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118-479: Cultural relations between the two are quite friendly but diplomatic relations between the two countries are currently very strained. Poland is a member of NATO and the European Union , and has an anti-Russian stance, whereas Belarus has long been firmly pro- Russia , and as such, the separate paths by default impair the positive bilateral relationship (see Russia–European Union relations ). In August 2011,

236-436: A braced line assembly is added in-line. This has the function of a corner post and brace assembly but handles tension from opposite sides. It uses diagonal brace wire that connects the tops to the bottoms of all adjacent posts. Line posts are installed along the span of the fence at intervals of 2.5 to 15 m (8 to 50 ft). An interval of 5 m (16 ft) is most common. Heavy livestock and crowded pasture demands

354-473: A barbed wire fence. Within 2 years, nearly all of the open range had been fenced in under private ownership. For this reason, some historians have dated the end of the Old West era of American history to the invention and subsequent proliferation of barbed wire. The most important and most time-consuming part of a barbed wire fence is constructing the corner post and the bracing assembly. A barbed wire fence

472-420: A career in diplomacy. They were supported by their embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on longer assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking officials about the host country. Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees, including some dedicated to espionage. The need for skilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates of universities, and this led to

590-450: A concrete base 51 centimetres (20 in) square and 110 centimetres (42 in) deep. Iron posts, if used, are a minimum 64 millimetres (2.5 in) in diameter. Bracing wire is typically smooth 9-gauge. Line posts are set to a depth of about 76 centimetres (30 in). Conversely, steel posts are not as stiff as wood, and wires are fastened with slips along fixed teeth, which means variations in driving height affect wire spacing. During

708-432: A diagonal wire connects the top of the brace post to the bottom of the corner post. This diagonal wire prevents the brace post from leaning, which in turn allows the horizontal brace to prevent the corner post from leaning into the brace post. A second set of brace posts (forming a double brace ) is used whenever the barbed wire span exceeds 60 metres (200 ft). When the barbed wire span exceeds 200 m (650 ft),

826-436: A diplomat does commit a serious crime while in a host country he or she may be declared as persona non grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their homeland. Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched. The mechanism for this is the so-called " diplomatic bag " (or, in some countries,

944-514: A dispute. These are similar to the conferences mentioned above, as there are technically no established rules or procedures. However, there are general principles and precedents which help define a course for such proceedings. Some examples are: Small state diplomacy is receiving increasing attention in diplomatic studies and international relations . Small states are particularly affected by developments which are determined beyond their borders such as climate change , water security and shifts in

1062-630: A falling out with Washburn and Moen and Isaac Ellwood. He moved to St. Louis and founded the Southern Wire Company, which became the largest manufacturer of unlicensed or "bootleg" barbed wire. An 1880 US District Court decision upheld the validity of the Glidden patent, effectively establishing a monopoly. This decision was affirmed by the US Supreme Court in 1892. In 1898 Gates took control of Washburn and Moen, and created

1180-524: A farmer in 1873 and the first of the "Big Four," is often credited for designing a successful sturdy barbed wire product, but he let others popularize it for him. Glidden's idea came from a display at a fair in DeKalb , Illinois in 1873, by Henry B. Rose. Rose had patented "The Wooden Strip with Metallic Points" in May 1873. This was simply a wooden block with wire protrusions designed to keep cows from breaching

1298-438: A fence that was painful to cross. In April 1865 Louis François Janin proposed a double wire with diamond-shaped metal barbs; Francois was granted a patent. Michael Kelly from New York had a similar idea, and proposed that the fencing should be used specifically for deterring animals. More patents followed, and in 1867 alone there were six patents issued for barbed wire. Only two of them addressed livestock deterrence, one of which

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1416-517: A great increase in the study of international law , French, and history at universities throughout Europe. At the same time, permanent foreign ministries began to be established in almost all European states to coordinate embassies and their staffs. These ministries were still far from their modern form, and many of them had extraneous internal responsibilities. Britain had two departments with frequently overlapping powers until 1782. They were also far smaller than they are currently. France, which boasted

1534-708: A means of intimidation to influence others. Since it is inherently coercive, it typically lies near the edge between peace and war, and is usually exercised in the context of imperialism or hegemony. An emblematic example is the Don Pacifico Incident in 1850, in which the United Kingdom blockaded the Greek port of Piraeus in retaliation for the harming of a British subject and the failure of Greek government to provide him with restitution. Barbed wire Barbed wire , also known as barb wire ,

1652-459: A number of support staff; the term diplomat is thus sometimes applied broadly to diplomatic and consular personnel and foreign ministry officials. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate ("diplomat" or "diplomatist"), based on the ancient Greek diplōma , which roughly means "an object folded in two". This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer some official privilege; prior to

1770-410: A rajmandala (grouping of states), a model that places the home state surrounded by twelve competing entities which can either be potential adversaries or latent allies, depending on how relations with them are managed. This is the essence of realpolitik. It also offers four upaya (policy approaches): conciliation, gifts, rupture or dissent, and force. It counsels that war is the last resort, as its outcome

1888-453: A rung below ambassador. Somewhere between the two was the position of minister plenipotentiary . Diplomacy was a complex affair, even more so than now. The ambassadors from each state were ranked by complex levels of precedence that were much disputed. States were normally ranked by the title of the sovereign; for Catholic nations the emissary from the Vatican was paramount, then those from

2006-486: A situation of mutually contesting kingdoms, the wise king builds alliances and tries to checkmate his adversaries. The envoys sent at the time to the courts of other kingdoms tended to reside for extended periods of time, and Arthashastra contains advice on the deportment of the envoy, including the trenchant suggestion that "he should sleep alone". The highest morality for the king is that his kingdom should prosper. New analysis of Arthashastra brings out that hidden inside

2124-465: A time in which rival states were starting to pay less attention to traditional respects of tutelage to the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) figurehead monarchs while each vied for power and total conquest. However, a great deal of diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was necessary for each warring state, and the idealized role of the "persuader/diplomat" developed. From

2242-491: Is Osage orange , a thorny bush that is time-consuming to transplant and grow). When wire fences became widely available in the United States in the late 19th century, it became more affordable to fence much larger areas than before, and intensive animal husbandry was made practical on a much larger scale. An example of the costs of fencing with lumber immediately prior to the invention of barbed wire can be found with

2360-688: Is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid confrontation; because of its failure to prevent World War 2, appeasement is not considered a legitimate tool of modern diplomacy. Counterinsurgency diplomacy, or expeditionary diplomacy, developed by diplomats deployed to civil-military stabilization efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, employs diplomats at tactical and operational levels, outside traditional embassy environments and often alongside military or peacekeeping forces. Counterinsurgency diplomacy may provide political environment advice to local commanders, interact with local leaders, and facilitate

2478-542: Is a type of steel fencing wire constructed with sharp edges or points arranged at intervals along the strands. Its primary use is the construction of inexpensive fences , and it is also used as a security measure atop walls surrounding property. As a wire obstacle , it is a major feature of the fortifications in trench warfare . A person or animal trying to pass through or over barbed wire will suffer discomfort and possibly injury. Barbed wire fencing requires only fence posts, wire, and fixing devices such as staples . It

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2596-740: Is always uncertain. This is the first expression of the raison d'etat doctrine, as also of humanitarian law; that conquered people must be treated fairly, and assimilated. The key challenge to the Byzantine Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its sundry neighbors, including the Georgians , Iberians , the Germanic peoples , the Bulgars , the Slavs , the Armenians ,

2714-422: Is harder to handle and somewhat dangerous for inexperienced fencers. Soft wire is much easier to work but is less durable and only suitable for short spans such as repairs and gates, where it is less likely to tangle. In high soil-fertility areas where dairy cattle are used in great numbers, 5- or 7-wire fences are common as the main boundary and internal dividing fences. On sheep farms 7-wire fences are common with

2832-463: Is simple to construct and quick to erect, even by an unskilled person. The first patent in the United States for barbed wire was issued in 1867 to Lucien B. Smith of Kent, Ohio , who is regarded as the inventor. Joseph F. Glidden of DeKalb, Illinois , received a patent for the modern invention in 1874 after he made his own modifications to previous versions. Wire fences are cheaper and easier to erect than their alternatives (one such alternative

2950-525: Is the main instrument of foreign policy which represents the broader goals and strategies that guide a state's interactions with the rest of the world. International treaties , agreements , alliances , and other manifestations of international relations are usually the result of diplomatic negotiations and processes. Diplomats may also help shape a state by advising government officials . Modern diplomatic methods, practices, and principles originated largely from 17th-century European customs. Beginning in

3068-436: Is then wrapped around the opposite corner post, pulled tightly with wire stretchers, and sometimes nailed with more fence staples, although this may make readjustment of tension or replacement of the wire more difficult. Then it is attached to all of the line posts with fencing staples driven in partially to allow stretching of the wire. There are several ways to anchor the wire to a corner post: Barbed wire for agriculture use

3186-405: Is then wrapped around the tractor post and pulled onto the nail, stronger people can pull the gate tighter but anyone can jar off the chain to open the gate. Barbed wire fences remain the standard fencing technology for enclosing cattle in most regions of the United States, but not all countries. The wire is aligned under tension between heavy, braced, fence posts (strainer posts) and then held at

3304-566: Is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring. The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in diplomacy. Arms-control treaties would be impossible without

3422-506: Is typically available in two varieties: soft or mild-steel wire and high- tensile . Both types are galvanized for longevity. High-tensile wire is made with thinner but higher-strength steel. Its greater strength makes fences longer lasting because it resists stretching and loosening better, coping with expansion and contraction caused by heat and animal pressure by stretching and relaxing within wider elastic limits. It also supports longer spans, but because of its elastic (springy) nature, it

3540-432: Is typically double-strand 12 + 1 ⁄ 2 - gauge , zinc -coated (galvanized) steel and comes in rolls of 400 m (1,320 ft) length. Barbed wire is usually placed on the inner (pasture) side of the posts. Where a fence runs between two pastures livestock could be with the wire on the outside or on both sides of the fence. Galvanized wire is classified into three categories; Classes I, II, and III. Class I has

3658-404: Is under tremendous tension, often up to half a ton , and so the corner post's sole function is to resist the tension of the fence spans connected to it. The bracing keeps the corner post vertical and prevents slack from developing in the fence. Brace posts are placed in-line about 2.5 metres (8 ft) from the corner post. A horizontal compression brace connects the top of the two posts, and

Belarus–Poland relations - Misplaced Pages Continue

3776-522: The 2020 Belarusian presidential election , a number of anti-government protests took place across the country. Belarusian authorities employed various methods of violent political crackdown, consisting of various humans rights violations; Poland strongly condemned the measures. Following Lukashenko 's alleged victory for a sixth term, the European Council on 19 August decided that the elections were neither free nor fair, therefore do not recognize

3894-579: The Battle of Baideng (200 BC) to the Battle of Mayi (133 BC), the Han dynasty was forced to uphold a marriage alliance and pay an exorbitant amount of tribute (in silk, cloth, grain, and other foodstuffs) to the powerful northern nomadic Xiongnu that had been consolidated by Modu Shanyu . After the Xiongnu sent word to Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) that they controlled areas stretching from Manchuria to

4012-634: The French Revolution . Some of the earliest known diplomatic records are the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BC. Peace treaties were concluded between the Mesopotamian city-states of Lagash and Umma around approximately 2100 BC. Following the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC during

4130-689: The Huns , the Avars , the Franks , the Lombards , and the Arabs , that embodied and so maintained its imperial status. All these neighbors lacked a key resource that Byzantium had taken over from Rome, namely a formalized legal structure. When they set about forging formal political institutions, they were dependent on the empire. Whereas classical writers are fond of making a sharp distinction between peace and war, for

4248-741: The Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire , which fought several wars in the Near East and often negotiated peace treaties through marriage alliances . Relations with the Ottoman Empire were particularly important to Italian states, to which the Ottoman government was known as the Sublime Porte . The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice depended less and less upon their nautical capabilities, and more and more upon

4366-539: The Tarim Basin oasis city-states, a treaty was drafted in 162 BC proclaiming that everything north of the Great Wall belong to nomads' lands, while everything south of it would be reserved for Han Chinese . The treaty was renewed no less than nine times, but did not restrain some Xiongnu tuqi from raiding Han borders. That was until the far-flung campaigns of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC) which shattered

4484-563: The global economy . Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. These factors mean that small states have strong incentives to support international cooperation. But with limited resources at their disposal, conducting effective diplomacy poses unique challenges for small states. There are a variety of diplomatic categories and diplomatic strategies employed by organizations and governments to achieve their aims, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Appeasement

4602-433: The kingdoms , then those from duchies and principalities . Representatives from republics were ranked the lowest (which often angered the leaders of the numerous German, Scandinavian, and Italian republics). Determining precedence between two kingdoms depended on a number of factors that often fluctuated, leading to near-constant squabbling. Ambassadors were often nobles with little foreign experience and no expectation of

4720-623: The nineteenth dynasty , the pharaoh of Egypt and the ruler of the Hittite Empire created one of the first known international peace treaties, which survives in stone tablet fragments , now generally called the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty . The ancient Greek city-states on some occasions dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues, such as war and peace or commercial relations, but did not have diplomatic representatives regularly posted in each other's territory. However, some of

4838-439: The "diplomatic pouch"). While radio and digital communication have become more standard for embassies, diplomatic pouches are still quite common and some countries, including the United States, declare entire shipping containers as diplomatic pouches to bring sensitive material (often building supplies) into a country. In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, as well as in some cases when

Belarus–Poland relations - Misplaced Pages Continue

4956-688: The 187 km Belarus border, which was completed in June 2022. On 6 July 2022, scant months after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine caused the announcement by the Morawiecki government of a major increase in funding for the Polish armed forces, the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Belarus noticed that Poland "has already repeatedly displayed its imperial ambitions and, with a support from

5074-466: The 6,000 aphorisms of prose (sutras) are pioneering political and philosophic concepts. It covers the internal and external spheres of statecraft, politics and administration. The normative element is the political unification of the geopolitical and cultural subcontinent of India. This work comprehensively studies state governance; it urges non-injury to living creatures, or malice, as well as compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, and uprightness. It presents

5192-472: The American Steel and Wire Company, formed by the merging of Gates's and Washburn's and Ellwood's industries. Smaller companies were decimated because of economies of scale and the smaller pool of consumers available to them, compared to the larger corporations. The American Steel and Wire Company established in 1899 employed vertical integration: it controlled all aspects of production, from producing

5310-439: The American Steel and Wire Company, later acquired by The U.S. Steel Corporation. Between 1873 and 1899 there were as many as 150 companies manufacturing barbed wire. Investors knew that the business required minimal capital, and almost anyone with determination could profit by manufacturing a new wire design. There was then a sharp decline in the number of manufacturers, and many were consolidated into larger companies, notably

5428-577: The American Steel and Wire monopoly, which became a part of the United States Steel Corporation. This led to disputes known as the range wars between open range ranchers and farmers in the late 19th century. These were similar to the disputes which resulted from enclosure laws in England in the early 18th century. These disputes were decisively settled in favor of the farmers, and heavy penalties were instituted for cutting

5546-655: The Barb Fence Company in DeKalb following the success of "The Winner". The company's success attracted the attention of Charles Francis Washburn, Vice President of Washburn & Moen Manufacturing Company, an important producer of plain wire in the Eastern U.S. Washburn visited DeKalb and convinced Glidden to sell his stake in the Barb Wire Fence Company, while Ellwood stayed in DeKalb and renamed

5664-465: The Byzantines diplomacy was a form of war by other means. With a regular army of 120,000–140,000 men after the losses of the 7th century, the empire's security depended on activist diplomacy. Byzantium's " Bureau of Barbarians " was the first foreign intelligence agency, gathering information on the empire's rivals from every imaginable source. While on the surface a protocol office—its main duty

5782-855: The California-Mexico border. It included barbed wire and was intended to keep cattle from moving between the two countries. In 1924, the United States created its border patrol , which built more barbed wire fences on the Mexican border; this time to prevent people from crossing. More significantly, barbed wire was used extensively by all participating combatants in World War I to prevent movement, with deadly consequences. Barbed wire entanglements were placed in front of trenches to prevent direct charges on men below, increasingly leading to greater use of more advanced weapons such as high-powered machine guns and grenades. A feature of these entanglements

5900-660: The Chinese had sent envoys into Central Asia, India, and Persia , starting with Zhang Qian in the 2nd century BC. Another notable event in Chinese diplomacy was the Chinese embassy mission of Zhou Daguan to the Khmer Empire of Cambodia in the 13th century. Chinese diplomacy was a necessity in the distinctive period of Chinese exploration . Since the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD), the Chinese also became heavily invested in sending diplomatic envoys abroad on maritime missions into

6018-604: The Combat of Magul in 1895. Less well known is its extensive usage in the Russo-Japanese War . In 1899 barbed wire was also extensively used in the Boer War , where it played a strategic role bringing spaces under control, at military outposts as well as to hold the captured Boer population in concentration camps . The government of the United States built its first international border fence from 1909 to 1911 along

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6136-493: The First World War, screw pickets were used for the installation of wire obstacles; these were metal rods with eyelets for holding strands of wire, and a corkscrew-like end that could literally be screwed into the ground rather than hammered, so that wiring parties could work at night near enemy soldiers and not reveal their position by the sound of hammers. As with any fence, barbed wire fences require gates to allow

6254-802: The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy. Diplomats and historians often refer to a foreign ministry by its address: the Ballhausplatz (Vienna), the Quai d'Orsay (Paris), the Wilhelmstrasse (Berlin), Itamaraty (Brasília), and Foggy Bottom (Washington, D.C.). For the Russian foreign ministry, it was the Choristers' Bridge (Saint Petersburg) until 1917, while "Consulta" referred to

6372-456: The Germans used barbed wire as follows: The enemy wire was always deep, thick, and securely staked with iron supports, which were either crossed like the letter X, or upright, with loops to take the wire and shaped at one end like corkscrews so as to screw into the ground. The wire stood on these supports on a thick web, about four feet high and from thirty to forty feet across. The wire used

6490-746: The Indian Ocean, to India, Persia, Arabia , East Africa, and Egypt. Chinese maritime activity was increased dramatically during the commercialized period of the Song dynasty, with new nautical technologies, many more private ship owners, and an increasing amount of economic investors in overseas ventures. During the Mongol Empire (1206–1294) the Mongols created something similar to today's diplomatic passport called paiza . The paiza were in three different types (golden, silver, and copper) depending on

6608-569: The Italian foreign ministry, based in the Palazzo della Consulta (Rome) from 1874 to 1922. The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed, underpinning the modern concept of diplomatic immunity . While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of honor. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on

6726-552: The Polish government recommended Polish citizens leave Belarus with available commercial and private means as the relationship between the two countries has become increasingly tense. The Polish government also claims the Polish minority in Belarus is experiencing increasing repression from the state, including the imprisonment of some community leaders. On 1 August 2023, a Belarusian Mi-8 and an Mi-24 helicopter, reportedly flew just over 3 kilometers over Polish territory, reaching

6844-545: The Tang finally made a truce and signed a peace treaty with them in 841. In the 11th century during the Song dynasty (960–1279), there were shrewd ambassadors such as Shen Kuo and Su Song who achieved diplomatic success with the Liao dynasty , the often hostile Khitan neighbor to the north. Both diplomats secured the rightful borders of the Song dynasty through knowledge of cartography and dredging up old court archives. There

6962-467: The United States, and France. Ancient India , with its kingdoms and dynasties, had a long tradition of diplomacy. The oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra , is attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya ), who was the principal adviser to Chandragupta Maurya , the founder of the Maurya dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC. It incorporates a theory of diplomacy, of how in

7080-540: The West in the 1870s dramatically reduced the cost of enclosing land. One fan wrote the inventor Joseph Glidden : Barbed wire emerged as a major source of conflict with the so-called " Big Die Up " incident in the 1880s. This occurred because of the instinctual migrations of cattle away from the blizzard conditions of the Northern Plains to the warmer and plentiful Southern Plains, but by the early 1880s this area

7198-711: The [US] White House, positions itself as a leader, not only in Eastern, but in Central Europe as well." Major-General Ruslan Kosygin continued: "The territory of Poland, as well as the Baltic countries, is turning into a polygon, where the USA plans to unleash another bloody conflict in Europe against the Russian Federation and its allies." He was concerned about "attempts by individual Polish politicians to initiate

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7316-472: The arrest of Ales Bialiatski using information from Poland led to a harsh war of words between the two countries. However, in February 2017 some tensions arose between Belarus and Russia over border controls, and Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko expressed indignation at Russia's behaviour. Relations between the two countries have since significantly deteriorated. In the lead-up to and during

7434-504: The company I.L Ellwood & Company of DeKalb. In the late 1870s, John Warne Gates of Illinois began to promote barbed wire, now a proven product, in the lucrative markets of Texas. At first, Texans were hesitant, as they feared that cattle might be harmed, or that the North was somehow trying to make profits from the South. There was also conflict between the farmers who wanted fencing and

7552-509: The conquest of foreign cultures would be better achieved by having his Macedonian and Greek subjects intermingle and intermarry with native populations. For instance, Alexander took as his wife a Sogdian woman of Bactria , Roxana , after the siege of the Sogdian Rock , in order to placate the rebelling populace. Diplomacy remained a necessary tool of statecraft for the great Hellenistic states that succeeded Alexander's empire, such as

7670-463: The convening of international conferences. In such cases, there are fewer ground rules, and fewer formal applications of international law. However, participants are expected to guide themselves through principles of international fairness, logic, and protocol. Some examples of these formal conferences are: Sometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle a specific dispute or specific issue between several nations which are parties to

7788-653: The correct height by being attached to wooden or steel fence posts , and/or with battens in between. The gaps between posts vary depending on type and terrain. On short fences in hilly country, steel posts may be placed every 3 metres (3 yd), while in flat terrain with long spans and relatively few stock they may be spaced up to 30 to 50 metres (33 to 55 yd) apart. Wooden posts are normally spaced at 10 metres (11 yd) on all terrain, with 4 or 5 battens in between. However, many farmers place posts 2 metres (2 yd) apart as battens can bend, causing wires to close in on one another. Barbed wire for agricultural fencing

7906-472: The early 20th century, diplomacy became professionalized; the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , ratified by most of the world's sovereign states, provides a framework for diplomatic procedures, methods, and conduct. Most diplomacy is now conducted by accredited officials , such as envoys and ambassadors, through a dedicated foreign affairs office . Diplomats operate through diplomatic missions , most commonly consulates and embassies, and rely on

8024-643: The envoy's level of importance. With the paiza, there came authority that the envoy can ask for food, transport, place to stay from any city, village, or clan within the empire with no difficulties. In the 17th century, the Qing dynasty concluded a series of treaties with Czarist Russia, beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689. This was followed up by the Aigun Treaty and the Convention of Peking in

8142-469: The fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank . Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but persisted for over a century until after World War II , when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between that time, figures such as

8260-416: The fence. Later other smaller scale cattlemen, especially in central Texas , opposed the closing of the open range, and began cutting fences to allow cattle to pass through to find grazing land. In this transition zone between the agricultural regions to the south and the rangeland to the north, conflict erupted, with vigilantes joining the scene causing chaos and even death. The Fence Cutting Wars ended with

8378-417: The fence. That day, Glidden was accompanied by two other men, Isaac L. Ellwood, a hardware dealer and Jacob Haish, a lumber merchant. Like Glidden, they both wanted to create a more durable wire fence with fixed barbs. Glidden experimented with a grindstone to twist two wires together to hold the barbs on the wire in place. The barbs were created from experiments with a coffee mill from his home. Later Glidden

8496-525: The first farmers in the Fresno , California, area, who spent nearly $ 4,000 (equivalent to $ 102,000 in 2023) to have wood for fencing delivered and erected to protect 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) of wheat crop from free-ranging livestock in 1872. Fencing consisting of flat and thin wire was first proposed in France, by Leonce Eugene Grassin-Baledans in 1860. His design consisted of bristling points, creating

8614-553: The forceful suppression of Belarusian protests, the main opposition challenger Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya fled the country to Poland, then to Lithuania . The Polish government has allotted a villa in the Praga-Południe district of Warsaw for 10 years to be used by the Belarusian opposition. It has also given refuge to opposition leader Valery Tsepkalo . Polish Prime minister Mateusz Morawiecki has promised to provide help to

8732-605: The form of formal arbitrations and mediations. In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue, and to come some sort of ruling based on international law. In the modern era, much of this work is often carried out by the International Court of Justice at The Hague , or other formal commissions, agencies and tribunals, working under the United Nations. Below are some examples. Other times, resolutions were sought through

8850-557: The functions given to modern diplomatic representatives were fulfilled by a proxenos , a citizen of the host city who had friendly relations with another city, often through familial ties. In times of peace, diplomacy was even conducted with non-Hellenistic rivals such as the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, through it was ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon. Alexander was also adept at diplomacy, realizing that

8968-400: The gate ends with two corner posts braced or unbraced depending on the size of the post. An unpounded post (often an old broken post) is held to one corner post with wire rings which act as hinges. On the other end a full-length post, the tractor post, is placed with the pointed end upwards with a ring on the bottom stapled to the other corner post, the latch post, and on top a ring is stapled to

9086-449: The governance efforts, functions and reach of a host government. Debt-trap diplomacy is carried out in bilateral relations, with a powerful lending country seeking to saddle a borrowing nation with enormous debt so as to increase its leverage over it. Economic diplomacy is the use of aid or other types of economic policy as a means to achieve a diplomatic agenda. Gunboat diplomacy is the use of conspicuous displays of military power as

9204-558: The growing West needed to keep livestock off their tracks, and farmers needed to keep stray cattle from trampling their crops. Traditional fence materials used in the Eastern U.S., like wood and stone, were expensive to use in the large open spaces of the plains, and hedging was not reliable in the rocky, clay-based and rain-starved dusty soils. A cost-effective alternative was needed to make cattle operations profitable. The "Big Four" in barbed wire were Joseph Glidden , Jacob Haish , Charles Francis Washburn, and Isaac L. Ellwood . Glidden,

9322-523: The host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees still remain to actually do the business of diplomacy. Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies. For instance,

9440-518: The interests of all the German princes (who were in theory all subordinate to the Emperor, but in practice each independent). Between 1500 and 1700, rules of modern diplomacy were further developed. French replaced Latin from about 1715. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he

9558-401: The invention of the envelope, folding a document served to protect the privacy of its content. The term was later applied to all official documents, such as those containing agreements between governments, and thus became identified with international relations. This established history has in recent years been criticized by scholars pointing out how the term originates in the political context of

9676-409: The job of military attachés includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows . There are also deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main task

9794-674: The largest foreign affairs department, had only some 70 full-time employees in the 1780s. The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to Eastern Europe and Russia, arriving by the early 18th century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state, and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France. After

9912-574: The mid-19th century. As European power spread around the world in the 18th and 19th centuries so too did its diplomatic model, and Asian countries adopted syncretic or European diplomatic systems. For example, as part of diplomatic negotiations with the West over control of land and trade in China in the 19th century after the First Opium War , the Chinese diplomat Qiying gifted intimate portraits of himself to representatives from Italy, England,

10030-459: The middle, it is permanently wired on one side and attaches to a gate post with wire loops on the other. Most designs can be opened by hand, though some gates that are frequently opened and closed may have a lever attached to assist in bringing the upper wire loop over the gate post. Gates for cattle tend to have four wires when along a three wire fence, as cattle tend to put more stress on gates, particularly on corner gates. The fence on each side of

10148-465: The model of governance. The Japanese sent frequent embassies to China in this period, although they halted these trips in 894 when the Tang seemed on the brink of collapse. After the devastating An Shi Rebellion from 755 to 763, the Tang dynasty was in no position to reconquer Central Asia and the Tarim Basin . After several conflicts with the Tibetan Empire spanning several different decades,

10266-522: The movement of cattle. By the beginning of the 20th century, large numbers of cowboys were unnecessary. John Warne Gates demonstrated barbed wire for Washburn and Moen in Military Plaza , San Antonio, Texas in 1876. The demonstration showing cattle restrained by the new kind of fencing was followed immediately by invitations to the Menger Hotel to place orders. Gates subsequently had

10384-465: The need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of St. James's (i.e. England) in 1487. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became customary. The Holy Roman Emperor , however, did not regularly send permanent legates, as they could not represent

10502-537: The need to accommodate themselves diplomatically, due to the emergence of the powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire. One could come to the conclusion that the atmosphere of diplomacy within the early modern period revolved around a foundation of conformity to Ottoman culture. One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th-century BC military strategist Sun Tzu (d. 496 BC), author of The Art of War . He lived during

10620-411: The opposition, which angered president Lukashenko and his allies. Poland is also hosting the Belarusian news channel Nexta , which has played a key part in organizing the protests. The Morawiecki government has promised to give 11 million euros to Belarusian civil society and independent media. In January 2022 Poland started building a 5.5-meter (18 foot) high steel wall topped with barbed wire along

10738-462: The passage of a Texas law in 1884 that made fence cutting a felony. Other states followed, although conflicts occurred through the early years of the 20th century. An 1885 federal law forbade placing such fences across the public domain. Barbed wire is cited by historians as the invention that tamed the West. Herding large numbers of cattle on open range required significant manpower to catch strays. Barbed wire provided an inexpensive method to control

10856-509: The passage of persons, vehicles and farm implements. Gates vary in width from 3.5 metres (12 ft) to allow the passage of vehicles and tractors, to 12 metres (40 ft) on farm land to pass combines and swathers. One style of gate is called the Hampshire gate in the UK, a New Zealand gate in some areas, and often simply a "gate" elsewhere. Made of wire with posts attached at both ends and in

10974-518: The perpetuation of good relations with the Ottomans. Interactions between various merchants, diplomats and clergymen hailing from the Italian and Ottoman empires helped inaugurate and create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft . Eventually the primary purpose of a diplomat, which was originally a negotiator, evolved into a persona that represented an autonomous state in all aspects of political affairs. It became evident that all other sovereigns felt

11092-595: The population of Belarus according to the 1999 Belarus Census . There were 48,700 Belarusians in Poland according to the Polish census of 2002 . Both minorities represent autochthonous populations of the region and are officially recognised by their host governments. Amidst the 2020 Belarusian protests and Polish and Western calls for a renewed election, declaring the 2020 Belarusian presidential election invalid, Belarus deployed troops near Eastern Poland . After

11210-678: The power of reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy, everything from trade agreements to border disputes. Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic issues and disputes. Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific question or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history, there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law and justice. Sometimes these took

11328-531: The ranchers who were losing the open range . Demonstrations by Gates in San Antonio in 1876 showed that the wire could keep cattle contained, and sales then increased dramatically. Gates eventually parted company with Ellwood and became a barbed wire baron in his own right. Throughout the height of barbed wire sales in the late 19th century, Washburn, Ellwood, Gates, and Haish competed with one another. Ellwood and Gates eventually joined forces again to create

11446-553: The results. Poland and Lithuania became two of the first countries to officially back the Belarusian opposition. Angered by this posturing, Lukashenko claimed that Belarus had closed its EU borders and had deployed additional guards and troops. In August 2021, following a sudden influx of refugees coming from Belarus, Poland deployed 15,000 troops to guard the eastern frontier with Belarus. A standoff ensued between both armies, border guards and refugees caught in between. Poland had accused Belarus of engaging in hybrid warfare, to which Poland

11564-748: The return of the so-called Polish ancestral lands, which means the western regions of Ukraine and Belarus." In 2022, Polish places of national remembrance were devastated or destroyed in Belarus, incl. Home Army monument in Stryjewka , Home Army soldiers' quarters in Mikulishki , cemetery in Surkanty , Home Army graves and commemorations in Bogdany ( Yewlashy ), Bobravichy , Vialikija Yodkavichy , Vawkavysk , Dyndylishki , Kachychy , Iwye , Pieskawtsy , Ashmyany and Plebanishki . On 10 October 2022,

11682-408: The rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights. Diplomatic rights were established in the mid-17th century in Europe and have spread throughout the world. These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations , which protects diplomats from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission. If

11800-410: The second (from bottom) to fifth wire being plain wire. In New Zealand wire fences must provide passage for dogs since they are the main means of controlling and driving animals on farms. Around the turn of the 20th century, in some rural areas, barbed wire fences were used for local telephone networks . Barbed wire was used for the first time by Portuguese troops defending from African tribes during

11918-422: The smaller spacing. The sole function of a line post is not to take up slack but to keep the barbed wire strands spaced equally and off the ground. Once these posts and bracing have been erected, the wire is wrapped around one corner post, held with a hitch (a timber hitch works well for this) often using a staple to hold the height and then reeled out along the span of the fence replacing the roll every 400 m. It

12036-480: The states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance , with the first embassies being established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role, especially under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onward. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of

12154-611: The steel rods to making many different wire and nail products from that steel. It later became part of U.S. Steel, and barbed wire remained a major source of revenue. Barbed wire was important in protecting range rights in the Western U.S. Although some ranchers put notices in newspapers claiming land areas, and joined stockgrowers associations to help enforce their claims, livestock continued to cross range boundaries. Fences of smooth wire did not hold stock well, and hedges were difficult to grow and maintain. Barbed wire's introduction in

12272-929: The thinnest coating and the shortest life expectancy. A wire with Class I coating will start showing general rusting in 8 to 10 years, while the same wire with Class III coating will show rust in 15 to 20 years. Aluminum-coated wire is occasionally used, and yields a longer life. Corner posts are 15 to 20 centimetres (6 to 8 in) in diameter or larger, and a minimum 2.5 metres (8 ft) in length may consist of treated wood or from durable on-site trees such as osage orange, black locust , red cedar , or red mulberry , also railroad ties, telephone, and power poles are salvaged to be used as corner posts (poles and railroad ties were often treated with chemicals determined to be an environmental hazard and cannot be reused in some jurisdictions). In Canada spruce posts are sold for this purpose. Posts are 10 centimetres (4 in) in diameter driven at least 1.2 metres (4 ft) and may be anchored in

12390-399: The top export being rail transport. Between 1995 and 2021 Polish exports have risen by an average of 8.62% p.a. with Belarus increasing at 8.92% p.a. Diplomatic relations Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of state , intergovernmental , or non-governmental institutions intended to influence events in the international system. Diplomacy

12508-518: The town of Białowieża before turning back and flying over the village of Grudki . Initially, the Polish Ministry of National Defence denied the claims. A few days before this, Poland stated that they'd send more troops to the border, after Belarus taunted Poland over Russians Wagner group. In 2021 Poland exported $ 1.86 billion of goods to Belarus, the main export being locomotive parts, with Belarus exporting $ 2.00 billion of goods to Poland,

12626-464: The tractor post, tied with a Stockgrower's Lash or one of numerous other opening bindings. Wires are then tied around the post at one end then run to the other end where they are stretched by hand or with a stretcher, before posts are stapled on every 1.2 metres (4 ft). Often this type of gate is called a portagee fence or a portagee gate in various ranching communities of coastal Central California . Most gates can be opened by push post. The chain

12744-475: The traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the head of state . From Italy, the practice was spread across Europe. Milan was the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455. However, Milan refused to host French representatives, fearing they would conduct espionage and intervene in its internal affairs. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics

12862-692: The unity of the Xiongnu and allowed Han to conquer the Western Regions ; under Wu, in 104 BC the Han armies ventured as far Fergana in Central Asia to battle the Yuezhi who had conquered Hellenistic Greek areas . The Koreans and Japanese during the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) looked to the Chinese capital of Chang'an as the hub of civilization and emulated its central bureaucracy as

12980-475: Was accused of pushing back migrants by force. By 2022, Poland had finalized the construction of a state border barrier between the two countries . In the same year, a number of Home Army monuments in Belarus were purposely destroyed. Belarus and Poland share a common border (~418 km long) which is the European Union external border, which also splits the primeval Białowieża Forest between Belarusian and Polish national parks. Poles make up 3.9% of

13098-475: Was already divided and claimed by ranchers. The ranchers in place, especially in the Texas Panhandle, knew that their holdings could not support the grazing of additional cattle, so the only alternative was to block the migrations with barb wire fencing. Many of the herds were decimated in the winter of 1885, with some losing as many as three-quarters of all animals when they could not find a way around

13216-526: Was also a triad of warfare and diplomacy between these two states and the Tangut Western Xia dynasty to the northwest of Song China (centered in modern-day Shaanxi ). After warring with the Lý dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077, Song and Lý made a peace agreement in 1082 to exchange the respective lands they had captured from each other during the war. Long before the Tang and Song dynasties,

13334-440: Was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation. In Rome, the most prized posting for a Catholic ambassador, the French and Spanish representatives would have a retinue of up to a hundred. Even in smaller posts, ambassadors were very expensive. Smaller states would send and receive envoys , who were

13452-490: Was from American Lucien B. Smith of Ohio. Before 1870, westward movement in the United States was largely across the plains with little or no settlement occurring. After the American Civil War the plains were extensively settled, consolidating America's dominance over them. Ranchers moved out on the plains, and needed to fence their land in against encroaching farmers and other ranchers. The railroads throughout

13570-475: Was generally as thick as sailor's marline stuff, or two twisted rope yarns. It contained, as a rule, some sixteen barbs to the foot. The wire used in front of our lines was generally galvanized, and remained grey after months of exposure. The (German) wire, not being galvanized, rusted to a black color, and shows up black at a great distance. During the Great Depression , migratory work camps in

13688-549: Was joined by Ellwood who knew his design could not compete with Glidden's for which he applied for a patent in October 1873. Meanwhile, Haish, who had already secured several patents for barbed wire design, applied for a patent on his third type of wire, the S barb, and accused Glidden of interference, deferring Glidden's approval for his patented wire, nicknamed "The Winner," until November 24, 1874. Barbed wire production greatly increased with Glidden and Ellwood's establishment of

13806-522: Was that the barbs were much closer together, often forming a continuous sequence. Barbed wire could be exposed to heavy bombardments because it could be easily replaced, and its structure included so much open space that machine guns rarely destroyed enough of it to defeat its purpose. However, barbed wire was defeated by the tank in 1916, as shown by the Allied breakthrough at Amiens through German lines on August 8, 1918. One British writer described how

13924-596: Was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance, and it kept all the official translators—it clearly had a security function as well. On Strategy , from the 6th century, offers advice about foreign embassies: "[Envoys] who are sent to us should be received honorably and generously, for everyone holds envoys in high esteem. Their attendants, however, should be kept under surveillance to keep them from obtaining any information by asking questions of our people." In Europe, early modern diplomacy's origins are often traced to

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