policy implications. But work continued towards weaponizing the nuclear bomb under V. S. R. Arunachalam and the Indian missile programme was launched under A. P. J. Abdul Kalam . Ramanna pushed forward with a Uranium enrichment program and despite
10880-567: The deliverance mechanism was still under development. With the successful testing of Agni missile and successful trials involving dropping of similar bombs without fissionable material from bomber aircraft in 1994, the weaponization became successful. With the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty under discussion and global pressure pushing India to sign, then Indian Prime Minister Narasimha Rao ordered preparations for further nuclear tests in 1995. Based on
11016-595: The detonation process with all personnel required to wear uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. They were given pseudo-names and they traveled in smaller groups to avoid detection. Scientists and engineers of BARC, the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER) , and DRDO were involved in the development and assembly of the bombs. Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for
11152-408: The developed countries. Dhruva , a new reactor with a capability to produce larger quantities of weapon grade material, was commissioned at BARC in 1985. Other components for a nuclear fusion bomb were developed during the time with capabilities to air drop nuclear weapons. In late 1985, a study group commissioned by the Prime Minister outlined a plan for the production of 70 to 100 nuclear warheads and
11288-476: The development of the Prithvi missiles . India decided to observe the temporary moratorium on the nuclear tests for fear of inviting international criticism. The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export deals, which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India. Though India had stock-piled material and components to be able to construct a dozen nuclear fission bombs,
11424-420: The device preparation building, which was designated as Prayer Hall'. Following were the main personnel involved in the testing: The test was organized into two groups to be fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. Five nuclear devices were tested during the operation. Group-I: Group-II: An additional, sixth device ( Shakti VI ) was developed but not detonated. The first test
11560-439: The direction of the director of DAE R. Chidambaram , S. K. Sikka was tasked with the development of a thermo-nuclear fusion device. In August, K. Santhanam , the chief technical adviser of DRDO, was appointed the director for carrying out the tests. While water was being pumped out of the shafts constructed more than ten years earlier, American spy satellites picked up the signs. With pressure from US President Bill Clinton ,
11696-586: The east. On 26 March 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman of the Pakistan Army declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. In April, the exiled Awami League leaders formed a government-in-exile in Baidyanathtala of Meherpur . The East Pakistan Rifles and Bengali officers in Pakistan's army , navy , and marines , defected to the rebellion after taking refuge in different parts of India. The Bangladesh Force, namely
11832-613: The eastern and western fronts. Thirteen days after the war started, India achieved a clear upper hand, and the Eastern Command of the Pakistan military signed the instrument of surrender on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka, marking the formation of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh . Approximately 93,000 Pakistani servicemen were taken prisoner by the Indian Army , which included 79,676 to 81,000 uniformed personnel of
11968-603: The eastern front was to capture Dacca, and on the western front to contain Pakistani forces. The Indian army was better equipped than the Pakistanis and enjoyed significant numerical superiority over them. Pakistan launched a ground offensive on the western front. Major ground attacks were concentrated on the western border by the Pakistan Army but the Indian Army was successful in penetrating into Pakistani soil. It eventually made some quick and initial gains, including
12104-575: The end of September 1971, a propaganda campaign, possibly orchestrated by elements within the government of Pakistan , resulted in stickers endorsing " Crush India " becoming a standard feature on the rear windows of vehicles in Rawalpindi , Islamabad and Lahore ; this soon spread to the rest of West Pakistan. By October, other stickers proclaimed Hang the Traitor in an apparent reference to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. From mid October to 20 November,
12240-469: The energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the Teller-Ulam design , which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel ( tritium , deuterium , or lithium deuteride ) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, gamma rays and X-rays emitted first compress
12376-461: The export of certain defense material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India. The United States held talks with India over the issue of India becoming a part of the CTBT and NPT and pressurized to rollback India's nuclear program. India did not accede to the request stating that it
12512-455: The fission bomb core. The external method of boosting enabled the USSR to field the first partially thermonuclear weapons, but it is now obsolete because it demands a spherical bomb geometry, which was adequate during the 1950s arms race when bomber aircraft were the only available delivery vehicles. The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of neutron radiation . Surrounding
12648-420: The fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed neutrons , which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as depleted uranium . Each of these components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of
12784-535: The globe, would make all life on the planet extinct. In connection with the Strategic Defense Initiative , research into the nuclear pumped laser was conducted under the DOD program Project Excalibur but this did not result in a working weapon. The concept involves the tapping of the energy of an exploding nuclear bomb to power a single-shot laser that is directed at a distant target. During
12920-485: The government for its decision and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country's armed forces. The opposition led by Indian National Congress criticized the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests, accusing the government of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country's national security. By the time India had conducted tests,
13056-504: The government, and dissidents in the East began targeting the ethnic Bihari community, which largely supported West Pakistan. In early March 1971, approximately 300 Biharis were slaughtered in riots by Bengali mobs in Chittagong alone. The Government of Pakistan used the "Bihari massacre" to justify its deployment of the military in East Pakistan on 25 March, when it initiated its military crackdown . President Yahya Khan called on
13192-686: The internal resistance movement linked to the Indo-Pakistani War. ‡ indicates events in the Indo-Pakistani War linked to the internal resistance movement in Bangladesh. Other conflicts Border skirmishes Strikes The Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 , also known as the third India-Pakistan war , was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 until
13328-496: The majority of their energy from nuclear fission reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin nuclear fusion reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output. All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as atomic bombs or atom bombs (abbreviated as A-bombs ). This has long been noted as something of
13464-467: The marine-army formations against Indian Army's Southern and Western Commands . By the time the war came to end, the army soldiers and marines were highly demoralised– both emotionally and psychologically– on the western front and had no will to put up a defensive fight against the approaching Indian Army soldiers. On 3 December, after the air strike carried out by the PAF, the 106 Infantry Brigade of
13600-423: The mass protests in 1969. These led to the resignation of President Ayub Khan , who invited army chief General Yahya Khan to take over the central government . The geographical distance between the eastern and western wings of Pakistan was vast; East Pakistan lay over 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) away, which greatly hampered any attempt to integrate the Bengali and the Pakistani cultures. To overcome
13736-407: The midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including Albert Einstein , who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist Cyrus S. Eaton offered to sponsor
13872-545: The military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. According to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if
14008-471: The military – which was overwhelmingly led by West Pakistanis – to suppress dissent in the East, after accepting the resignation of Lieutenant-General Yaqub Ali Khan , the chief of staff of the East-Pakistani military . Mass arrests of dissidents began and, after several days of strikes and non-cooperation , the Pakistani military, led by Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan , cracked down on Dhaka on
14144-408: The missiles before they land or implementing civil defense measures using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack. Weapons designed to threaten large populations or to deter attacks are known as strategic weapons . Nuclear weapons for use on a battlefield in military situations are called tactical weapons . Critics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that
14280-545: The moonlight. These pre-emptive strikes, known as Operation Chengiz Khan , were inspired by the success of Israeli Operation Focus in the Arab–Israeli Six-Day War . Unlike the Israeli attack on Arab airbases in 1967, which involved a large number of Israeli planes, Pakistan flew too few planes to inflict significant damage. In an address to the nation on radio that same evening, Prime Minister Gandhi held that
14416-465: The night of 25 March 1971. The government outlawed the Awami League, which forced many of its members and sympathisers into refuge in Eastern India . Mujib was arrested on the night of 25/26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971) and taken to West Pakistan. Operation Searchlight , followed by Operation Barisal , attempted to kill the intellectual elite of
14552-554: The prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed. The design work on the bomb proceeded under physicist Raja Ramanna , who continued the nuclear weapons technology research after Bhabha's death in 1966. The project employed 75 scientists and progressed in secrecy. During the Indo-Pakistani War , the U.S. government sent a carrier battle group into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India, who were aided by
14688-559: The program gained impetus when Ramanna was appointed to the Ministry of Defence . With the discovery of Pakistan's clandestine atomic bomb program , India realized that it was very likely to succeed in its project in a few years. With the return of Indira Gandhi in 1980 , the nuclear program gained momentum. Two new underground shafts were constructed at the Pokhran test range by 1982 and Gandhi approved further nuclear tests in 1982. But
14824-428: The remains of the split atomic nuclei. Many fission products are either highly radioactive (but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived), and as such, they are a serious form of radioactive contamination . Fission products are the principal radioactive component of nuclear fallout . Another source of radioactivity is the burst of free neutrons produced by the weapon. When they collide with other nuclei in
14960-401: The sanctions, India imported heavy water required as a neutron moderator in the nuclear reactors , from countires like China, Norway and Soviet Union through a middleman. Though Rajiv Gandhi , who became the Prime Minister in 1984, supported technological development and research, he was skeptical about nuclear testing as he believed it would result in further technological alienation from
15096-460: The sixth country to join the nuclear club . Shortly after the tests, Prime Minister Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement: Today, at 15:45 hours, India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range. The tests conducted today were with a fission device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. The measured yields are in line with expected values. Measurements have also confirmed that there
15232-613: The subsequent years. In 1956, the first nuclear reactor became operational at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), becoming the first operating reactor in Asia. In 1961, India commissioned a reprocessing plant to produce weapon grade Plutonium . In 1962, India was engaged in a war with China and with China conducting its own nuclear test in 1964, it accelerated India's need to develop nuclear weapons. With two reactors operational in early 1960s, research progressed in learning and development of know-how to manufacture nuclear weapons. With
15368-402: The surrounding material, the neutrons transmute those nuclei into other isotopes, altering their stability and making them radioactive. The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been uranium-235 and plutonium-239 . Less commonly used has been uranium-233 . Neptunium-237 and some isotopes of americium may be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it
15504-498: The survival of the state were at stake. Another deterrence position is that nuclear proliferation can be desirable. In this case, it is argued that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons deter all-out war between states, and they succeeded in doing this during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union . In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen. Pierre Marie Gallois of France, an adviser to Charles de Gaulle , argued in books like The Balance of Terror: Strategy for
15640-506: The test never progressed. With Rao's term ending in 1996, the next two years saw multiple governments being formed. Atal Bihari Vajpayee , who was a strong advocate of nuclear weaponization, came to power following the 1998 general elections . Vajpayee had earlier declared that if re-voted to power, his government would induct nuclear weapons and declare India's might to gather respect. Soon after assuming power in March 1998, Vajpayee organized
15776-408: The test sites without being detected. Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place during the day to give the impression that it was never moved. Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug-out sand was shaped like natural sand dunes . Cables and sensors were either covered with sand or concealed using native vegetation. A select group was involved in
15912-567: The tests which are not favorable to the peace and stability in the region and called for the international community to pressurize India to cease the development of nuclear weapons. It further rejected claims of India's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as unfounded. However, permanent members of the United Nations Security Council such as the United Kingdom , France , and Russia refrained from making any statements condemning
16048-464: The tests, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1172 was enacted and economic sanctions were imposed by a number of countries including Japan and the United States . Efforts towards building a nuclear bomb , infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since the end of Second World War . The origins of India's nuclear program can be traced back to 1945 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha established
16184-538: The tests. Pakistan issued a statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif stating that his country will take appropriate action. Pakistan carried out six nuclear tests under the codename Chagai-I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai-II on 30 May 1998. Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist , Pervez Hoodbhoy , held India responsible for Pakistan's nuclear test experiments. Pakistan's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation and economic sanctions. On June 6,
16320-418: The unexpected deaths of then Prime Minister Nehru in 1964 and Bhabha in 1966, the programme slowed down. The incoming prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri appointed physicist Vikram Sarabhai as the head of the nuclear programme and the direction of the programme changed towards utilizing nuclear energy peaceful purposes rather than military development. After Shastri's death in 1966, Indira Gandhi became
16456-487: The veto, and subsequently refused to yield the premiership of Pakistan to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman . The Awami League called for general strikes in the country. President Yahya Khan postponed the inauguration of the National Assembly, causing disillusionment with the Awami League and their supporters throughout East Pakistan. In reaction, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for general strikes that eventually shut down
16592-458: The war , which they termed as "suicidal course for Pakistan's unity." Despite this warning, in November 1971, thousands of people led by conservative Pakistani politicians marched in Lahore and across Pakistan, calling for Pakistan to "crush India". On 23 November, President Yahya Khan declared a national state of emergency and told the country to prepare for war. By the first week of December,
16728-446: The weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. This can mean keeping weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on submarines or land mobile transporter erector launchers whose locations are difficult to track, or it can mean protecting weapons by burying them in hardened missile silo bunkers. Other components of nuclear strategies included using missile defenses to destroy
16864-631: The world where there exists a single nuclear-weapon state. Aside from the public opinion that opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter: those, like Mearsheimer, who favored selective proliferation, and Waltz, who was somewhat more non- interventionist . Interest in proliferation and the stability-instability paradox that it generates continues to this day, with ongoing debate about indigenous Japanese and South Korean nuclear deterrent against North Korea . The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism ) complicates
17000-624: The yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium. Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described to the right, but it is possible to add additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily large yield. This is in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in their explosive power due to criticality danger (premature nuclear chain reaction caused by too-large amounts of pre-assembled fissile fuel). The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated,
17136-408: Was a high yield fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs . One fusion and two fission bombs were detonated on 11 May 1998 and two more fission bombs were detonated two days later on 13 May 1998. The tests were collectively called Operation Shakti , and the five nuclear bombs were designated as Shakti-I through to Shakti-V . The tests achieved their main objective of giving India
17272-603: Was economical to go to war against Pakistan, and expressed full support of her government for the independence struggle of the people of East Pakistan. On 28 April 1971, the Union cabinet ordered the Chief of the Army Staff General Sam Manekshaw to "Go into East Pakistan". Defected East Pakistan military officers and the elements of Indian Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) immediately started using
17408-428: Was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many countries. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation . The technological embargo and sanctions affected the development of India's nuclear program. It was crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependence on imported technology on certain areas. Though India declared to
17544-476: Was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere. These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in May 1974. I warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out these successful tests. On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this. News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large-scale approval by general public in India. The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. The media praised
17680-407: Was not consistent with her national security interest. Canada criticized India's actions. Japan imposed economic sanctions which included freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid. Few other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid and government-to-government credit lines. China stated that it was seriously concerned about
17816-418: Was planned on 11 May. The high yield thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named White House , which was approximately 230 metres [m] (750 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named Taj Mahal , and the first sub-kiloton device in shaft Kumbhkaran . The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May. The first device to be placed
17952-513: Was relocated from Kalurghat in East Pakistan to India after the transmission building was shelled by Pakistani Sabre jets on 30 March 1971. It resumed broadcasts on 3 April from Tripura, aided by the Indian Border Security Force . The clandestine station was finally shifted to Kolkata , where it was joined by a large number of Bangladeshi radio programmers, newscasters, poets, singers and journalists. Its jurisdiction
18088-529: Was sparked by the Bangladesh Liberation War , a conflict between the traditionally dominant West Pakistanis and the majority East Pakistanis. The political tensions between East Bengal and West Pakistan had its origin in the creation of Pakistan as a result of the partition of India by the United Kingdom in 1947; the popular language movement in 1950; mass riots in East Bengal in 1964; and
18224-744: Was the Special Atomic Demolition Munition , or SADM, sometimes popularly known as a suitcase nuke . This is a nuclear bomb that is man-portable, or at least truck-portable, and though of a relatively small yield (one or two kilotons) is sufficient to destroy important tactical targets such as bridges, dams, tunnels, important military or commercial installations, etc. either behind enemy lines or pre-emptively on friendly territory soon to be overtaken by invading enemy forces. These weapons require plutonium fuel and are particularly "dirty". They also demand especially stringent security precautions in their storage and deployment. Small "tactical" nuclear weapons were deployed for use as antiaircraft weapons. Examples include
18360-402: Was the sub-kiloton device, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8:30 PM. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed by 4 AM on the next day with the fission device being placed by 7:30 AM. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber used for the test devices. The timing of the tests was pursuant to the local weather conditions, and the test sequence was initiated in
18496-443: Was transferred to the provisional Bangladesh government-in-exile, and made its first broadcast on 25 May, the birth anniversary of poet Kazi Nazrul Islam (who would later be named Bangladesh's national poet ). Among the Indian contributors to the radio station's nationalistic programmes was Salil Chowdhury . Akashvani Kolkata also actively took part in this effort. By the end of April 1971, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had asked
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