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131-548: In the 16th century the Commonwealth grew to 1 million km, with a population of 11 million. It prospered from its enormous grain, wood, salt, and cloth trade with Western Europe via the Baltic Sea ports of Gdańsk , Elbląg , Riga , Memel , and Königsberg . The Commonwealth's major cities also included Poznań , Kraków , Warsaw , Lwów , Wilno , Toruń , and, for a time, Kyiv and Smolensk . The Commonwealth army

262-709: A watchtower was established on the Łyna River . In 1346, the forest was cleared at the location for a new settlement, mentioned in a historical document from 1348. The following year, the Teutonic Knights began the construction of an Ordensburg (castle) as a stronghold against the Baltic Prussians . Allenstein was granted municipal rights by the cathedral chapter of the Bishopric of Warmia in October 1353. The German "Allenstein" referred to

393-573: A Polish administration in the region which aroused British and American protest. The Polish rule was accepted under the preliminary provisions of the Potsdam Conference . In October 1945, the remaining German population was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement , and remaining Poles were joined by new Polish settlers, mostly those expelled from pre-war Polish regions of Vilnius , Grodno and Volhynia , annexed by

524-405: A belt of defensive walls and a moat. The south-west wing of the castle was built in the 15th century, the tower situated in the west corner of the courtyard, from the middle of the 14th century, was rebuilt in the early 16th century and had a round shape on a square base and was 40 meters high. At the same time, the castle walls were raised to a height of 12 meters and a second belt of the lower walls

655-595: A cloister. The tower was topped off in 1921 and again in 1926. In 1945, the whole castle became home to the Masurian Museum, which today is called the Museum of Warmia and Masuria . In addition, there are also popular events held within the frameworks of the Olsztyn Artistic Summer and so-called "evenings of the castle" and "Sundays in the Museum". Although Jews were permitted to trade in

786-593: A collision course with Moscow and other regional powers, which had also attempted expansion in that area. Other powers aspiring to the Livonian Baltic access responded by partitioning the Livonian state , which triggered the lengthy Livonian War , fought between 1558 and 1583. Ivan IV of Russia took Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva in 1558, and soon the Danes and Swedes had occupied other parts of the country. To protect

917-560: A comprehensive tablature for the organ and other keyboard instruments. Among the composers, who often permeated their music with national and folk elements, were Wacław of Szamotuły , Mikołaj Gomółka , who wrote music to Kochanowski translated psalms, and Mikołaj Zieleński , who enriched the Polish music by adopting the Venetian School polyphonic style. Architecture, sculpture and painting developed also under Italian influence from

1048-621: A diplomatic mission, in an attempt to solve the conflict by negotiations. Charles at first looked ready to negotiate but in fact he was playing for time, trying to confirm his power at another Riksdag (in Arboga), recruiting peasants for his army, and isolating Sigismund's followers. In 1598, the Sejm gave Sigismund the go-ahead to wage a military campaign against his opponents in Sweden; however, it refused to give him significant support. Sigismund's army

1179-835: A mild, generally humid climate, influenced by the North Atlantic Current . Western Europe is a heatwave hotspot, exhibiting upward trends that are three-to-four times faster compared to the rest of the northern midlatitudes. Western European languages mostly fall within two Indo-European language families: the Romance languages , descended from the Latin of the Roman Empire ; and the Germanic languages , whose ancestor language ( Proto-Germanic ) came from southern Scandinavia . Romance languages are spoken primarily in

1310-409: A period of prominence at the turn of the 15th/16th century, when especially the mathematics, astronomy and geography faculties attracted numerous students from abroad. Latin, Greek, Hebrew and their literatures were likewise popular. By the mid 16th century the institution entered a crisis stage, and by the early 17th century regressed into Counter-reformational conformism. The Jesuits took advantage of

1441-647: A physician and medical researcher. Bernard Wapowski was a pioneer of Polish cartography. Maciej Miechowita , a rector at the Kraków Academy, published in 1517 Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis , a treatise on the geography of the East, an area in which Polish investigators provided first-hand expertise for the rest of Europe. Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski was one of the greatest theorists of political thought in Renaissance Europe . His most famous work, On

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1572-400: A serf from a priest and a noble, but in his later works he often celebrates the joys of the peaceful but privileged life of a country gentleman. Rej, whose legacy is his unbashful promotion of the Polish language, left a great variety of literary pieces. Łukasz Górnicki, an author and translator, perfected the Polish prose of the period. His contemporary and friend Jan Kochanowski became one of

1703-494: A single complex of the Municipal Forest (1050 ha) used mainly for recreation and tourism purposes. Within the Municipal Forest area are situated two peat-land flora sanctuaries, Mszar and Redykajny . Municipal greenery (560 ha, 6.5% of the town area) developed in the form of numerous parks, green spots and three cemeteries over a century old. The greenery includes 910 monuments of nature and groups of protected trees in

1834-677: A study entitled De optimo senatore ( The Counsellor in the 1598 English translation), was another popular and influential in the West political thinker. Historian Marcin Kromer wrote De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum (On the origin and deeds of Poles) in 1555 and in 1577 Polonia , a treatise highly regarded in Europe. Marcin Bielski 's Chronicle of the Whole World , a universal history,

1965-574: A term used from 1573 on), included: In the 16th century the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became increasingly interested in extending its territorial rule to Livonia , especially to gain control of Baltic seaports, such as Riga , and for other economic benefits. Livonia was by the 1550s largely Lutheran , traditionally ruled by the Brothers of the Sword knightly order. This put Poland and Lithuania on

2096-451: A union between the commonwealth and Russia. The war can be divided into four stages. In the first stage, certain commonwealth szlachta (nobility), encouraged by some Russian boyars (Russian aristocracy), but without the official consent of the Polish king Sigismund III Vasa , attempted to exploit Russia's weakness and intervene in its civil war by supporting the impostors for the tsardom, False Dmitriy I and later False Dmitriy II, against

2227-488: A “wandering” Jew in their home. The roots of the Jewish congregation in the town can be traced to 1820. Shortly after that date, an official prayer room was established on Richterstraße. In 1877, the congregation bought a plot of land on Liebstädterstraße and built a synagogue there. A Jewish cemetery was built on Seestraße (present-day Grunwaldzka). At its peak, the town's Jewish population reached 448 people (1933). During

2358-635: Is a city on the Łyna River in northern Poland . It is the capital of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , and is a city with county rights . The population of the city was estimated at 169,793 residents in 2021. Olsztyn is the largest city in Warmia , and has been the capital of the voivodeship since 1999. In the same year, the University of Warmia and Masuria was founded from the fusion of three other local universities. Today,

2489-735: Is a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union . In this thesaurus, the countries of Europe are grouped into sub-regions. The following countries are included in the sub-group Western Europe: The Western European and Others Group is one of several unofficial Regional Groups in the United Nations that act as voting blocs and negotiation forums. Regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European members of

2620-779: Is a system devised by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) which divides the countries of the world into regional and subregional groups, based on the M49 coding classification . The partition is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories. In the UN geoscheme, the following countries are classified as Western Europe: The CIA classifies seven countries as belonging to "Western Europe": The CIA also classifies three countries as belonging to "Southwestern Europe": EuroVoc

2751-1076: Is part of the European Route of Brick Gothic and the pro-cathedral is regarded as one of the greatest monuments of Gothic architecture in Poland. Olsztyn, for a number of years, has been ranked very highly in quality of life , income , employment and safety. It is one of the best places in Poland to live and work. It is also one of the happiest cities in the country. [REDACTED] Teutonic Order 1353–1454 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Poland 1454–1455 [REDACTED] Teutonic Order 1455–1463 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Poland 1463–1569 [REDACTED] Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1569–1772 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Prussia 1772–1871 [REDACTED]   German Empire 1871–1918 [REDACTED] Weimar Germany 1918–1933 [REDACTED]   Nazi Germany 1933–1945 [REDACTED] People's Republic of Poland 1945–1989 [REDACTED]   Republic of Poland 1990–present In 1334,

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2882-753: Is the Old Town ( Stare Miasto ), which contains various historic buildings and structures, including: Notable structures outside of the Old Town include: The city is home to the National Symphony Orchestra. The Michelin Polska tyre company (former Stomil Olsztyn) is the largest employer in the region of Warmia and Masuria. Other important industries are food processing and furniture manufacturing. A bus network with 36 bus lines exists, including 6 suburban lines and 2 night-time lines. In 1939, due to poor economic situation throughout

3013-584: The Gazeta Olsztyńska , was founded in 1886. Allenstein's infrastructure developed rapidly: gas was installed in 1890, telephones in 1892, public water supply in 1898, and electricity in 1907. The Provincial Mental Sanatorium Kortau was established in 1886 just south of Allenstein (today part of Olsztyn- Kortowo ). In 1905, the city became the capital of Regierungsbezirk Allenstein , a government administrative region in East Prussia. From 1818 to 1910,

3144-470: The Kristallnacht , the town synagogue was destroyed by Nazi Germans, only to be later used as a bomb shelter. Today, the site of the former synagogue is occupied by a local sports club. By 1939, only 135 Jews were left in the city. The remainder fled the country. Those who still lived in the town by 1940 were deported to Nazi concentration camps . In June 1946, 16 Holocaust survivors settled in

3275-866: The Balthasar Behem Codex are of exceptional quality, and draw their inspiration largely from Gothic art. Stanisław Samostrzelnik , a monk in the Cistercian monastery in Mogiła near Kraków, painted miniatures and polychromed wall frescos. At the end of the 15th century, the Jagiellonians reigned over vast territories stretching from the Baltic to the Black to the Adriatic Sea . The dynasty reigned in several Central European countries between

3406-693: The Battle of Allenstein took place. The French Army clashed with the Imperial Russian army. On that day, Allenstein was visited by Napoleon Bonaparte . Napoleon gathered enormous forces in the city and planned to engage the Russians and Prussians in a decisive battle. The Russian army was stationed in Jonkowo , but retreated after the French attack. Thanks to the victory at Allenstein, Napoleon's army

3537-592: The Battle of Stångebro , (also known as the battle of Linköping ). Sigismund was captured and forced to hand over some of his followers such as the Chancellor of Sweden , Erik Larsson Sparre , (1550–1600). In May 1599, Charles' forces captured the last fortress held by Sigismund, Kalmar. On July 24, 1599, the Riksdag in Stockholm officially dethroned Sigismund. The new King of Sweden was Charles IX of Sweden, and

3668-843: The Carolingian Empire in the west, and in particular the Great Schism between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism , enhanced the cultural and religious distinctiveness between Eastern and Western Europe. After the conquest of the Byzantine Empire , center of the Eastern Orthodox Church, by the Muslim Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, and the gradual fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire (which had replaced

3799-584: The Carolingian Empire ), the division between Roman Catholic and Protestant became more important in Europe than that with Eastern Orthodoxy. In East Asia , Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the " Far West ". The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty . The Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci

3930-714: The Castle of Warmian Cathedral Chapter houses a museum and is a venue for concerts , art exhibitions, film shows and other cultural events, which make Olsztyn a popular tourist destination. The city is the seat of the Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Warmia . The most important sights of the city include the medieval Old Town and the St. James Pro-cathedral (former St. James Parish Church), which dates back more than 600 years. The market square

4061-793: The East–West Schism divided Christianity into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity . This split Europe in two, with Western Europe primarily under the Catholic Church , and Eastern Europe primarily under the Eastern Orthodox Church . Ever since the Reformation in the 16th century, Protestantism has also been a major denomination in Europe, with Eastern Protestant and Eastern Catholic denominations also emerging in Central and Eastern Europe . During

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4192-702: The Polish–Swedish union was dissolved after barely seven years of existence. In March 1600, some of Sigismund's supporters were executed, including five senators in an event known as the Linköping Bloodbath . The Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618), in Poland known as the Dimitriads , was a sequence of military conflicts and eastward invasions carried out by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and private armies and mercenaries led by

4323-640: The Roman Empire (both Western and Eastern ), and medieval " Christendom ". Beginning with the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery , roughly from the 15th century, the concept of Europe as "the West " slowly became distinguished from and eventually replaced the dominant use of "Christendom" as the preferred endonym within the area. By the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution ,

4454-811: The Roman Empire . The Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the two divergent regions between the 3rd and the 5th centuries. The division between these two was enhanced during late antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events. The Western Roman Empire collapsed , starting the Early Middle Ages . By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire , survived and even thrived for another 1000 years. The rise of

4585-457: The Rzeczpospolita ("Republic") as an autonomous entity. The Union of Vilnius also created the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia as a separate fief, to be ruled by Kettler. Sigismund II obliged himself to recover the parts of Livonia lost to Moscow and the Baltic powers. These conflicts led to grueling wars with Russia (1558–1570 and 1577–1582) and other struggles over control of Baltic trade and freedom of navigation. The Baltic region policies of

4716-428: The Swedish throne . After the death of John III of Sweden , his son Sigismund became heir to the throne of Sweden . Sigismund at that time was already King of Poland (since 1587). Sigismund certainly valued the Swedish throne and upon learning about the death of his father, and the pretensions to the throne of his uncle, Duke Charles of Södermanland , he asked the Sejm (Polish parliament) for permission to leave

4847-488: The U.S. President , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and the Premier of the Soviet Union , Joseph Stalin . Post-war Europe was divided into two major spheres: the Western Bloc , influenced by the United States , and the Eastern Bloc , influenced by the Soviet Union . With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain . This term had been used during World War II by German Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels and, later, Count Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk in

4978-450: The United Kingdom . It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference , when the Western European Union was established. It was declared defunct in 2011 after the Treaty of Lisbon , and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries. Additionally, it had 6 associate member countries, 7 associate partner countries and 5 observer countries. The United Nations geoscheme

5109-420: The bubonic plague and cholera . The town became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1772 after the First Partition of Poland and its economy initially collapsed. Poles became subject to extensive Germanisation policies. A Prussian census recorded a population of 1,770 people, predominantly farmers, and Allenstein was administered within the newly created Province of East Prussia . On February 3, 1807,

5240-497: The interwar period and the city's growing population, a trolleybus line began operation, partially replacing the original tram network. During the Second World War the cars were mainly driven by women. The trolleybus network consisting of 4 lines was decommissioned on 31 July 1971. Olsztyn has train connections to various major cities in Poland, including Warsaw , Kraków , Gdańsk , Szczecin , Poznań , Bydgoszcz , Białystok , Wrocław , Łódź , Toruń , and various towns in

5371-416: The monastic state of the Teutonic Knights after hostilities ended. The city joined the Prussian Confederation in 1440, and rebelled against the Teutonic Knights in 1454 upon the outbreak of the Thirteen Years' War to join the Kingdom of Poland under King Casimir IV Jagiellon . In 1454, upon the request of the Confederation, King Casimir IV signed the act of incorporation of the region to Poland, and

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5502-470: The 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Kings of Poland (1386–1572), Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377–1392 and 1440–1572), Kings of Hungary (1440–1444 and 1490–1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471–1526). In 1515, during a congress in Vienna , a dynastic succession arrangement was agreed to between Maximilian I , Holy Roman Emperor and the Jagiellon brothers, Vladislas II of Bohemia and Hungary and Sigismund I of Poland and Lithuania . It

5633-447: The Allenstein Militärischer Bereich . It was then home of the 11th and 217th infantry divisions and 11th Artillery Regiment. At the same time, the football club SV Hindenburg Allenstein played in Allenstein from 1921 to 1945. Beginning in 1936, members of the Polish minority were increasingly persecuted, especially members of the Union of Poles in Germany . In early 1939, many local Polish activists were expelled. In an attempt to rig

5764-452: The CIA classification a little more liberally and including "South-Western Europe", would give the following calculation of Western Europe's population. The Hague is the seat of government The climate of Western Europe varies from Mediterranean in the coasts of Italy , Portugal and Spain to alpine in the Pyrenees and the Alps . The Mediterranean climate of the south is dry and warm. The western and northwestern parts have

5895-410: The Commonwealth and go to Sweden, where he could temporarily secure the Swedish crown. The Sejm gave him permission, and on 3 August 1593, Sigismund, accompanied by his wife, Anna of Habsburg , and other followers, departed for Sweden. The agreement of 19 February seemed to have calmed the situation; Sigismund was crowned in the Cathedral of Uppsala and became the king of Sweden. The Kingdom of Sweden

6026-456: The Commonwealth aristocracy, when the Russian Tsardom was torn by a series of civil wars, a period referred to as the " Time of Troubles ". The sides and their goals changed several times during this conflict: the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was not formally at war with Russia until 1609, and various Russian factions fought amongst themselves, allied with the Commonwealth and other countries or fighting against them. Sweden also participated in

6157-512: The Commonwealth. The political doctrine of the Commonwealth was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King . Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non-gubernat ("The King reigns but [ lit. 'and'] does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king ( Pic. 1 ). The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in Pacta conventa , negotiated at

6288-409: The Commonwealth: eight in Kraków, the rest mostly in Gdańsk , Toruń and Zamość . The Academy of Kraków possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at noble courts, schools, and in townspeople's households. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the 16th century almost every parish ran a school. The Lubrański Academy , an institution of higher learning,

6419-551: The Crown Stanisław Żółkiewski held a triumphal entry by the Kraków suburb of the Royal Palace , leading with him the prisoners: the Russian tsar Wasyl IV Szujski, his brothers: Dimitri Szujski with his wife - Grand Duchess Ekaterina Grigoryevna, daughter Grigory Malyuta Skuratov and Ivan Shuysky Mikhail Shein, and Filaret, the non-canonical Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. After early commonwealth victories ( Battle of Klushino ), which culminated in Polish forces entering Moscow in 1610, Sigismund's son, Prince Władysław of Poland ,

6550-461: The German invasion of Poland that began World War II in 1939. German troops invaded Poland also from Olsztyn (then called Allenstein). After the German invasion of Poland, local Poles were also subjected to mass executions and deportations to occupied Poland . Arrested Poles were held in a local prison and then forced to remove Polish signs and inscriptions in the city, while the German population gathered and insulted them. The Gazeta Olsztyńska

6681-505: The Improvement of the Commonwealth , was published in Kraków in 1551. Modrzewski criticized the feudal societal relations and proposed broad realistic reforms. He postulated that all social classes should be subjected to the law to the same degree, and wanted to moderate the existing inequities. Modrzewski, an influential and often translated author, was a passionate proponent of peaceful resolution of international conflicts. Bishop Wawrzyniec Goślicki (Goslicius), who wrote and published in 1568

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6812-432: The Polish-Teutonic wars by then. After the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, the Poles took it after a few days siege. In the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66) it was jumping from rule to rule. The Knights threatened the castle and the town in 1521, but the defense was very effective. They contained one failed assault. There is a connection between the history of the castle, the city of Olsztyn, and Nicolaus Copernicus . He prepared

6943-424: The Renaissance Latin language poets, a laureate of a papal distinction, was of peasant origin. Another plebeian author, Biernat of Lublin , wrote his own version of Aesop 's fables in Polish, permeated with his socially radical views. A Literary Polish language breakthrough came under the influence of the Reformation with the writings of Mikołaj Rej . In his Brief Discourse , a satire published in 1543, he defends

7074-492: The Soviet Union, as well as settlers from Warsaw , which had been destroyed by German forces during World War II. Reconstruction and removal of damage lasted until the 1950s. In December 1945, a match factory was launched in Olsztyn, as the city's first post-war industrial plant of national importance. A tyre factory was founded in Olsztyn in 1967. Its subsequent names included OZOS, Stomil and Michelin . City limits were greatly expanded in 1966 and 1987. In 1956, Olsztyn

7205-465: The Swedish throne and pursued his own political agenda. The new Riksdag he summoned at Arboga in 1597 – again despite the King's orders – saw few participants, and only one from the Privy Council. Even so, Duke Charles did not achieve support for his military action, but initiated it nonetheless. Parts of southern Sweden were successfully taken. Several of the Privy Council members fled to Poland to convince Sigismund to take counteractions. Sigismund sent

7336-440: The Truce of Plussa with Sweden gaining most of Ingria and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia . John III of Sweden married Catherine Jagellonka , the sister of Sigismund II Augustus of Poland. When Sigismund II of Poland died without issue, the son of John III of Sweden and Catherine Jagellonka was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania as Sigismund III in 1587. On John's death, Sigismund also gained

7467-479: The arts. His scientific creativity was inspired at the University of Kraków, he later studied at Italian universities. Copernicus wrote Latin poetry, developed an economic theory, functioned as a cleric-administrator, a political activist in Prussian sejmiks, and he led the defense of Olsztyn against the forces of Albrecht Hohenzollern . As an astronomer, he worked on his scientific theory for many years at Frombork, where he died. Josephus Struthius became famous as

7598-444: The authorities carried out mass arrests of local Poles, including the chairman of the local Polish bank and his assistant, the chief of the "Rolnik" Cooperative, and the principal of the local Polish school. Nazi Germany co-formed the Einsatzgruppe V in the city, which then entered several Polish cities and towns, including Grudziądz , Mława , Ciechanów , Łomża and Siedlce , to commit various atrocities against Poles during

7729-472: The beginning of the 16th century. A number of professionals from Tuscany arrived and worked as royal artists in Kraków. Francesco Fiorentino had started work on the tomb of John I Albert in 1502, and then together with Bartolommeo Berrecci and Benedykt from Sandomierz rebuilt the royal castle between 1507 and 1536. Berrecci also built Sigismund's Chapel at Wawel Cathedral . Polish magnates, Silesian Piast princes in Brzeg , and even Kraków merchants (by

7860-399: The chapel of St. Anna, which was built in the south-west wing of the castle. In the course of time, both wings of the castle lost military importance, which for residential purposes has become very convenient. In 1779, Prince-Bishop Ignacy Krasicki stopped here as well. After the Prussian annexation of Warmia during the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the castle became the property of

7991-399: The city and in 1948, the congregation had 190 worshipers. Most of them emigrated to Israel throughout the next few decades. There is no trace of the Jewish cemetery. The city was the birthplace of world-famous Jewish architect Erich Mendelsohn . In town, Mendelsohn planned the mourners' chapel (called the Mendelsohn house ) next to the cemetery. The building is restored. In addition, it

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8122-443: The city itself and its fairs during the medieval times, they were restricted from trading freely in the villages surrounding the town. In 1718, Bishop Teodor Andrzej Potocki imposed a ban on Jewish trade in the city as well. The ban, even if continued by successive bishops, proved not to be particularly successful in the light of repeated complains by the local merchants about Jewish dealing in animal leather and similar products as

8253-399: The city of Zamość . The town and its fortifications were designed to consistently implement the Renaissance and Mannerism aesthetic paradigms. Tombstone sculpture, often inside churches, is richly represented on graves of clergy and lay dignitaries and other wealthy individuals. Jan Maria Padovano and Jan Michałowicz of Urzędów count among the prominent artists. The painted illuminations in

8384-405: The city was administered within the East Prussian Allenstein District, after which it became an independent city . Shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Russian troops captured Allenstein, but it was recovered by the Imperial German Army in the Battle of Tannenberg . After the defeat of Germany in World War I, the East Prussian plebiscite was held in 1920 to determine whether

8515-441: The city's High Gate in 1863 for smuggling weapons for the Polish January Uprising in the Russian Partition of Poland. The town hospital was founded in 1867. In 1871, with the unification of Germany , Allenstein became part of the German Empire . Two years later, the city was connected by railway to Thorn (Toruń). Despite Germanisation attempts the city remained an important Polish centre. Its first Polish language newspaper,

8646-432: The city's location on the Warsaw- Königsberg trade route . During this period, the city was still visited several times by Copernicus, as well as leading figures of the Polish Renaissance , writers, royal secretaries and diplomats: Johannes Dantiscus , called the "father of Polish diplomacy", and Marcin Kromer , who was also a historian and music theorist. St. James' Pro-Cathedral, one of the most distinctive landmarks of

8777-404: The city, including the Polish Scouting and Guiding Association , Union of Poles in Germany , a People's Bank ( Bank Ludowy ), local Poles organised a school, library, puppet theatre. The Polish Consulate also operated. After the January 1933 Nazi seizure of power in Germany, Poles and Jews in Allenstein were increasingly persecuted. In 1935, the German Wehrmacht made the city the seat of

8908-433: The cityscape, was completed at that time. Prosperity was halted in the 1620s, when the town suffered a fire and an epidemic. In 1626, during the Swedish invasion , clerics from Frauenburg (Frombork) took refuge in the town, which the Swedes did not reach. The city was sacked by Swedish troops later, in 1655 and 1708, during the next Polish-Swedish wars , and its population was nearly wiped out in 1710 by epidemics of

9039-409: The concepts of " Eastern Europe " and "Western Europe" were more regularly used. The distinctiveness of Western Europe became most apparent during the Cold War , when Europe was divided for 40 years by the Iron Curtain into the Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc , each characterised by distinct political and economical systems. Prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted

9170-409: The conflict during the course of the Ingrian War (1610–1617), sometimes allying itself with Russia, and other times fighting against it. The aims of the various factions changed frequently as well as the scale of their goals, which ranged from minor border adjustments to imposing the Polish Kings or the Polish-backed impostors' claims to the Russian throne and even the creation of a new state by forming

9301-413: The consulate staff, was imprisoned in the Hohenbruch and Soldau concentration camps, and then murdered. Polish teachers were deported to the Dachau concentration camp . During the war five forced labour camps were established in the city. On 12 October 1939, the Wehrmacht established an area headquarters for one of its military districts, Wehrkreis I (headquartered at Königsberg), that controlled

9432-512: The creative elite. Their patronage example was followed by ecclesiastic and lay feudal lords, and by patricians in major towns. Polish science reached its culmination in the first half of the 16th century as the medieval point of view was criticized and more rational explanations were sought. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium , published by Copernicus in Nuremberg in 1543, shook up the traditional value system extended into understanding of

9563-478: The crowned tsars, Boris Godunov and Vasili Shuiski. The first wave of the Polish intervention began in 1605 and ended in 1606 with the death of False Dmitri I . The second wave started in 1607 and lasted until 1609, when Tsar Vasili made a military alliance with Sweden. In response to this alliance, the Polish king Sigismund III decided to intervene officially and to declare war upon Russia, aiming to weaken Sweden's ally and to gain territorial concessions. Hetman of

9694-581: The defense of Olsztyn against the invasion of the Teutonic Knights in 1520. In the sixteenth century, there were two prince-bishops of Warmia that stayed there: Johannes Dantiscus – the first Sarmatian poet, endowed with the imperial laurel wreath for "Latin Songs" (1538, 1541) and Marcin Kromer , who wrote with equal ease in Latin and Polish scientific and literary works (1580). Kromer consecrated

9825-525: The depth of thoughts and feelings that he shares with the reader, and for its beauty and classic perfection of form. Among Kochanowski's best known works are bucolic Frascas (trifles), epic poetry, religious lyrics, drama-tragedy The Dismissal of the Greek Envoys , and the most highly regarded Threnodies or laments, written after the death of his young daughter. The poet Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński , an intellectually refined master of small forms, bridges

9956-469: The dominant role in the Commonwealth, as magnate factions were acquiring the ability to manipulate and control the rest of szlachta to their clique's private advantage. This trend, facilitated further by the liberal settlement and land acquisition consequences of the union, became apparent around the time of the 1572 death of Sigismund Augustus , the last monarch of the Jagiellonian dynasty . One of

10087-564: The environs of Allenstein, including Lötzen (now Giżycko), and Ciechanów in occupied Poland. As part of the Aktion T4 , Nazi Germany conducted medical experiments on the patients of the psychiatric hospital in the present-day district of Kortowo , in which at least 5,000 people were killed. On 22 January 1945, near the end of the war, the city was plundered and burned by the conquering Soviet Red Army , and much of its German population fled . The remaining, mostly Polish population,

10218-818: The fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. West Germany peacefully absorbed East Germany , in the German reunification . Comecon and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had been part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. In 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium , France , Luxembourg , the Netherlands and

10349-466: The form of beech , oak , maple and lime -lined avenues. The city is situated in a lake region of forests and plains. There are 15 lakes inside the administrative bounds of the city (13 with areas greater than 1 ha ). The overall area of lakes in Olsztyn is about 725 ha, which constitutes 8.25% of the total city area. Olszytn has an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ) using

10480-745: The four decades of the Cold War , the definition of East and West was simplified by the existence of the Eastern Bloc . A number of historians and social scientists view the Cold War definition of Western and Eastern Europe as outdated or relegating. During the final stages of World War II , the future of Europe was decided between the Allies in the 1945 Yalta Conference , between the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill ,

10611-574: The full name of the plebiscite commission. Each overprint was applied to 14 denominations ranging from 5 Pfennigs to 3 Marks . The Polish community faced discrimination, Polish rallies were dispersed, the participants were threatened and beaten. In March, Polish activist Bogumił Linka died in Allenstein, a few weeks after being attacked by the German militia in nearby Szczytno in Masuria . He

10742-404: The greatest Polish poets of all time. Kochanowski was born in 1530 into a prosperous noble family. In his youth he studied at the universities of Kraków, Königsberg and Padua and traveled extensively in Europe. He worked for a time as a royal secretary, and then settled in the village of Czarnolas , a part of his family inheritance. Kochanowski's multifaceted creative output is remarkable for both

10873-662: The group are: In addition, Australia , Canada , Israel and New Zealand are members of the group, with the United States as observer. Using the CIA classification strictly would give the following calculation of Western Europe's population. All figures based on the projections for 2018 by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs . Using

11004-703: The highest gross domestic product in Europe and the largest financial surplus of any country, Luxembourg has the world's highest GDP per capita, and Germany has the highest net national wealth of any European state. Switzerland and Luxembourg have the highest average wage in the world, in nominal and PPP , respectively. Norway ranks highest in the world on the Social Progress Index . Olsztyn Olsztyn ( UK : / ˈ ɒ l ʃ t ɪ n / OL -shtin , Polish: [ˈɔlʂtɨn] ; German : Allenstein [ˈʔalənʃtaɪn] ; Old Prussian : Alnāsteini )

11135-492: The important city of Smolensk (see Siege of Smolensk (1609–1611) ). However, due to internal troubles in both the Commonwealth and Russia, little military action occurred between 1612 and 1617, when Sigismund made one final and failed attempt to conquer Russia. The war finally ended in 1618 with the Truce of Deulino , which granted the Commonwealth certain territorial concessions, but not control over Russia, which thus emerged from

11266-580: The infighting and established in 1579 a university college in Vilnius, but their efforts aimed at taking over the Academy of Kraków were unsuccessful. Under the circumstances many elected to pursue their studies abroad. Sigismund I the Old , who built the presently existing Wawel Renaissance castle, and his son Sigismund II Augustus , supported intellectual and artistic activities and surrounded themselves with

11397-709: The integrity of their country, the Livonians sought a union with the Polish–Lithuanian state. Gotthard Kettler , the new Grand Master, met in Vilnius (Vilna, Wilno) with Sigismund Augustus in 1561 and declared Livonia a vassal state under the Polish King. The agreement of November 28 called for secularization of the Brothers of the Sword Order and incorporation of the newly established Duchy of Livonia into

11528-422: The king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators. The Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the " Golden Liberty " (Polish: Złota Wolność ,

11659-401: The last Jagiellon king and his advisors were the most mature of the 16th century Poland's strategic programs. The outcome of the efforts in that area was to a considerable extent successful for the Commonwealth. The Livonian wars came to a conclusion under the reign of King Stephen Báthory. In 1576, Stephen Báthory became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania. He turned the tide of

11790-695: The last days of the war; however, its use was hugely popularised by Winston Churchill, who used it in his famous "Sinews of Peace" address on 5 March 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri : From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe . Warsaw , Berlin , Prague , Vienna , Budapest , Belgrade , Bucharest and Sofia ; all these famous cities and

11921-599: The late Renaissance and early Baroque artistic periods. Following the European and Italian in particular musical trends, the Renaissance music was developing in Poland , centered around the royal court patronage and branching from there. Sigismund I kept from 1543 a permanent choir at Wawel Castle , while the Reformation brought large scale group Polish language church singing during the services. Jan of Lublin wrote

12052-510: The main social segments in the early 17th century, nearly 70% of the Commonwealth's population were peasants, over 20% residents of towns, and less than 10% nobles and clergy combined. The total population, estimated at 8–10 million, kept growing dynamically until the middle of the century. The Slavic populations of the eastern lands, Rus' or Ruthenia , were solidly, except for the Polish colonizing nobility (and Polonized elements of local nobility), Eastern Orthodox, which portended future trouble for

12183-606: The mid 16th century their class had gained economic strength nationwide) built or rebuilt their residences to make them resemble the Wawel Castle . Kraków's Sukiennice and Poznań City Hall are among numerous buildings rebuilt in the Renaissance manner, but Gothic construction continued alongside for a number of decades. Between 1580 and 1600 Jan Zamoyski commissioned the Venetian architect Bernardo Morando to build

12314-479: The most salient characteristics of the newly established Commonwealth was its multiethnicity, and accordingly diversity of religious faiths and denominations. Among the peoples represented were Poles (about 50% or less of the total population), Lithuanians , Latvians , Ruthenians (corresponding to today's Belarusians and Ukrainians ), Germans , Estonians , Jews , Armenians , Tatars and Czechs , among others, for example smaller West European groups. As for

12445-404: The new federation some degree of formal separation of Poland and Lithuania was retained (distinct state offices, armies, treasuries and judicial systems), but the union became a multinational entity with a common monarch, parliament, monetary system and foreign-military policy, in which only the nobility enjoyed full citizenship rights. Moreover, the nobility's uppermost stratum was about to assume

12576-479: The newly developed La Tène culture . As the Roman domain expanded, a cultural and linguistic division appeared between the mainly Greek -speaking eastern provinces, which had formed the highly urbanised Hellenistic civilisation , and the western territories, which in contrast largely adopted the Latin language. This cultural and linguistic division was eventually reinforced by the later political east–west division of

12707-500: The nobility ( szlachta ), regardless of economic status, were considered equal and enjoyed extensive legal rights and privileges. One of the system's features was the liberum veto , used for the first time in 1669. The nobility, comprising szlachta and magnates , made up 6-8% of the Commonwealth's population. The Polish printing industry began in Kraków in 1473, and by the early 17th century there were about 20 printing houses within

12838-545: The one recorded in 1742. Permanent Jewish settlement can be dated to 1780 when the Jews were finally permitted to settle in the city albeit outside the immediate city walls. In 1814, the Simonson brothers opened the first Jewish store. Yet the growth of the Jewish community worried city authorities, who tried to curb it with restrictions and punitive measures. In 1850, a new law imposed fines and imprisonment on anyone who harboured

12969-497: The physical universe, dispensing with the Christianity-adopted Ptolemaic anthropocentric model and setting free the expansion of scientific inquiry. Generally the prominent scientists of the period resided in many different regions of the country, and increasingly, the majority were of urban, rather than noble origin. Copernicus, a son of a Toruń trader from Kraków, made many contributions to science and

13100-538: The populace of the region, including Allenstein, wished to remain in German East Prussia or become part of Poland , which had just regained independence. In order to advertise the plebiscite, special postage stamps were produced by overprinting German stamps and sold on 3 April of that year. One kind of overprint read PLÉBISCITE / OLSZTYN / ALLENSTEIN , while the other read TRAITÉ / DE / VERSAILLES / ART. 94 et 95 inside an oval whose border gave

13231-581: The populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow. Although some countries were officially neutral , they were classified according to the nature of their political and economic systems. This division largely defines the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe and its borders with Eastern Europe . The world changed dramatically with

13362-586: The protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Western Europe today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe. Western Europe is one of the richest regions of the world. Germany has

13493-635: The results of an upcoming census and understate the number of Poles in the city and region, the Germans terrorized the Polish population and, in May 1939, the Gestapo confiscated 10,000 Polish information leaflets in the headquarters of the Gazeta Olsztyńska . In August 1939, Germany introduced martial law in the region, which allowed for even more blatant persecution of Poles. In August and September 1939,

13624-604: The river's Baltic Prussian name Alna , which meant a hind . Local Poles, having arrived along with German settlers, called it Holstin and Olsztyn , which are Polonizations of the German name. The castle was completed in 1397. The town was captured by the Kingdom of Poland during the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War in 1410, and again in 1414 during the Hunger War , but it was returned to

13755-606: The southern and central part of Western Europe, Germanic languages in the northern part (the British Isles and the Low Countries ), as well as a large part of Northern and Central Europe . Other Western European languages include the Celtic group (that is, Irish , Scottish Gaelic , Manx , Welsh , Cornish and Breton ) and Basque , the only currently living European language isolate . Multilingualism and

13886-467: The state board of estates ( Kriegs- und Domänenkammer  — War and Domain Chamber). In 1845, the bridge over the moat was replaced by a causeway better connecting the castle with the city. In 1901–1911 a general renovation of the castle was performed, however, several sections of the building were violated at the same time where they changed the original look of the castle e.g. putting on window frames in

14017-622: The time of his election . The monarch's power was limited in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to pledge to uphold the Henrician Articles , which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, the Henrician Articles were merged with the Pacta Conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards,

14148-632: The town castle as an administrator and then in Mehlsack (Melzak, now Pieniężno ). Copernicus was in charge of the Polish defences in the Siege of Allenstein during the Polish-Teutonic War of 1519–21 . He also started and managed the repopulation of the region, inviting a new wave of Polish settlers from Mazovia . The town along with Warmia then entered what is considered the region's golden age, when crafts and trade developed, thanks also to

14279-593: The townspeople took the castle and recognized the Polish king as the rightful ruler. Although the Teutonic Knights recaptured the city the following year, it was retaken by Polish troops in 1463. The Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 confirmed Allenstein as part of the Kingdom of Poland. Administratively it was located in the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia within the provinces of Royal Prussia and Greater Poland . From 1516 to 1521, Nicolaus Copernicus lived in

14410-522: The war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at the Battle of Wenden . This was followed by an extended campaign through Russia culminating in the long and difficult siege of Pskov . Under the 1582 Truce of Jam Zapolski , which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed

14541-403: The war with its independence unscathed. 50°03′N 19°56′E  /  50.050°N 19.933°E  / 50.050; 19.933 Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe . The region's extent varies depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean world,

14672-560: The −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm or a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb ) using the 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm. Olsztyn is divided into 23 districts: There are many smaller districts: Jakubowo , Karolin , Kolonia Jaroty , Kortowo II , Łupstych , Niedźwiedź , Piękna Góra , Podlesie , Pozorty , Skarbówka Poszmanówka , Słoneczny Stok , Stare Kieźliny , Stare Miasto , Stare Zalbki , Stary Dwór , Track . These do not have council representative assemblies. The historic central district of Olsztyn

14803-447: Was able to defend the realm from foreign invasion, and also participated in aggressive campaigns against Poland's neighbors. As voluntary Polonization followed in unified territories. The Polish language became the lingua franca of Central and Eastern Europe. During its Golden Age, the Commonwealth was regarded as one of the most powerful states in Europe. It had a unique system of government, known as Golden Liberty , in which all

14934-447: Was able to move north and a few days later the general Battle of Eylau took place. The growth of the city started again after it became a district seat in 1818, a significant influx of German settlers began and by 1825, the town was inhabited by 1,341 Germans and 1,266 Poles. In the early 1830s the city suffered from a cholera epidemic and a hunger crisis, however afterwards it flourished again, when despite Germanisation policies it

15065-587: Was abolished by the German authorities, the newspaper's headquarters was demolished and the editor-in-chief Seweryn Pieniężny was arrested and executed in the Hohenbruch concentration camp  [ de ] along with co-publisher Wojciech Gałęziewski and the "Rolnik" Cooperative chief Leon Włodarczyk, while Pieniężny's wife was deported to the Ravensbrück concentration camp . The last pre-war Polish consul in Allenstein, Bohdan Jałowiecki, along with

15196-616: Was administered by Polish mayor Jakub Rarkowski from 1836 to 1865. Under Rarkowski the city was expanded and modernized, and the mayor also hid Polish insurgents in the city during the January Uprising . The first German-language newspaper, the Allensteiner Zeitung , began publishing in 1841. Polish historian Wojciech Kętrzyński was arrested in Jomendorf (the present-day district of Jaroty), and imprisoned in

15327-530: Was briefly elected tsar. However, soon afterwards, Sigismund decided to seize the Russian throne for himself. This alienated the pro-Polish supporters among the boyars, who could accept the moderate Władysław, but not the pro-Catholic and anti-Eastern Orthodox Sigismund. Subsequently, the pro-Polish Russian faction disappeared, and the war resumed in 1611, with the Poles being ousted from Moscow in 1612 but capturing

15458-460: Was built. The castle walls were partly combined with city walls, which made the castle look as if it had been a powerful bastion defending access to the city. The castle was owned by Warmia Chapter, which until 1454, together with the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia , was under the military protection of the Teutonic Knights and their Monastic State in Prussia . The castle had played a huge role in

15589-441: Was buried in Allenstein, however, his grave was soon devastated by local German nationalists. A monument to Linka was unveiled after Poland regained control of the city after World War II. The presence of a Royal Irish battalion ensured a relative peace in Allenstein. The plebiscite, held on 11 July, produced 16,742 votes for Germany and 342 votes for Poland. In the interwar period , numerous Polish organisations operated in

15720-483: Was composed mostly of mercenaries ( Germans and Hungarians ), supported by a relatively small Polish force (although with some artillery). Sigismund's campaign was poorly planned. He was unable to coordinate his troop movements with his supporters, particularly Fleming who was supposed to attack Charles from Finland . After initial successes (the taking of Kalmar and defeating Charles' troops at Stegeborg ), Sigismund's forces were defeated on September 25, 1598, at

15851-593: Was established in Poznań in 1519. The Reformation resulted in the establishment of a number of gymnasiums, academically oriented secondary schools, some of international renown, as the Protestant denominations wanted to attract supporters by offering high quality education. The Catholic reaction was the creation of Jesuit colleges of comparable quality. The Kraków University in turn responded with humanist program gymnasiums of its own. The university itself experienced

15982-493: Was established, which is now one of the largest universities in northeastern Poland. Olsztyn became the capital of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in 1999. It was previously in the Olsztyn Voivodeship . The Olsztyn Castle was built between 1346–1353 and by then it had one wing on the north-east side of the rectangular courtyard. Access to the castle leads from the drawbridge over the river Łyna, surrounded by

16113-670: Was killed. Subsequently, after a period of internal strife and external intervention, Hungary was partitioned between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans. With the Union of Lublin , a unified Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ( Rzeczpospolita ) was created in 1569, stretching from the Baltic Sea and the Carpathian mountains to present-day Belarus and western and central Ukraine (which earlier had been Kievan Rus' principalities). Within

16244-471: Was now in a personal union with Poland-Lithuania . In July, Sigismund left Sweden in the hands of the regency council and returned to Poland. Sweden was to be ruled jointly by the Privy Council of Sweden and Sigismund's uncle Duke Charles. Sigismund, however, reneged on his earlier promises, opening Catholic schools , and giving Catholics prominent posts. Charles in turn did not give up on acquiring

16375-632: Was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East . In Ricci's writings, Ricci referred to himself as "Matteo of the Far West". The term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Christianity is the largest religion in Western Europe. According to a 2018 study by the Pew Research Center , 71.0% of Western Europeans identified as Christians. In 1054,

16506-464: Was subjected to various crimes, including murder, rape and looting. The Soviets also murdered the remaining patients and staff of the psychiatric hospital, who were either burned alive or shot. Remains of three Roman Catholic nuns who served as nurses at Olsztyn's St. Mary's Hospital and were killed by Soviet soldiers in 1945 were excavated in October 2020. On 23 May 1945, the Soviets established

16637-579: Was supposed to end the Emperor's support for Poland's enemies, the Teutonic and Russian states, but after the election of Charles V , Maximilian's successor in 1519, the relations with Sigismund had worsened. The Jagiellon rivalry with the House of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to the Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons

16768-601: Was the Ottoman Empire 's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased after Suleiman the Magnificent took the Belgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary, Suleiman had a Tatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland–Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács , where the young Louis II Jagiellon , son of Vladislas II ,

16899-409: Was the birthplace of German Socialist and SPD leader Hugo Haase . Frieda Strohmberg  [ pl ] , an Impressionist , lived and worked in the city from 1910 to 1927. Documentation of the Jewish owned shops in town exists. Olsztyn is located in the north-east part of Poland in the region known as the "Thousand Lakes". More than half of the forests occupying 21.2% of the city area form

17030-405: Was the site of the largest Polish demonstration of support for the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 . On the 500th anniversary of the birth of Nicolaus Copernicus, in 1973, a planetarium was opened in Olsztyn. In 1989 the former Gazeta Olsztyńska headquarters was rebuilt and re-opened as a museum. In 1991 Pope John Paul II visited the city. In 1999 the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn

17161-425: Was written ca. 1550. The chronicle of Maciej Stryjkowski (1582) covered the history of Eastern Europe . Modern Polish literature begins in the 16th century. At that time the Polish language , common to all educated groups, matured and penetrated all areas of public life, including municipal institutions, the legal code, the Church and other official uses, coexisting for a while with Latin. Klemens Janicki , one of

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