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101-404: The hussar dress was ostentatious and comprised plated body armour ( cuirass , spaulders , bevors , and arm bracers ) adorned by gold ornaments, a burgonet or lobster-tailed pot helmet and jackboots as well as versatile weaponry such as lances , long thrusting swords , sabres , pistols , carbines , maces , hatchets , war hammers , and horseman's picks . It was customary to maintain

202-489: A gałka , a large wooden ball which served as the handle guard. The hussar's lances usually ranged from 4.5 to 6.2 metres (15 to 20 ft) in length and were provided by the King or the banner's owner, not by the regular soldiers. A large 'silk'/taffeta proporzec pennon was attached to the lance below the point. Another type of lance, known as the demi-lance or kopijka , and was 3 to 3.6 metres (9.8 to 11.8 ft) long and

303-413: A 'nadziak' ( horseman's pick ). Towarzysz husarski carried one or two wheellock (later flintlock ) pistols in the saddle holsters, while retainers also might have carried a pistol or light wheellock arquebus or carbine ; from the 1680s a carbine for retainers was mandatory. Individual hussars may have possibly carried a Tatar or Turkish composite bow with arrows in a quiver , especially after

404-537: A 240 kg (530 lb) load), is light enough (low density) that it can float on water, and has high energy absorption characteristics. Since the introduction of the Dyneema Force Multiplier Technology in 2013, many body armor manufacturers have switched to Dyneema for their high-end armor solutions. A shield is held in the hand or arm. Its purpose is to intercept attacks, either by stopping projectiles such as arrows or by glancing

505-405: A ballistic vest with other items of protective clothing, such as a combat helmet . Vests intended for police and military use may also include ballistic shoulder and side protection armor components, and explosive ordnance disposal technicians wear heavy armor and helmets with face visors and spine protection. Medieval armor often offered protection for all of the limbs , including metal boots for

606-491: A blow to the side of the shield-user, and it can also be used offensively as a bludgeoning weapon. Shields vary greatly in size, ranging from large shields that protect the user's entire body to small shields that are mostly for use in hand-to-hand combat. Shields also vary a great deal in thickness; whereas some shields were made of thick wooden planking, to protect soldiers from spears and crossbow bolts, other shields were thinner and designed mainly for glancing blows away (such as

707-413: A fire, and Kevlar such as vests for police officers, security, and SWAT . The latest Kevlar material that DuPont has developed is Kevlar XP. In comparison with "normal" Kevlar, Kevlar XP is more lightweight and more comfortable to wear, as its quilt stitch is not required for the ballistic package. Twaron is similar to Kevlar. They both belong to the aramid family of synthetic fibers. The only difference

808-409: A leather support) might have consisted of a scale helmet, cuirass , gorget , leg and shoulder protection and became popular during the reign of King John Sobieski , but perhaps due to costs and weight, remained popular mostly with the winged hussar commanding officers. The towarzysz usually wore a leopard (sometimes tiger , jaguar or lion ) pelt over his left shoulder, or as often depicted in

909-602: A long history, beginning in Ancient China . In East Asian history laminated armor such as lamellar , and styles similar to the coat of plates , and brigandine were commonly used. Later cuirasses and plates were also used. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armor was made out of rhinoceros. The use of iron plate armor on the Korean peninsula was developed during the Gaya Confederacy of 42 CE - 562 CE. The iron

1010-455: A modest distance. The front breast plates were, in fact, commonly shot as a test. The impact point would often be encircled with engraving to point it out. This was called the "proof". Armor often also bore an insignia of the maker, especially if it was of good quality. Crossbow bolts or quarrels, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range. In effect, rather than making plate armor obsolete,

1111-464: A number of sources of variability: the armor, test backing materials, bullet, casing, powder, primer and the gun barrel, to name a few. Variability reduces the predictive power of a determination of V0. If, for example, the V0 of an armor design is measured to be 1,600 ft/s (490 m/s) with a 9 mm FMJ bullet based on 30 shots, the test is only an estimate of the real V0 of this armor. The problem

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1212-437: A red-and-white colour scheme, and to be girded with tanned animal hide. The wings were traditionally assembled from the feathers of raptors , and the angel-like frame was fastened onto the armour or saddle. The early hussars were light cavalry units of exiled Serbian warriors who came to Poland from Hungary as mercenaries in the early 16th century. Following the reforms of King Stephen Báthory ( r.  1576–1586 ),

1313-421: A result of this, the major test standards call for wet testing of textile armor. ) Mechanisms for this wet loss of performance are not known. Vests that will be tested after ISO-type water immersion tend to have heat-sealed enclosures and those that are tested under NIJ-type water spray methods tend to have water-resistant enclosures. From 2003 to 2005, a large study of the environmental degradation of Zylon armor

1414-581: A shape that offered mobility, a low profile, and compatibility with gas masks. Today's militaries often use high-quality helmets made of ballistic materials such as Kevlar and Twaron , which have excellent bullet and fragmentation stopping power. Some helmets also have good non-ballistic protective qualities, though many do not. The two most popular ballistic helmet models are the PASGT and the MICH. The Modular Integrated Communications Helmet (MICH) type helmet has

1515-483: A slightly smaller coverage at the sides which allows tactical headsets and other communication equipment. The MICH model has standard pad suspension and four-point chinstrap. The Personal Armor System for Ground Troops (PASGT) helmet has been in use since 1983 and has slowly been replaced by the MICH helmet. A ballistic face mask is designed to protect the wearer from ballistic threats. Ballistic face masks are usually made of kevlar or other bullet-resistant materials and

1616-465: A strangely beautiful sight to behold – Jędrzej Kitowicz (1728–1804). The hussars represented the heavy cavalry of the Commonwealth. The Towarzysz husarski (Companion) commanded his own poczet ( kopia ) consisting of two to five similarly armed retainers and other servants ( czeladnicy ) who tended to his horses, food, supplies, repairs and fodder and often participated in battle. His 'lance'

1717-482: A surface of harder steel. Plate armor became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labor and labor had become much more expensive after the Black Death , though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate

1818-470: A sword blow). In prehistory, shields were made of wood, animal hide, or wicker. In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, shields were used by foot soldiers and mounted soldiers. Even after the invention of gunpowder and firearms, shields continued to be used. In the 18th century, Scottish clans continued to use small shields, and in the 19th century, some non-industrialized peoples continued to use shields. In

1919-605: Is Jan III Sobieski , who led the winged hussars at the Battle of Vienna , and the unit's commemorative badge is inscribed with the inherited battle honour "Vienna 1683". In 2016, the Swedish metal band Sabaton wrote the song "Winged Hussars" for their album The Last Stand . The song is about the Battle of Vienna in 1683 and the hussars' charge which helped defeat the Ottomans . One, then two for one scene, were featured in

2020-578: Is armor for a person's body : protective clothing or close-fitting hands-free shields designed to absorb or deflect physical attacks. Historically used to protect military personnel , today it is also used by various types of police ( riot police in particular), private security guards , or bodyguards , and occasionally ordinary citizens. Today there are two main types: regular non-plated body armor for moderate to substantial protection, and hard-plate reinforced body armor for maximum protection, such as used by combatants . Many factors have affected

2121-623: Is believed to have been invented by Celtic people in Europe about 500 BC: most cultures that used mail used the Celtic word byrnne or a variant, suggesting the Celts as the originators. The Romans widely adopted mail as the lorica hamata , although they also made use of lorica segmentata and lorica squamata . While no non-metallic armor is known to have survived, it was likely to have been commonplace due to its lower cost. Eastern armor has

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2222-619: Is shattered, turned, or eroded as it impacts the ceramic strike face, and much of its kinetic energy is consumed as it interacts with the ceramic layer; the fiber composite backing layer absorbs residual kinetic energy and catches bullet and ceramic debris ( spalling ). This allows such armor to defeat armor-piercing 5.56×45mm, 7.62×51mm, and 7.62x39mm bullets, among others, with little or no felt blunt trauma. High-end ceramic armor plates typically utilize ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene fiber composite backing layers, whereas budget plates will utilize aramid or fiberglass . DuPont Kevlar

2323-406: Is tested for both penetration resistance by bullets and for the impact energy transmitted to the wearer. The "backface signature" or transmitted impact energy is measured by shooting armor mounted in front of a backing material, typically oil-based modelling clay . The clay is used at a controlled temperature and verified for impact flow before testing. After the armor is impacted with the test bullet

2424-464: Is that Twaron was first developed by Akzo in the 1970s. Twaron was first commercially produced in 1986. Now, Twaron is manufactured by Teijin Aramid . Like Kevlar, Twaron is a strong, synthetic fiber. It is also heat resistant and has many applications. It can be used in the production of several materials that include the military, construction, automotive, aerospace, and even sports market sectors. Among

2525-425: Is the offset velocity between the V0 and V50. If this offset has been measured for an armor design, then V50 data can be used to measure and estimate changes in V0. For vest manufacturing, field evaluation and life testing both V0 and V50 are used. However, as a result of the simplicity of making V50 measurements, this method is more important for control of armor after certification. King of Poland Poland

2626-465: Is used in hard plate armor capable of defeating rifle and armor piercing ammunition. The ceramic material is typically structured with a Kevlar layer on one side and a nylon spall shield on the other, optimizing ballistic resistance against different projectile threats, including various calibers of shells and bullets. Boron carbide ceramics were first used in the 1960s in designing bulletproof vests , cockpit floor and pilot seats of gunships. It

2727-406: Is used inside an outer protective cover to form chaps that loggers use while operating a chainsaw. If the moving chain contacts and tears through the outer cover, the long fibers of Kevlar tangle, clog, and stop the chain from moving as they get drawn into the workings of the drive mechanism of the saw. Kevlar is used also in emergency services protection gear if it involves high heat, e.g. , tackling

2828-454: Is variability. If the V0 is tested again with a second group of 30 shots on the same vest design, the result will not be identical. Only a single low velocity penetrating shot is required to reduce the V0 value. The more shots made the lower the V0 will go. In terms of statistics, the zero penetration velocity is the tail end of the distribution curve. If the variability is known and the standard deviation can be calculated, one can rigorously set

2929-401: Is well known as a component of some bullet resistant vests and bullet resistant face masks . The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces since the early 1980s both have Kevlar as a key component, as do their replacements. Civilian applications include Kevlar reinforced clothing for motorcycle riders to protect against abrasion injuries. Kevlar in non-woven long strand form

3030-478: The American Civil War (1861–1865) bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected it for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as

3131-575: The Grand Duchy of Kraków between 1846 and 1918). The new Kingdom of Poland was proclaimed as an independent state in 1916 with a Regency Council but the monarchy was abolished and a parliamentary republican authority was established when Poland was re-constituted as a sovereign state in 1918 . Most of the legendary Polish rulers appear for the first time in chronicles from the 13th century and their existence has not been determined. The three direct predecessors of Mieszko I are known only from

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3232-529: The Middle Ages , and up to the modern era. Their materials and construction became more advanced as weapons became more and more powerful. Initially constructed from leather and brass , and then bronze and iron during the Bronze and Iron Ages, they soon came to be made entirely from forged steel in many societies after about AD 950. At that time, they were purely military equipment, protecting

3333-565: The Rascians , were frequently hired to counter Ottoman sipahi and deli cavalry. In the 15th century, the hussars based on those of Matthias Corvinus were adopted by some European armies to provide light, expendable cavalry units. The oldest reference of hussars in Polish records dates to the year 1500, when the Rascians were employed by Grand Treasurer Andrzej Kościelecki to serve under

3434-688: The Sejm (Polish parliament) in 1503, which hired three Hungarian banners . Soon, recruitment also began among the Poles . Being far more expendable than the heavily armoured lancers of the Renaissance, the Serbo-Hungarian hussars played a fairly minor role in the Polish Crown victories during the early 16th century, exemplified by the victories at Orsha (1514) and Obertyn (1531). During

3535-693: The Siege of Vienna in 1683, when hussar banners participated in the largest cavalry charge in history and successfully repelled the Ottoman attack. From their last engagement in 1702 (at the Battle of Kliszów ) until 1776, the obsolete hussars were demoted and largely assigned to ceremonial roles. The etymology of the word hussar stems from the Serbian word gusar meaning "wanderer/brawler". Hussars originated in mercenary units of exiled Serbian warriors from Hungary. Mercenary lancers of Serb origin, known as

3636-406: The banner of the royal household. However, it is possible that they were in service much earlier and their contribution was not well-documented. As the Ottoman raids on the southeastern frontier intensified, the so-called Rascian Reform (1500–1501) during the reign of John I Albert solidified the role of an early hussar in Polish ranks. The first hussar formation was established by the decree of

3737-437: The kinetic energy of a bullet at impact. Because the energy of a bullet is a key factor in its penetrating capacity, velocity is used as the primary independent variable in ballistic testing. For most users the key measurement is the velocity at which no bullets will penetrate the armor. Measuring this zero penetration velocity (V0) must take into account variability in armor performance and test variability. Ballistic testing has

3838-503: The 1670s, might have no cuirass, according to some sources. The hussar armour was light, usually around 15 kilograms (33 lb), allowing them to be relatively quick and for their horses to gallop at full speed for long periods. Albeit from the 1670s onwards, chain-mail was used when fighting the Muslim Tatars in the southeastern borderlands of the Commonwealth. A rarely-used Sarmatian karacena armour (of iron scales riveted to

3939-521: The 18th century, as infantry firearms became more effective, heavy cavalry, with its tactics of charging into and breaking infantry units, became increasingly obsolete and hussars transformed from an elite fighting unit to a parade one. Instead of ostrich feathers, the husaria men wore wooden arcs attached to their armour at the back and raising over their heads. These arcs, together with bristling feathers sticking out of them, were dyed in various colours in imitation of laurel branches or palm leaves, and were

4040-473: The 20th and 21st centuries, ballistic shields are used by military and police units that specialize in anti-terrorist action, hostage rescue , and siege-breaching. A combat helmet is among the oldest forms of personal protective equipment , and is known to have been worn in ancient India around 1700 BC and the Assyrians around 900 BC, followed by the ancient Greeks and Romans , throughout

4141-667: The Canadian TV series Murdoch Mysteries , in the 2018 season 11 episode 16 entitled, "Game of Kings". In 2023, in the Netflix series 1670 , Bogdan is seen wearing the winged hussars in Season 1 Episode 1, "The Assembly". On May 1, 2024, Poland announced that Polish-operated F-35 fighter aircraft will be called "Husarz" in honor of the hussars. Body armor Body armor , personal armor (also spelled armour ), armored suit ( armoured ) or coat of armor , among others,

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4242-642: The Korean Peninsula after the fall of the Gaya Confederacy to the Silla Dynasty, during the three kingdoms era Three Kingdoms of Korea in 562 CE. In European history , well-known armor types include the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later Medieval and Renaissance knights , and a few key components (breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries until

4343-722: The NIJ Standard-0101.07, the velocity for both conditioned and new armor will be the same. In January 2012, the NIJ introduced BA 9000 , body armor quality management system requirements as a quality standard not unlike ISO 9001 (and much of the standards were based on ISO 9001). In addition to the NIJ and HOSDB standards, other important standards include: the German Police 's Technische Richtlinie (TR) Ballistische Schutzwesten, Draft ISO prEN ISO 14876, and Underwriters Laboratories (UL Standard 752). Textile armor

4444-503: The Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB)) standards are also used by a number of other countries and organizations. These "model" standards are usually adapted by other countries by following the same basic test methodologies, while changing the specific ammunition tested. NIJ Standard-0101.06 has specific performance standards for bullet resistant vests used by law enforcement. This rates vests on

4545-521: The Polish military officially adopted the unit and transformed it into heavy shock cavalry , with troops recruited from the Polish nobility . The Polish hussar differs greatly from the light, unarmoured hussars that developed concurrently outside Poland. The hussar formation proved effective against Swedish , Russian , and Ottoman forces, notably at the battles of Kircholm (1605), Klushino (1610), and Khotyn (1673). Their military prowess peaked at

4646-433: The V0 at a confidence interval. Test Standards now define how many shots must be used to estimate a V0 for the armor certification. This procedure defines a confidence interval of an estimate of V0. (See "NIJ and HOSDB test methods".) V0 is difficult to measure, so a second concept has been developed in ballistic testing called V50. This is the velocity at which 50 percent of the shots go through and 50 percent are stopped by

4747-534: The armor. US military standards define a commonly used procedure for this test. The goal is to get three shots that penetrate and a second group of three shots that are stopped by the armor all within a specified velocity range. It is possible, and desirable, to have a penetration velocity lower than a stop velocity. These three stops and three penetrations can then be used to calculate a V50 velocity. In practice this measurement of V50 often requires 1–2 vest panels and 10–20 shots. A very useful concept in armor testing

4848-607: The battlefield, with armorers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility. The first record of body armor in history was found on the Stele of Vultures in ancient Sumer in today's south Iraq . The oldest known Western armor is the Dendra panoply , dating from the Mycenaean Era around 1400 BC. Mail , also referred to as chainmail, is made of interlocking iron rings, which may be riveted or welded shut. It

4949-700: The coalition forces to victory at Vienna in 1683 and he partially recaptured land from the Ottoman Empire . However, the years that followed were not as successful. The long and ineffective rule of the Wettin dynasty ( Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III ) placed the Commonwealth under the influence of Saxony and the Russian Empire . Additional feuds with rebel nobility ( szlachta ) and most notably Stanislaus I Leszczyński and France diminished

5050-457: The course of the 16th century, hussars in Hungary became heavier in character: they abandoned wooden shields and adopted metal-plated body armour. When Bathory was elected king of Poland and later accepted as a Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1576, he reorganized the hussars of his Royal Guard into a heavy formation equipped with a long lance as their main weapon. By the reign of Bathory (1576–1586),

5151-598: The death of Casimir III the Great in 1370. In the same year, the Capetian House of Anjou became the ruling house with Louis I as king of both Poland and Hungary . His daughter, Jadwiga , later married Jogaila, the pagan Grand Duke of Lithuania , who in 1386 was baptized and crowned as Władysław II Jagiełło , thus creating the Jagiellonian dynasty and a personal union between Poland and Lithuania . During

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5252-532: The decisive factor against often overwhelming odds. For instance, in the Battle of Klushino during the Polish–Muscovite War , the Muscovites and Swedes outnumbered the Commonwealth army 5 to 1, yet were heavily defeated. Over time, the role of the hussar evolved into a reconnaissance and advanced scout capacity. Their uniforms became more elaborate as their armour and heavy weapons were abandoned. In

5353-503: The development of personal armor throughout human history. Significant factors in the development of armor include the economic and technological necessities of armor production. For instance full plate armor first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. At times the development of armor has run parallel to the development of increasingly effective weaponry on

5454-539: The early 15th century, small " hand cannon " first began to be used, in the Hussite Wars , in combination with Wagenburg tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armored knights on the battlefield. At the same time crossbows were made more powerful to pierce armor, and the development of the Swiss Pike square formation also created substantial problems for heavy cavalry. Rather than dooming the use of body armor,

5555-445: The elite cavalry, and were a branch of cavalry in the Polish army from the 1570s until 1776 when their duties and traditions were passed on to the uhlans by a parliamentary decree. Most hussars were recruited from the wealthier Polish nobility ( szlachta ). Each hussar towarzysz ("companion") raised his own poczet or lance/retinue. Several retinues were combined to form a hussar banner or company ( chorągiew husarska ). Over

5656-446: The enemy. The charge started at a slow pace and in a relatively loose formation. The formation gradually gathered pace and closed ranks while approaching the enemy, and reached its highest pace and closest formation immediately before engagement. They tended to repeat the charge several times until the enemy formation broke (the Polish hussars had supply wagons with spare lances). The tactic of a charge by heavily armoured hussars and horses

5757-481: The examples of Twaron-made materials are body armor, helmets, ballistic vests, speaker woofers, drumheads, tires, turbo hoses, wire ropes, and cables. Another fiber used to manufacture a bullet-resistant vest is Dyneema ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene . Originated in the Netherlands, Dyneema has an extremely high strength-to-weight ratio (a 1 mm (0.039 in) diameter rope of Dyneema can bear up to

5858-417: The first NIJ test standard and the debate as to the relative importance of penetration-resistance vs. backface signature continues in the medical and testing communities. In general a vest's textile material temporarily degrades when wet. Neutral water at room temp does not affect para-aramid or UHMWPE but acidic, basic and some other solutions can permanently reduce para-aramid fiber tensile strength. (As

5959-483: The first year of World War I (1914–1915). The Japanese armor known today as samurai armor appeared in the Heian period . (794－1185) These early samurai armors are called the ō-yoroi and dō-maru . Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the late 13th century, the knees were capped, and two circular discs, called besagews were fitted to protect

6060-556: The following arms and armour: The lance was the main offensive weapon of the hussar. The lances were based on the Balkan and Hungarian lances, but Polish lances could have been longer and, like their predecessors from the Balkans and Western Europe, they were hollowed, with two halves glued together and painted, and were often richly gilded. They were commonly made from fir-wood, with the lance point being made from forged steel. They had

6161-401: The following scale against penetration and also blunt trauma protection (deformation): In 2018 or 2019, NIJ was expected to introduce the new NIJ Standard-0101.07. This new standard will completely replace the NIJ Standard-0101.06. The current system of using Roman numerals (II, IIIA, III, and IV) to indicate the level of threat will disappear and be replaced by a naming convention similar to

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6262-559: The head from cutting blows with swords , flying arrows , and low-velocity musketry . Some late medieval helmets, like the great bascinet , rested on the shoulders and prevented the wearer from turning his head, greatly restricting mobility. During the 18th and 19th centuries, helmets were not widely used in warfare; instead, many armies used unarmored hats that offered no protection against blade or bullet. The arrival of World War I, with its trench warfare and wide use of artillery, led to mass adoption of metal helmets once again, this time with

6363-675: The horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used as parade armor. As gunpowder weapons greatly improved from the 16th century onward, it became cheaper and more effective to have groups of unarmored infantry with early guns than to have expensive knights mounted on horseback, which was the primary cause for armor to be largely discarded. Most light cavalry units discarded their armor, though some heavy cavalry units continued to use it, such as German reiters , Polish hussars , and French cuirassiers . Metal armor remained in limited use long after its general obsolescence. Soldiers in

6464-573: The horses were bred to be especially fearless and resistant, and they could run quite fast with a heavy load while recovering quickly. They were hybrids of old, Polish equine lineage and eastern horses, usually from Tatar tribes. As a result, a horse could walk hundreds of kilometres loaded with over 100 kg (220 lb) (the hussar with their armour and weapons) and instantly charge. Hussar horses were also very agile and maneuverable. This made hussars able to fight with any cavalry or infantry force from heavy cuirassiers to quick light-armed Tatars. There

6565-416: The hussars fought many battles against various enemies, most of which they won. In the battles of Lubiszew in 1577, Byczyna (1588), Kokenhausen (1601), Kircholm (1605), Klushino (1610), Chocim (1621), Martynów (1624), Trzciana (1629), Ochmatów (1644), Beresteczko (1651), Połonka (1660), Cudnów (1660), Khotyn (1673), Lwów (1675), Vienna (1683), and Párkány (1683), they proved to be

6666-522: The hussars had replaced medieval-style lancers in the Polish Crown army, and they now formed the bulk of the Polish cavalry . By the 1590s, most Polish hussar units had been reformed along the same "heavy" model. These heavy hussars were known in Poland as husaria . With the Battle of Lubiszew in 1577, the ' Golden Age ' of the husaria began. Between then and the Battle of Vienna in 1683,

6767-939: The infantry soldiers, who at least had a trench to give them some protection. Some Arditi assault troops of the Italian army wore body armor in 1916 and 1917. By the end of the war the Germans had made some 400,000 Sappenpanzer suits. Too heavy and restrictive for infantry, most were worn by spotters, sentries, machine gunners, and other troops who stayed in one place. Soldiers use metal or ceramic plates in their bullet resistant vests , providing additional protection from pistol and rifle bullets. Metallic components or tightly woven fiber layers can give soft armor resistance to stab and slash attacks from combat knives and knife bayonets . Chain mail armored gloves continue to be used by butchers and abattoir workers to prevent cuts and wounds while cutting up carcasses. Boron carbide

6868-467: The influence of Poland–Lithuania in the region, which led to the partitions that occurred under King Stanislaus II Augustus , yet another enlightened , but ineffective monarch. The last true sovereign of Poland was Frederick Augustus I as Duke of Warsaw , who throughout his political career attempted to rehabilitate the Polish state. Following the Napoleonic Wars , many sovereigns claimed

6969-403: The inside of the mask may be padded for shock absorption, depending on the design. Due to weight restrictions, protection levels range only up to NIJ Level IIIA. A ballistic vest helps absorb the impact from firearm -fired projectiles and shrapnel from explosions, and is worn on the torso . Soft vests are made from many layers of woven or laminated fibers and can be capable of protecting

7070-517: The introduction of the Golden Liberty system and Stephen Báthory , a capable military commander who strengthened the nation. The meaningful rule of the Vasa dynasty initially expanded the Commonwealth as the arts and crafts developed, as well as trade and commerce. King Sigismund III Vasa , a talented but somewhat despotic ruler, involved the country in many wars, which subsequently resulted in

7171-464: The late 15th century. They would continue to harden their steel for the next century because they quenched and tempered their product which allowed for the fire-gilding to be combined with tempering. The quality of the metal used in armor deteriorated as armies became bigger and armor was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14th and 15th centuries armor seldom weighed more than 15 kg (33 lb), then by

7272-436: The late 16th century it weighed 25 kg (55 lb). The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th-century armor therefore gave substantial resistance. In the early years of pistols and arquebuses , black powder muzzleloading firearms were fired at a relatively low velocity (usually below 600 m/s (2,000 ft/s)). The full suits of plate armor , or only breast plates could actually stop bullets fired from

7373-513: The lower legs, gauntlets for the hands and wrists, and greaves for the legs. Today, protection of limbs from bombs is provided by a bombsuit . Most modern soldiers sacrifice limb protection for mobility, since armor thick enough to stop bullets would greatly inhibit movement of the arms and legs. Due to the various different types of projectiles, it is often inaccurate to refer to a particular product as " bulletproof " because this suggests that it will protect against any and all projectiles. Instead,

7474-670: The lower rank (retainers) were often blackened as was their armour. A cuirass (breast plate), back plate, gorget , shoulder guards and of the Great Steppe , Western vambraces with iron glove and later, during the 1630s, the Persian -originated karwasz vambrace , for forearm protection. A towarzysz also could wear tasset hip, cuisse thigh, and poleyn knee protection, underneath a thigh-length coat of mail or specially padded coat with mail sleeves. Retainers usually wore less expensive and older armour, often painted black, and, after

7575-473: The mid-17th century, when many 'pancerny' companions became hussars, and some sources of the late 17th century note the existence of bows amongst the hussar companions. During the first half of the 18th century, while in non-military attire, the hussars' companion carried a bow in a bow case to denote his military status. Yet bows in bow cases were carried by all cavalry officers of the National Army until

7676-492: The most recognized style of armor in the world became the plate armor associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages , but continuing to the early 17th-century Age of Enlightenment in all European countries. By about 1400, the full harness of plate armor had been developed in armories of Lombardy Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armor. In

7777-502: The reforms of the 1770s, including uhlan units in the Saxon service. At the height of their prowess, from 1576 to 1653, hussar armour consisted of a comb-like zischagge (szyszak), burgonet or morion helmets with a hemispherical skull, 'cheekpieces' with a heart-shaped cut in the middle, neck-guard of several plates secured by sliding rivets, and adjustable nasal terminating in a leaf-shaped visor. Zischagge and kettle hat helmets for

7878-740: The reign of Casimir IV Jagiellon and Sigismund I the Old , culture flourished and cities developed. This era of progress, also known as the Polish Renaissance , continued until the Union of Lublin under Sigismund II Augustus , which unofficially marked the end of the Polish Golden Age . After the death of the last Jagiellonian king, the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became an elective monarchy with mostly foreigners elected as monarchs such as Henry III of France , who witnessed

7979-616: The so-called "transition period" of the mid-16th-century, heavy hussars largely replaced armoured lancers riding armoured horses, in the Polish Obrona Potoczna cavalry forces serving on the southern frontier. The true winged hussar arrived with the reforms of the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stephen Bathory in the 1570s and was later led by the King John III Sobieski . The hussars became

8080-472: The standard developed by UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch. HG (Hand Gun) is for soft armor and RF (Rifle) is for hard armor. Another important change is that the test-round velocity for conditioned armor will be the same as that for new armor during testing. For example, for NIJ Standard-0101.06 Level IIIA the .44 Magnum round is currently shot at 408 m/s (1,340 ft/s) for conditioned armor and at 436 m/s (1,430 ft/s) for new armor. For

8181-588: The stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops. At the start of World War I in 1914, thousands of the French cuirassiers rode out to engage the German cavalry who likewise used helmets and armor. By that period, the shiny armor plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic-style helmets. Their armor was meant to protect only against sabers and lances . The cavalry had to beware of rifles and machine guns , like

8282-429: The successful capture of Moscow and the loss of Livonia to Sweden . His son, Władysław IV Vasa , fiercely defended the Commonwealth's borders and continued the policy of his father until his death, unlike John II Casimir whose tragic rule resulted in his abdication . The election of John III Sobieski to the Polish throne proved to be beneficial for the Commonwealth. A brilliant military tactician, John III led

8383-472: The surviving Podhorce Castle paintings, he had the exotic pelt underneath his saddle or wrapped around his hips. Wolf, brown bear and lynx pelts were reserved for leaders and veterans (starszyzna). The Polish hussars are depicted on the commemorative 500 złotych gold coin. The badge of the Polish Army's 11th Armoured Cavalry Division features a stylized hussar wing and helmet. The Division's patron

8484-528: The term bullet resistant is generally preferred. Standards are regional. Around the world ammunition varies and armor testing must reflect the threats found locally. While many standards exist, a few standards are widely used as models. The US National Institute of Justice ballistic and stab documents are examples of broadly accepted standards. In addition to the NIJ, the United Kingdom's Home Office Scientific Development Branch (HOSDB—formerly

8585-505: The threat of small firearms intensified the use and further refinement of plate armor. There was a 150-year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armor was being used, precisely because of the danger posed by the gun. Hence, guns and cavalry in plate armor were "threat and remedy" together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. By the 15th-century, Italian armor plates were almost always made of steel. In Southern Germany armorers began to harden their steel armor only in

8686-602: The title of Polish king, duke or ruler, notably German (the King of Prussia was also the sovereign of the Grand Duchy of Posen 1815-1918), Russian (the Congress Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1815 with the widely unrecognized title of King of Poland to the Emperor of Russia until 1915) and Austrian emperors (the Emperor of Austria was sovereign of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria between 1772 and 1918, and

8787-514: The underarms. A variety of methods for improving the protection provided by mail were used as armorers seemingly experimented. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armor made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat. Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th to 15th centuries were made of iron. Iron armor could be carburized or case hardened to give

8888-415: The use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armor into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebusiers without being easily killed. Full suits of armor were actually worn by generals and princely commanders until the 1710s. The horse was afforded protection from cavalry and infantry weapons by steel plate barding . This gave

8989-686: The vest is removed from the clay and the depth of the indentation in the clay is measured. The backface signature allowed by different test standards can be difficult to compare. Both the clay materials and the bullets used for the test are not common. In general the British, German and other European standards allow 20–25 mm (0.79–0.98 in) of backface signature, while the US-NIJ standards allow for 44 mm (1.7 in), which can potentially cause internal injury. The allowable backface signature for this has been controversial from its introduction in

9090-644: The wearer from small caliber handgun and shotgun projectiles, and small fragments from explosives, such as hand grenades . Metal or ceramic plates can be used with a soft vest, providing additional protection from rifle rounds, and metallic components or tightly woven fiber layers can give soft armor resistance to stab and slash attacks from a bayonet or knife . Soft vests are commonly worn by police forces, private citizens and private security guards or bodyguards , whereas hard-plate reinforced vests are mainly worn by combat soldiers, police tactical units and hostage rescue teams. A modern equivalent may combine

9191-519: The year 966. He was succeeded by his son, Bolesław I the Brave , who greatly expanded the boundaries of the Polish state and ruled as the first king in 1025. The following centuries gave rise to the mighty Piast dynasty , consisting of both kings such as Mieszko II Lambert , Przemysł II or Władysław I the Elbow-high and dukes like Bolesław III Wrymouth . The dynasty's rule over Poland ceased with

9292-440: Was a death penalty for selling a hussar horse (sometimes the horses were referred to as "tarpan") to someone outside of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The hussars' towarzysz were required to provide the arms and armour for themselves and their retainers, except for the lance which was provided by the King. Each lance's horses also came at each towarzysz husarski's expense. During their heyday, 1574–1705, winged hussars carried

9393-464: Was mined and refined in the area surrounding Gimhae (Gyeongsangnam Province, South Korea). Using both vertical and triangular plate designs, the plate armor sets consisted of 27 or more individual 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick curved plates, which were secured together by nail or hinge. The recovered sets include accessories such as iron arm guards, neck guards, leg guards, and horse armor/bits. The use of these armor types disappeared from use on

9494-404: Was part of a larger unit known as a banner ( chorągiew ) . Each banner had between 30 and 60 kopia (lances) or more. The commander, per his contractual obligation, was called " rotmistrz ", while the de facto commander was often the porucznik ( lieutenant ). There was also one chorąży ( ensign ) who carried the banner's flag ( chorągiew ) and could command the banner when the porucznik

9595-404: Was ruled at various times either by dukes and princes (10th to 14th centuries) or by kings (11th to 18th centuries). During the latter period, a tradition of free election of monarchs made it a uniquely electable position in Europe (16th to 18th centuries). The first Polish ruler whose existence is not debatable was Duke Mieszko I , who adopted Christianity under the authority of Rome in

9696-437: Was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate. The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet , as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century to replace the great helm , such as the sallet and barbute and later the armet and close helm . Probably

9797-434: Was unable to. Each banner had one rotmistrz kopia that was larger than its other lances; this included trumpeters, and musicians (kettle drummers, more trumpeters etc.). There were other towarzysze with duties (keeping order, helping with manoeuvres) within the banner during battle, but their functions are rather poorly understood. The Polish hussars' primary battle tactic was the mounted charge . They charged at and through

9898-420: Was undertaken by the US-NIJ. This concluded that water, long-term use, and temperature exposure significantly affect tensile strength and the ballistic performance of PBO or Zylon fiber. This NIJ study on vests returned from the field demonstrated that environmental effects on Zylon resulted in ballistic failures under standard test conditions. Measuring the ballistic performance of armor is based on determining

9999-507: Was used against the Tatars and Turks in late-17th-century wars. The towarzysz husarski carried underneath his left thigh a koncerz (up to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in length) and, often, a palasz (a type of broadsword ) under his right thigh. The szabla was carried on the left side, and several types of sabres were known to winged hussars, including the renowned szabla husarska . Hussars sometimes carried additional weapons, such as

10100-490: Was used in armor plates like the SAPI series, and today in most civilian accessible body armors. Other materials include boron suboxide , alumina , and silicon carbide , which are used for varying reasons from protecting from tungsten carbide penetrators, to improved weight to area ratios. Ceramic body armor is made up of a hard and rigid ceramic strike face bonded to a ductile fiber composite backing layer. The projectile

10201-403: Was usually decisive for nearly two centuries. The hussars fought with a kopia (lance), a koncerz (stabbing sword), a szabla (sabre), set of two to six pistols, often a carbine or arquebus (known in Polish as a bandolet ) and sometimes a warhammer or light battle-axe. The lighter, Ottoman-style saddle allowed for more armour to be used by both the horses and the warriors. Moreover,

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