Distribution of freshwater resources by type
93-563: Polbeth ( / ˌ p oʊ l ˈ b ɛ θ / ; G. Poll - pool beithe - birch tree "birch pool" ) is a former oil shale mining village located about a mile from West Calder , and not far from Livingston , West Lothian , Scotland. A mile to the west of the village are the Five Sisters Shale Bings , a local landmark and scheduled monument ( 55°51′35″N 03°35′05″W / 55.85972°N 3.58472°W / 55.85972; -3.58472 ). The bings rise to
186-452: A basic drinking water service in 2017. Of those, 159 million people worldwide drink water directly from surface water sources, such as lakes and streams. One in eight people in the world do not have access to safe water. The world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing. Groundwater depletion (or overdrafting ) is occurring for example in Asia, South America and North America. It
279-472: A conversion ratio of 650 liters (170 U.S. gal; 140 imp gal) of oil per one ton of coal, as against 150 liters (40 U.S. gal; 33 imp gal) of shale oil per one ton of oil shale. A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as " energy return on investment " (EROI). A 1984 study estimated
372-426: A dynamic interface between surface water and groundwater from aquifers, exchanging flow between rivers and aquifers that may be fully charged or depleted. This is especially significant in karst areas where pot-holes and underground rivers are common. There are several artificial sources of fresh water. One is treated wastewater ( reclaimed water ). Another is atmospheric water generators . Desalinated seawater
465-598: A height of 720 feet (220 m), some 230 feet (70 m) above the surrounding area, and are the spoil tips from the oil shale industry that was a feature of the area. The Five Sisters Zoo Park is located on the edge of the village and has animals such as a lion and wolves. Harwood Church was one of two Church of Scotland churches in West Calder. The other was in Polbeth, and the two churches were amalgamated. Worship in Polbeth took place in what previously had been
558-654: A holistic way of managing water resources began already in the 1950s leading up to the 1977 United Nations Water Conference. The development of IWRM was particularly recommended in the final statement of the ministers at the International Conference on Water and the Environment in 1992, known as the Dublin Statement . This concept aims to promote changes in practices which are considered fundamental to improved water resource management . IWRM
651-700: A marine type of Dictyonema shale served for uranium production in Sillamäe , Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 Sweden used alum shale for the same purposes. Oil shale gas has served as a substitute for natural gas , but as of 2009 , producing oil shale gas as a natural-gas substitute remained economically infeasible. The shale oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all applications. It may contain higher concentrations of olefins , oxygen, and nitrogen than conventional crude oil. Some shale oils may have higher sulfur or arsenic content. By comparison with West Texas Intermediate ,
744-587: A number of environmental concerns, such as land use , waste disposal , water use , waste-water management , greenhouse-gas emissions and air pollution . Oil shale, an organic-rich sedimentary rock, belongs to the group of sapropel fuels . It does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula, and its seams do not always have discrete boundaries. Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content, chemical composition, age, type of kerogen, and depositional history, and not all oil shales would necessarily be classified as shales in
837-472: A potential abundant source of oil. However, the various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have had limited success. Only Estonia and China have well-established oil shale industries, and Brazil, Germany, and Russia utilize oil shale to some extent. Oil shale can be burned directly in furnaces as a low-grade fuel for power generation and district heating or used as a raw material in chemical and construction-materials processing. Heating oil shale to
930-419: A small discharge to each plant. Micro-irrigation uses less pressure and water flow than sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root zone of plants. Subirrigation has been used in field crops in areas with high water tables for many years. It involves artificially raising the water table to moisten the soil below the root zone of plants. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water
1023-464: A sufficiently high temperature causes the chemical process of pyrolysis to yield a vapor . Upon cooling the vapor, the liquid unconventional oil , called shale oil , is separated from combustible oil-shale gas . Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil; however, extracting shale oil is costlier than the production of conventional crude oil both financially and in terms of its environmental impact . Oil-shale mining and processing raise
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#17327906549161116-509: Is extracted in Estonia , mainly because Estonia uses several oil-shale-fired power plants , which has an installed capacity of 2,967 megawatts (MW). By comparison, China's oil shale power plants have an installed capacity of 12 MW, and Germany's have 9.9 MW. A 470 MW oil shale power plant in Jordan is under construction as of 2020. Israel, Romania and Russia have in
1209-450: Is pollution . Pollution includes discharged solutes and increased water temperature ( thermal pollution ). It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes. These include drinking water , bathing , cooking , toilet flushing , cleaning, laundry and gardening . Basic domestic water requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens. Drinking water
1302-437: Is water scarcity , water pollution , water conflict and climate change . Fresh water is in principle a renewable resource . However, the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing. Groundwater depletion (or overdrafting ) is occurring for example in Asia, South America and North America. Natural sources of fresh water include surface water , under river flow, groundwater and frozen water . Surface water
1395-403: Is a comprehensive, participatory planning and implementation tool for managing and developing water resources in a way that balances social and economic needs, and that ensures the protection of ecosystems for future generations. In addition, in light of contributing the achievement of Sustainable Development goals (SDGs) , IWRM has been evolving into more sustainable approach as it considers
1488-420: Is a long-established practice. This is especially so in arid countries. Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable water management allows water to remain an alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce scarcity . It also eases pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies. Desalination is a process that removes mineral components from saline water . More generally, desalination
1581-441: Is also employed to protect crops from frost , suppress weed growth in grain fields, and prevent soil consolidation . It is also used to cool livestock , reduce dust , dispose of sewage , and support mining operations. Drainage , which involves the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location, is often studied in conjunction with irrigation. There are several methods of irrigation that differ in how water
1674-413: Is also known as groundwater recharge . Reused water also serve various needs in residences such as toilet flushing , businesses, and industry. It is possible to treat wastewater to reach drinking water standards. Injecting reclaimed water into the water supply distribution system is known as direct potable reuse. Drinking reclaimed water is not typical. Reusing treated municipal wastewater for irrigation
1767-520: Is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling. Over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed. Irrigation (also referred to as watering of plants)
1860-728: Is another important source. It is important to consider the economic and environmental side effects of these technologies. Water reclamation is the process of converting municipal wastewater or sewage and industrial wastewater into water that can be reused for a variety of purposes . It is also called wastewater reuse, water reuse or water recycling. There are many types of reuse. It is possible to reuse water in this way in cities or for irrigation in agriculture. Other types of reuse are environmental reuse, industrial reuse, and reuse for drinking water, whether planned or not. Reuse may include irrigation of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing surface water and groundwater . This latter
1953-437: Is called also frequently shale oil. General composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic matrix, bitumens, and kerogen. While the bitumen portion of oil shales is soluble in carbon disulfide , the kerogen portion is insoluble in carbon disulfide and may contain iron , vanadium , nickel , molybdenum , and uranium . Oil shale contains a lower percentage of organic matter than coal . In commercial grades of oil shale
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#17327906549162046-446: Is called the water table . Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps , and can form oases or wetlands . Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural , municipal , and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells . The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology , also called groundwater hydrology . Throughout
2139-469: Is ever-increasing demand for drinking , manufacturing , leisure and agriculture . Due to the small percentage of water available, optimizing the fresh water we have left from natural resources has been a growing challenge around the world. Much effort in water resource management is directed at optimizing the use of water and in minimizing the environmental impact of water use on the natural environment. The observation of water as an integral part of
2232-609: Is low, and use the stored water to produce electricity when demand is high. Thermoelectric power plants using cooling towers have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process. The withdrawal, however, is lower than in once-through cooling systems. Water is also used in many large scale industrial processes, such as thermoelectric power production, oil refining, fertilizer production and other chemical plant use, and natural gas extraction from shale rock . Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses
2325-576: Is one of the few water resources independent of rainfall. Researchers proposed air capture over oceans which would "significantly increasing freshwater through the capture of humid air over oceans" to address present and, especially, future water scarcity/insecurity. A 2021 study proposed hypothetical portable solar-powered atmospheric water harvesting devices . However, such off-the-grid generation may sometimes "undermine efforts to develop permanent piped infrastructure " among other problems. The total quantity of water available at any given time
2418-571: Is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil- bearing shales are the Bakken Formation , Pierre Shale , Niobrara Formation , and Eagle Ford Formation . Accordingly, shale oil produced from oil shale should not be confused with tight oil, which is also frequently called shale oil. A 2016 estimate of global deposits set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent of 6.05 trillion barrels (962 billion cubic metres) of oil in place . Oil shale has gained attention as
2511-423: Is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened. Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum use of water resources. It is an aspect of water cycle management . The field of water resources management will have to continue to adapt to the current and future issues facing the allocation of water. With
2604-419: Is supplied to plants. Surface irrigation , also known as gravity irrigation, is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years. In sprinkler irrigation , water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure water devices. Micro-irrigation is a system that distributes water under low pressure through a piped network and applies it as
2697-432: Is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops , landscape plants , and lawns . Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to these uses, irrigation
2790-499: Is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance. One example is soil desalination . This is important for agriculture. It is possible to desalinate saltwater, especially sea water , to produce water for human consumption or irrigation. The by-product of the desalination process is brine . Many seagoing ships and submarines use desalination. Modern interest in desalination mostly focuses on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater , it
2883-443: Is to establish an inner, urban, water cycle loop through the implementation of reuse strategies. Developing this urban water cycle loop requires an understanding both of the natural, pre-development, water balance and the post-development water balance. Accounting for flows in the pre- and post-development systems is an important step toward limiting urban impacts on the natural water cycle. Water resource management and governance
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2976-600: Is unknown. Humans have used oil shale as a fuel since prehistoric times, since it generally burns without any processing. Around 3000 BC, "rock oil" was used in Mesopotamia for road construction and making architectural adhesives. Britons of the Iron Age used tractable oil shales to fashion cists for burial, or just polish it to create ornaments. In the 10th century, the Arab physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue
3069-481: Is used in industry . Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants , which use water for cooling , ore and oil refineries , which use water in chemical processes , and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent . Water withdrawal can be very high for certain industries, but consumption is generally much lower than that of agriculture. Water is used in renewable power generation. Hydroelectric power derives energy from
3162-801: Is utilized as a fuel for thermal power-plants, burning it (like coal) to drive steam turbines ; some of these plants employ the resulting heat for district heating of homes and businesses. In addition to its use as a fuel, oil shale may also serve in the production of specialty carbon fibers , adsorbent carbons , carbon black , phenols , resins, glues, tanning agents, mastic, road bitumen, cement, bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil-additives, fertilizers, rock-wool insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products. However, oil shale use for production of these items remains small or only in experimental development. Some oil shales yield sulfur , ammonia , alumina , soda ash , uranium, and nahcolite as shale-oil extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952,
3255-703: Is utilized primarily in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, and Russia. Several additional countries started assessing their reserves or had built experimental production plants, while others had phased out their oil shale industry. Oil shale serves for oil production in Estonia, Brazil, and China; for power generation in Estonia, China, and Germany; for cement production in Estonia, Germany, and China; and for use in chemical industries in China, Estonia, and Russia. As of 2009 , 80% of oil shale used globally
3348-510: Is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland . Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans , evaporation , evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge . The only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed . The total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs ,
3441-417: Is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to domestic, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. 844 million people still lacked even
3534-583: The Fischer Assay . A 2016 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent to yield of 6.05 trillion barrels (962 billion cubic metres) of shale oil, with the largest resource deposits in the United States accounting more than 80% of the world total resource. For comparison, at the same time the world's proven oil reserves are estimated to be 1.6976 trillion barrels (269.90 billion cubic metres). The largest deposits in
3627-483: The RAND Corporation , the cost of producing a barrel of oil at a surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant , supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation), would range between US$ 70–95 ($ 440–600/m , adjusted to 2005 values). This estimate considers varying levels of kerogen quality and extraction efficiency. In order to run a profitable operation,
3720-538: The biodegradation of oil, heat and pressure have not (yet) transformed the kerogen in oil shale into petroleum, which means its maturation does not exceed early mesocatagenetic . Oil shales differ also from oil-bearing shales, shale deposits that contain tight oil that is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil-bearing shales are the Bakken Formation , Pierre Shale , Niobrara Formation , and Eagle Ford Formation . Accordingly, shale oil produced from oil shale should not be confused with tight oil, which
3813-607: The ecosystem is based on integrated water resources management , based on the 1992 Dublin Principles (see below). Sustainable water management requires a holistic approach based on the principles of Integrated Water Resource Management , originally articulated in 1992 at the Dublin (January) and Rio (July) conferences. The four Dublin Principles, promulgated in the Dublin Statement are: Implementation of these principles has guided reform of national water management law around
Polbeth - Misplaced Pages Continue
3906-402: The hydrogen , carbon , and oxygen content of oil shales' original organic matter. The most commonly used classification of oil shales, developed between 1987 and 1991 by Adrian C. Hutton, adapts petrographic terms from coal terminology. This classification designates oil shales as terrestrial, lacustrine (lake-bottom-deposited), or marine (ocean bottom-deposited), based on the environment of
3999-441: The room-and-pillar method . The extraction of the useful components of oil shale usually takes place above ground ( ex-situ processing), although several newer technologies perform this underground (on-site or in-situ processing). In either case, the chemical process of pyrolysis converts the kerogen in the oil shale to shale oil ( synthetic crude oil) and oil shale gas. Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in
4092-402: The sustainability of the current and future water resource allocation. Sustainable Development Goal 6 has a target related to water resources management: "Target 6.5: By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate." At present, only about 0.08 percent of all the world's fresh water is accessible. And there
4185-585: The 1980s . On 2 May 1982, known in some circles as "Black Sunday", Exxon canceled its US$ 5 billion Colony Shale Oil Project near Parachute, Colorado , because of low oil prices and increased expenses, laying off more than 2,000 workers and leaving a trail of home foreclosures and small business bankruptcies. In 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 , which among other things abolished
4278-420: The 1990s and 2000s. However, appropriate refining processes equivalent to hydrocracking can transform shale oil into a lighter-range hydrocarbon ( gasoline ). The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of shale-oil production in a given region comes in below the price of crude oil or its other substitutes ( break-even price ). According to a 2005 survey, conducted by
4371-522: The 19th century focused on the production of kerosene , lamp oil, and paraffin ; these products helped supply the growing demand for lighting that arose during the Industrial Revolution , supplied from Scottish oil shales. Fuel oil, lubricating oil and grease, and ammonium sulfate were also produced. Scottish production peaked in around 1913, operating 120 oil shale works, producing 3,332,000 tonnes of oil shale, generating around 2% of
4464-573: The EROI of the various known oil-shale deposits as varying between 0.7–13.3, although known oil-shale extraction development projects assert an EROI between 3 and 10. According to the World Energy Outlook 2010, the EROI of ex-situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in-situ processing it may be even as low as 2. However, according to the IEA most of used energy can be provided by burning
4557-798: The Engine House of Shale Pit 26. When mining ceased in the community the Engine House was converted into what is now known as Polbeth Hall. Worship took place here while the new church was being built. Oil shale Oil shale is an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds ) from which liquid hydrocarbons can be produced. In addition to kerogen, general composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic substance and bitumens . Based on their deposition environment, oil shales are classified as marine, lacustrine and terrestrial oil shales. Oil shales differ from oil- bearing shales, shale deposits that contain petroleum ( tight oil ) that
4650-496: The Estonian and Chinese oil-shale industries continued to grow after World War II , most other countries abandoned their projects because of high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum. Following the 1973 oil crisis , world production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tonnes in 2000, because of competition from cheap conventional petroleum in
4743-629: The New Policies Scenario introduced in its World Energy Outlook 2010 , a price of $ 50 per tonne of emitted CO 2 adds additional $ 7.50 cost per barrel of shale oil. As of November 2021, the price of tonne of CO 2 exceeded $ 60. A 1972 publication in the journal Pétrole Informations ( ISSN 0755-561X ) compared shale-based oil production unfavorably with coal liquefaction . The article portrayed coal liquefaction as less expensive, generating more oil, and creating fewer environmental impacts than extraction from oil shale. It cited
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#17327906549164836-491: The Nexus approach, which is a cross-sectoral water resource management. The Nexus approach is based on the recognition that "water, energy and food are closely linked through global and local water, carbon and energy cycles or chains." An IWRM approach aims at avoiding a fragmented approach of water resources management by considering the following aspects: Enabling environment, roles of Institutions, management Instruments. Some of
4929-490: The United States' Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program . The global oil-shale industry began to revive at the beginning of the 21st century. In 2003, an oil-shale development program restarted in the United States. Authorities introduced a commercial leasing program permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in 2005, in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 . As of 2008 , oil shale
5022-736: The Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale". The first patent for extracting oil from oil shale was British Crown Patent 330 granted in 1694 to Martin Eele, Thomas Hancock and William Portlock, who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone". Modern industrial mining of oil shale began in 1837 in Autun , France, followed by exploitation in Scotland, Germany, and several other countries. Operations during
5115-432: The absence of oxygen to a temperature at which kerogen decomposes (pyrolyses) into gas, condensable oil, and a solid residue. This usually takes place between 450 °C (842 °F ) and 500 °C (932 °F ). The process of decomposition begins at relatively low temperatures (300 °C or 572 °F) but proceeds more rapidly and more completely at higher temperatures. In-situ processing involves heating
5208-954: The amount of recoverable kerogen. Although resources of oil shale occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess known deposits of potential economic value. Well-explored deposits, potentially classifiable as reserves, include the Green River deposits in the western United States , the Tertiary deposits in Queensland , Australia, deposits in Sweden and Estonia, the El-Lajjun deposit in Jordan, and deposits in France, Germany, Brazil, China, southern Mongolia and Russia. These deposits have given rise to expectations of yielding at least 40 liters of shale oil per tonne of oil shale, using
5301-518: The benchmark standard for crude oil in the futures-contract market, the Green River shale oil sulfur content ranges from near 0% to 4.9% (in average 0.76%), where West Texas Intermediate's sulfur content has a maximum of 0.42%. The sulfur content in shale oil from Jordan's oil shales may be as high as 9.5%. The arsenic content, for example, becomes an issue for Green River formation oil shale. The higher concentrations of these materials means that
5394-401: The competing demands for water and seeks to allocate water on an equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands. As with other resource management , this is rarely possible in practice so decision-makers must prioritise issues of sustainability, equity and factor optimisation (in that order!) to achieve acceptable outcomes. One of the biggest concerns for water-based resources in the future is
5487-411: The course of a river, the total volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a substantial contribution flowing through rocks and sediments that underlie the river and its floodplain called the hyporheic zone . For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms
5580-440: The cross-cutting conditions that are also important to consider when implementing IWRM are: Political will and commitment, capacity development, adequate investment, financial stability and sustainable cost recovery, monitoring and evaluation. There is not one correct administrative model. The art of IWRM lies in selecting, adjusting and applying the right mix of these tools for a given situation. IWRM practices depend on context; at
5673-583: The force of water flowing downhill, driving a turbine connected to a generator. This hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. Significantly, hydroelectric power can also be used for load following unlike most renewable energy sources which are intermittent . Ultimately, the energy in a hydroelectric power plant is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes and flows downhill. Pumped-storage hydroelectric plants also exist, which use grid electricity to pump water uphill when demand
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#17327906549165766-439: The future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including groundwater pollution . Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Commonly detected examples include quinoline derivatives, pyridine , and various alkyl homologues of pyridine, such as picoline and lutidine . Water concerns are sensitive issues in arid regions, such as
5859-532: The global production of petroleum. The Scottish oil-shale industry expanded immediately before World War I partly because of limited access to conventional petroleum resources and the mass production of automobiles and trucks, which accompanied an increase in gasoline consumption; but mostly because the British Admiralty required a reliable fuel source for their fleet as war in Europe loomed. Although
5952-475: The greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia's largest rivers flow from there, and more than a billion people's livelihoods depend on them. To complicate matters, temperatures there are rising more rapidly than the global average. In Nepal, the temperature has risen by 0.6 degrees Celsius over the last decade, whereas globally, the Earth has warmed approximately 0.7 degrees Celsius over
6045-489: The growing uncertainties of global climate change and the long-term impacts of past management actions, this decision-making will be even more difficult. It is likely that ongoing climate change will lead to situations that have not been encountered. As a result, alternative management strategies, including participatory approaches and adaptive capacity are increasingly being used to strengthen water decision-making. Ideally, water resource management planning has regard to all
6138-442: The implementation of IWRM at a global level. The third World Water Forum recommended IWRM and discussed information sharing, stakeholder participation, and gender and class dynamics. Operationally, IWRM approaches involve applying knowledge from various disciplines as well as the insights from diverse stakeholders to devise and implement efficient, equitable and sustainable solutions to water and development problems. As such, IWRM
6231-762: The initial biomass deposit. Known oil shales are predominantly of aquatic (marine, lacustrine) origin. Hutton's classification scheme has proven useful in estimating the yield and composition of the extracted oil. As source rocks for most conventional oil reservoirs , oil shale deposits are found in all world oil provinces, although most of them are too deep to be exploited economically. As with all oil and gas resources, analysts distinguish between oil shale resources and oil shale reserves. "Resources" refer to all oil shale deposits, while "reserves" represent those deposits from which producers can extract oil shale economically using existing technology. Since extraction technologies develop continuously, planners can only estimate
6324-474: The last hundred years. Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth 's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations . About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water
6417-425: The oil must undergo considerable upgrading ( hydrotreating ) before serving as oil-refinery feedstock. Above-ground retorting processes tended to yield a lower API gravity shale oil than the in situ processes. Shale oil serves best for producing middle- distillates such as kerosene , jet fuel , and diesel fuel . Worldwide demand for these middle distillates, particularly for diesel fuels, increased rapidly in
6510-456: The oil shale industry. In one result, Queensland Energy Resources put the proposed Stuart Oil Shale Project in Australia on hold in 2004. Some comets contain massive amounts of an organic material almost identical to high grade oil shale, the equivalent of cubic kilometers of such mixed with other material; for instance, corresponding hydrocarbons were detected in a probe fly-by through
6603-428: The oil shale underground. Such technologies can potentially extract more oil from a given area of land than ex-situ processes, since they can access the material at greater depths than surface mines can. Several companies have patented methods for in-situ retorting . However, most of these methods remain in the experimental phase. Two in-situ processes could be used: true in-situ processing does not involve mining
6696-502: The oil shale, while modified in-situ processing involves removing part of the oil shale and bringing it to the surface for modified in-situ retorting in order to create permeability for gas flow in a rubble chimney. Explosives rubblize the oil-shale deposit. Hundreds of patents for oil shale retorting technologies exist; however, only a few dozen have undergone testing. By 2006, only four technologies remained in commercial use: Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix . Oil shale
6789-411: The operational level, the challenge is to translate the agreed principles into concrete action. Integrated urban water management (IUWM) is the practice of managing freshwater , wastewater , and storm water as components of a basin-wide management plan. It builds on existing water supply and sanitation considerations within an urban settlement by incorporating urban water management within
6882-440: The past run power plants fired by oil shale but have shut them down or switched to other fuel sources such as natural gas . Other countries, such as Egypt, have had plans to construct power plants fired by oil shale, while Canada and Turkey had plans to burn oil shale along with coal for power generation. Oil shale serves as the main fuel for power generation only in Estonia, where 90.3% of country's electrical generation in 2016
6975-438: The permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water loss. Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing
7068-431: The price of crude oil would need to remain above these levels. The analysis also discussed the expectation that processing costs would drop after the establishment of the complex. The hypothetical unit would see a cost reduction of 35–70% after producing its first 500 million barrels (79 million cubic metres). Assuming an increase in output of 25 thousand barrels per day (4.0 × 10 ^ m /d) during each year after
7161-653: The production of particulates during processing, transport, and support activities. Oil-shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas . Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels. Experimental in situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in
7254-634: The ratio of organic matter to mineral matter lies approximately between 0.75:5 and 1.5:5. At the same time, the organic matter in oil shale has an atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon (H/C) approximately 1.2 to 1.8 times lower than for crude oil and about 1.5 to 3 times higher than for coals. The organic components of oil shale derive from a variety of organisms, such as the remains of algae , spores , pollen , plant cuticles and corky fragments of herbaceous and woody plants, and cellular debris from other aquatic and land plants. Some deposits contain significant fossils ; Germany's Messel Pit has
7347-506: The resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems ". Some scholars say that IWRM is complementary to water security because water security is a goal or destination, whilst IWRM is the process necessary to achieve that goal. IWRM is a paradigm that emerged at international conferences in the late 1900s and early 2000s, although participatory water management institutions have existed for centuries. Discussions on
7440-442: The scope of the entire river basin. IUWM is commonly seen as a strategy for achieving the goals of Water Sensitive Urban Design . IUWM seeks to change the impact of urban development on the natural water cycle , based on the premise that by managing the urban water cycle as a whole; a more efficient use of resources can be achieved providing not only economic benefits but also improved social and environmental outcomes. One approach
7533-409: The shale is burned directly to generate electricity or undertakes further processing. The most common methods of mining involve open-pit mining and strip mining . These procedures remove most of the overlying material to expose the deposits of oil shale and become practical when the deposits occur near the surface. Underground mining of oil shale , which removes less of the overlying material, employs
7626-553: The spent shale or oil-shale gas. To increase efficiency when retorting oil shale, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes. Mining oil shale involves numerous environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining. These include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials; the introduction of metals including mercury into surface-water and groundwater; increased erosion , sulfur-gas emissions; and air pollution caused by
7719-710: The start of commercial production, RAND predicted the costs would decline to $ 35–48 per barrel ($ 220–300/m ) within 12 years. After achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160 million cubic metres), its costs would decline further to $ 30–40 per barrel ($ 190–250/m ). In 2010, the International Energy Agency estimated, based on the various pilot projects, that investment and operating costs would be similar to those of Canadian oil sands , that means would be economic at prices above $ 60 per barrel at current costs. This figure does not account carbon pricing , which will add additional cost. According to
7812-402: The status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The mineral matter in oil shale includes various fine-grained silicates and carbonates . Inorganic matrix can contain quartz , feldspar , clay (mainly illite and chlorite ), carbonate ( calcite and dolomite ), pyrite and some other minerals. Another classification, known as the van Krevelen diagram, assigns kerogen types, depending on
7905-510: The stream flow. Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline . Brazil is estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia and Canada . Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water. The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain some of the most extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as
7998-773: The strict sense. According to the petrologist Adrian C. Hutton of the University of Wollongong , oil shales are not "geological nor geochemically distinctive rock but rather 'economic' term". Their common defining feature is low solubility in low-boiling organic solvents and generation of liquid organic products on thermal decomposition . Geologists can classify oil shales on the basis of their composition as carbonate -rich shales, siliceous shales, or cannel shales. Oil shale differs from bitumen-impregnated rocks (other so-called unconventional resources such as oil sands and petroleum reservoir rocks), humic coals and carbonaceous shale. While oil sands do originate from
8091-441: The tail of Halley's Comet in 1986. Water resources Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. These resources can be either freshwater from natural sources, or water produced artificially from other sources, such as from reclaimed water ( wastewater ) or desalinated water ( seawater ). 97% of
8184-548: The water on Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water ; slightly over two-thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps . The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Natural sources of fresh water include surface water , under river flow, groundwater and frozen water . People use water resources for agricultural , industrial and household activities. Water resources are under threat from multiple issues. There
8277-739: The western U.S. and Israel's Negev Desert , where plans exist to expand oil-shale extraction despite a water shortage. Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale-oil. A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement issued by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale. In situ processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water. Environmental activists, including members of Greenpeace , have organized strong protests against
8370-491: The world occur in the United States in the Green River Formation, which covers portions of Colorado , Utah , and Wyoming ; about 70% of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government. Deposits in the United States constitute more than 80% of world resources; other significant resource holders being China, Russia, and Brazil. The amount of economically recoverable oil shale
8463-578: The world since 1992. Further challenges to sustainable and equitable water resources management include the fact that many water bodies are shared across boundaries which may be international (see water conflict ) or intra-national (see Murray-Darling basin ). Integrated water resources management (IWRM) has been defined by the Global Water Partnership (GWP) as "a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize
8556-715: Was a topic of the second World Water Forum , which was attended by a more varied group of stakeholders than the preceding conferences and contributed to the creation of the GWP. In the International Water Association definition, IWRM rests upon three principles that together act as the overall framework: In 2002, the development of IWRM was discussed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg, which aimed to encourage
8649-659: Was produced from oil shale. According to the World Energy Council , in 2008 the total production of shale oil from oil shale was 930,000 tonnes, equal to 17,700 barrels per day (2,810 m /d), of which China produced 375,000 tonnes, Estonia 355,000 tonnes, and Brazil 200,000 tonnes. In comparison, production of the conventional oil and natural gas liquids in 2008 amounted 3.95 billion tonnes or 82.1 million barrels per day (13.1 × 10 ^ m /d). Most exploitation of oil shale involves mining followed by shipping elsewhere, after which
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