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53-420: The trifoliate orange , Citrus trifoliata ( syn. Poncirus trifoliata ), is a member of the family Rutaceae . Whether the trifoliate oranges should be considered to belong to their own genus, Poncirus , or be included in the genus Citrus is debated. The species is unusual among citrus for having deciduous , compound leaves and pubescent (downy) fruit. It is native to northern China and Korea , and

106-493: A nomen oblitum , and the junior name declared a nomen protectum . This rule exists primarily to prevent the confusion that would result if a well-known name, with a large accompanying body of literature, were to be replaced by a completely unfamiliar name. An example is the European land snail Petasina edentula ( Draparnaud , 1805). In 2002, researchers found that an older name Helix depilata Draparnaud, 1801 referred to

159-548: A change in taxonomic, scientific insight (as would be the case for the fruit fly, mentioned above). A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature; as for example when an older name is (re)discovered which has priority over the current name. Speaking in general, name changes for nomenclatural reasons have become less frequent over time as the rules of nomenclature allow for names to be conserved, so as to promote stability of scientific names. In zoological nomenclature, codified in

212-511: A high concentration of seeds. The cultivar 'Flying Dragon' is dwarfed in size, has highly twisted, contorted stems, and has even stronger thorns than the type. It makes an excellent barrier hedge due to its density and strong curved thorns. Such hedges have been grown for over 50 years at Oklahoma State University in Stillwater , and are highly student-proof. The plant is also highly deer-resistant. In central London , mature specimens of

265-437: A junior subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the rank of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the same type species; these are objective synonyms. In many cases researchers established new generic names because they thought this was necessary or did not know that others had previously established another genus for the same group of species. An example is the genus Pomatia Beck, 1837, which

318-428: A listing of "synonyms", a "synonymy", often contains designations that for some reason did not make it as a formal name, such as manuscript names, or even misidentifications (although it is now the usual practice to list misidentifications separately ). Although the basic principles are fairly similar, the treatment of synonyms in botanical nomenclature differs in detail and terminology from zoological nomenclature, where

371-414: A number of these hybrids showed them all to derive from P. trifoliata and not P. polyandra . Synonym (taxonomy) Unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status. For any taxon with a particular circumscription , position, and rank, only one scientific name

424-475: A relatively even mixture; gene and allele frequencies in the first generation will be a uniform mix of two parental species, such as that observed in mules . Introgression, on the other hand, results in a complex, highly variable mixture of genes, and may only involve a minimal percentage of the donor genome. Introgression or introgressive hybridization is the incorporation (usually via hybridization and backcrossing) of novel genes or alleles from one taxon into

477-439: A species of iris from southern Louisiana has been studied by Arnold and Bennett (1993) regarding the increased fitness of hybrid variants. Espinasa et al. found that introgression between a surface-dwelling members of Astroblepus and a troglomorphic species, Astroblepus pholeter, resulted in the development of previously lost traits in offspring, such as distinct eyes and optic nerves. An introgression line ( IL )

530-434: A species, or simple ignorance about an earlier description, may lead a biologist to describe a newly discovered specimen as a new species. A common reason for objective synonyms at this level is the creation of a replacement name. A junior synonym can be given precedence over a senior synonym, primarily when the senior name has not been used since 1899, and the junior name is in common use. The older name may be declared to be

583-481: A taxon, some of this (including species descriptions, distribution, ecology and more) may well have been published under names now regarded as outdated (i.e., synonyms) and so it is again useful to know a list of historic synonyms which may have been used for a given current (valid) taxon name. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the same type and same rank (more or less the same taxon, although circumscription may vary, even widely). This may be species-group taxa of

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636-403: Is a crop species that contains genetic material artificially derived from a wild relative population through repeated backcrossing. An example of a collection of ILs (called an IL-Library ) is the use of chromosome segments from Solanum pennellii (a wild species of tomato ) that was introgressed into Solanum lycopersicum (the cultivated tomato). The lines of an IL-library usually cover

689-484: Is also known as the Japanese bitter-orange (karatachi) , hardy orange or Chinese bitter orange . The plant is a fairly cold-hardy citrus ( USDA zone 6) and will tolerate moderate frost and snow, making a large shrub or small tree 4–8 m (13–26 ft) tall. Because of its relative hardiness, citrus grafted onto Citrus trifoliata are usually hardier than when grown on their own roots. The trifoliate orange

742-526: Is also similar to the evolution of apples by hybridization of Central Asian apples with the European crabapple. It has also been shown that indica rice arose when Chinese japonica rice arrived in India about ~4,500 years ago and hybridized with an undomesticated proto-indica or wild O. nivara , and transferred key domestication genes from japonica to indica. There is strong evidence for the introgression of Neanderthal genes and Denisovan genes into parts of

795-512: Is considered to be the correct one at any given time (this correct name is to be determined by applying the relevant code of nomenclature ). A synonym cannot exist in isolation: it is always an alternative to a different scientific name. Given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used (resulting in a particular circumscription, position and rank) a name that is one taxonomist's synonym may be another taxonomist's correct name (and vice versa ). Synonyms may arise whenever

848-445: Is evidence that introgression is a ubiquitous phenomenon in plants and animals, including humans, in which it may have introduced the microcephalin D allele. It has been proposed that, historically, introgression with wild animals is a large contributor to the wide range of diversity found in domestic animals, rather than multiple independent domestication events. Introgressive hybridization has also been shown to be important in

901-457: Is likely a hybrid between the trifoliate orange and another Citrus , but recent genomic analysis of P. polyandra showed low levels of heterozygosity , the opposite of what one would expect for a hybrid. This analysis dated its divergence from P. trifoliata about 2.82 million years ago. The trifoliate orange does not naturally interbreed with core Citrus taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids have been produced artificially between

954-410: Is not correct for the circumscription , position, and rank of the taxon as considered in the particular botanical publication. It is always "a synonym of the correct scientific name", but which name is correct depends on the taxonomic opinion of the author. In botany the various kinds of synonyms are: In botany, although a synonym must be a formally accepted scientific name (a validly published name):

1007-405: Is often expanded in taxonomic literature to include pro parte (or "for part") synonyms. These are caused by splits and circumscriptional changes. They are usually indicated by the abbreviation "p.p." For example: Introgression Introgression , also known as introgressive hybridization , in genetics is the transfer of genetic material from one species into the gene pool of another by

1060-447: Is recognizable by the large 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) thorns on the shoots, and its deciduous leaves with three (or rarely, five) leaflets, typically with the middle leaflet 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long, and the two side leaflets 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) long. The flowers are white, with pink stamens, 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) in diameter, larger than those of true citrus but otherwise closely resembling them, except that

1113-425: Is thus its synonym. To the general user of scientific names, in fields such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science, etc., a synonym is a name that was previously used as the correct scientific name (in handbooks and similar sources) but which has been displaced by another scientific name, which is now regarded as correct. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as "a taxonomic name which has

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1166-473: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , synonyms are different scientific names of the same taxonomic rank that pertain to that same taxon . For example, a particular species could, over time, have had two or more species-rank names published for it, while the same is applicable at higher ranks such as genera, families, orders, etc. In each case, the earliest published name is called

1219-559: The gene pool of a second, distinct taxon. This introgression is considered 'adaptive' if the genetic transfer results in an overall increase in the recipient taxon's fitness. Ancient introgression events can leave traces of extinct species in present-day genomes, a phenomenon known as ghost introgression . Introgression is an important source of genetic variation in natural populations and may contribute to adaptation and even adaptive radiation . It can occur across hybrid zones due to chance, selection or hybrid zone movement. There

1272-406: The senior synonym , while the later name is the junior synonym . In the case where two names for the same taxon have been published simultaneously, the valid name is selected accorded to the principle of the first reviser such that, for example, of the names Strix scandiaca and Strix noctua (Aves), both published by Linnaeus in the same work at the same date for the taxon now determined to be

1325-502: The snowy owl , the epithet scandiaca has been selected as the valid name, with noctua becoming the junior synonym. (Incidentally, this species has since been reclassified and currently resides in the genus Bubo , as Bubo scandiacus ). One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published (and thus available ) name, the senior synonym, by default takes precedence in naming rights and therefore, unless other restrictions interfere, must be used for

1378-488: The authors have inspected the original material; a . that they take on the responsibility for the act of synonymizing the taxa. The accurate use of scientific names, including synonyms, is crucial in biomedical and pharmacological research involving plants. Failure to use correct botanical nomenclature can lead to ambiguity, hinder reproducibility of results, and potentially cause errors in medicine. Best practices for publication suggest that researchers should provide

1431-419: The beginning of § Zoology . The two are related, with only one word difference between their names.) For example, the scientific name of the red imported fire ant , Solenopsis invicta was published by Buren in 1972, who did not know that this species was first named Solenopsis saevissima wagneri by Santschi in 1916; as there were thousands of publications using the name invicta before anyone discovered

1484-458: The butterfly genus Heliconius . This genus includes 43 species and many races with different color patterns. Congeners exhibiting overlapping distributions show similar color patterns. The subspecies H. melpomene amaryllis and H. melpomene timareta ssp. nov. overlap in distribution. Using the ABBA/BABA test , some researchers have observed that there is about 2% to 5% introgression between

1537-595: The citrus, consistent with a single genus, but the sequencing of the nuclear genome by Wu, et al. showed its genome to be most divergent, different enough to justify retention of Poncirus as a separate genus. To explain the conflict between the plastid and nuclear genomic analysis, it was speculated that the trifoliate orange is likely either the progeny of an ancient hybridization between a core citrus and an unidentified more distant relative, or at some time in its history it acquired an introgressed cpDNA genome from another species. Ollitrault, Curk and Krueger indicate that

1590-399: The complete genome of the donor. Introgression lines allow the study of quantitative trait loci , but also the creation of new varieties by introducing exotic traits . Lineage fusion is an extreme variant of introgression that results from the merging of two distinct species or populations. This eventually results in a single population that displaces or replaces the parental species in

1643-421: The correct name is included among synonyms, although as first among equals it is the "senior synonym": Scientific papers may include lists of taxa, synonymizing existing taxa and (in some cases) listing references to them. The status of a synonym may be indicated by symbols, as for instance in a system proposed for use in paleontology by Rudolf Richter. In that system a v before the year would indicate that

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1696-649: The currently accepted binomial with author citation, relevant synonyms, and the accepted family name according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III classification. This practice ensures clear communication, allows proper linking of research to existing literature, and provides insight into phylogenetic relationships that may be relevant to shared chemical constituents or physiological effects. Online databases now make it easy for researchers to access correct nomenclature and synonymy information for plant species. The traditional concept of synonymy

1749-549: The different regions of the loci. When a locus is important in the color pattern expression, there is a close phylogenetic relationship between the species. When the locus is not important in the color pattern expression, the two species are phylogenetically distant because there is no introgression at such loci. Introgression can have a significant impact between wild and domestic populations of animals. This includes household pets, as seen in cats or in dogs . Introgression has been observed in several plant species. For instance,

1802-451: The evolution of domesticated crop species, possibly providing genes that help in their expansion into different environments. A genomic study from New York University Abu Dhabi Center for Genomics and Systems Biology showed that domesticated date palm varieties from North Africa show introgressive hybridization of between 5–18% of its genome from the wild Cretan palm Phoenix theophrasti into Middle East date palms P. dactylifera . This process

1855-449: The functional components having immunity against citrus tristeza virus (CTV). The fruits are very bitter, due in part to their poncirin content. Most people consider them inedible fresh, but they can be made into marmalade . When dried and powdered, they can be used as a condiment . The fruits of the trifoliate orange are widely used in medical traditions of East Asia as a treatment for allergic inflammation. The trifoliate orange

1908-423: The loci B/D and N/Yb. Moreover, they performed the same analysis with two other species with overlapping distributions, H. timareta florencia and H. melpomene agalope . They demonstrated introgression between the two taxa, especially in the loci B/D and N/Yb. Finally, they concluded their experiments with sliding-window phylogenetic analyses, estimating different phylogenetic trees depending on

1961-465: The majority of data are consistent with the enlarged Citrus that includes the trifoliate orange, though they recognize that many botanists still follow Swingle. A second species of trifoliate orange native to Yunnan (China) has been reported and named Poncirus polyandra . Were Poncirus to be subsumed into Citrus , where C. polyandra is unavailable, the name Citrus polytrifolia has been suggested. Zhang and Mabberley concluded this Yunnan cultivar

2014-560: The modern human gene pool. The Mallard duck is possibly the world's most capable bird to hybridise with other duck species, often to the point of the loss of genetic identity of these species. For example, feral mallard populations have significantly reduced wild populations of the Pacific black duck in New Zealand and Australia through cross-breeding. One important example of introgression has been observed in studies of mimicry in

2067-464: The pair of subspecies. Importantly, the introgression is not random. The researchers saw significant introgression in chromosomes 15 and 18, where important mimicry loci are found (loci B/D and N/Yb). They compared both subspecies with H. melpomene agalope , which is a subspecies near H. melpomene amaryllis in entire genome trees. The result of the analysis was that there is no relation between those two species and H. melpomene agalope in

2120-483: The repeated backcrossing of an interspecific hybrid with one of its parent species. Introgression is a long-term process, even when artificial; it may take many hybrid generations before significant backcrossing occurs. This process is distinct from most forms of gene flow in that it occurs between two populations of different species, rather than two populations of the same species. Introgression also differs from simple hybridization . Simple hybridization results in

2173-445: The same application as another, especially one which has been superseded and is no longer valid". In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have synonyms mentioned as such after the current scientific name, so as to avoid confusion. For example, if the much-advertised name change should go through and the scientific name of the fruit fly were changed to Sophophora melanogaster , it would be very helpful if any mention of this name

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2226-409: The same rank with the same type specimen , genus-group taxa of the same rank with the same type species or if their type species are themselves objective synonyms, of family-group taxa with the same type genus, etc. In the case of subjective synonyms , there is no such shared type, so the synonymy is open to taxonomic judgement, meaning that there is room for debate: one researcher might consider

2279-534: The same species, but this name had never been used after 1899 and was fixed as a nomen oblitum under this rule by Falkner et al. 2002. Such a reversal of precedence is also possible if the senior synonym was established after 1900, but only if the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) approves an application. (Here the C in ICZN stands for Commission, not Code as it does at

2332-462: The same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to become one, a species is moved to a different genus, a variety is moved to a different species, etc. Synonyms also come about when the codes of nomenclature change, so that older names are no longer acceptable; for example, Erica herbacea L. has been rejected in favour of Erica carnea L. and

2385-442: The scent is much less pronounced than with true citrus. As with true citrus, the leaves give off a spicy smell when crushed. The fruits are green, ripening to yellow, and 3–4 cm (1.2–1.6 in) in diameter similar in size to a lime and resembling a small orange , but with a finely downy surface and having a fuzzy texture similar to a peach . The fruits also have distinctive smell from other citrus varieties and often contain

2438-401: The synonymy, the ICZN, in 2001, ruled that invicta would be given precedence over wagneri . To qualify as a synonym in zoology, a name must be properly published in accordance with the rules. Manuscript names and names that were mentioned without any description ( nomina nuda ) are not considered as synonyms in zoological nomenclature. In botanical nomenclature , a synonym is a name that

2491-406: The taxon. However, junior synonyms are still important to document, because if the earliest name cannot be used (for example, because the same spelling had previously been used for a name established for another taxon), then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. For other purposes, if a researcher is interested in consulting or compiling all currently known information regarding

2544-704: The trifoliate orange and other citrus. In the Swingle system, where the trifoliate orange is placed in Poncirus , a hybrid genus name has been coined for these intra-generic crosses, "×  Citroncirus ". The most notable of these are the citrange , a cross between the trifoliate and sweet oranges , and the citrumelo , a hybrid of trifoliate orange and 'Duncan' grapefruit . Placing the trifoliate orange in Citrus would mean these hybrids would no longer be intergeneric, but instead hybrids within Citrus . Genomic analysis of

2597-407: The trifoliate orange can be seen in the gardens of St Paul's Cathedral . Trifoliate orange and various hybrids of this plant are widely used as citrus rootstock , and valued for their resistance to cold, the tristeza virus , and the oomycete Phytophthora parasitica (root rot). Recent studies have revealed that the trifoliate orange contains auraptene at a high concentration, which is one of

2650-479: The two (or more) types to refer to one and the same taxon, another might consider them to belong to different taxa. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn , based on a pair of horns. However, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ord's name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being

2703-417: Was accompanied by "(syn. Drosophila melanogaster )". Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the term "synonym" in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names (see below) . Changes of scientific name have two causes: they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural. A name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing

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2756-545: Was established for a group of terrestrial snails containing as its type species the Burgundy or Roman snail Helix pomatia —since Helix pomatia was already the type species for the genus Helix Linnaeus, 1758, the genus Pomatia was an objective synonym (and useless). On the same occasion, Helix is also a synonym of Pomatia , but it is older and so it has precedence. At the species level, subjective synonyms are common because of an unexpectedly large range of variation in

2809-514: Was historically considered a member of the genus Citrus until Walter Swingle (1871 – 1952) moved it in 1943 to its own novel genus, Poncirus , based on its deciduous trifoliate leaves differing from other Citrus , as part of a larger reclassification that split the historical Citrus into seven genera. However, David Mabberley and Dianxiang Zhang reunited all of Swingle's novel genera back into Citrus in 2008. Early phylogenetic analysis of trifoliate orange plastids nested Poncirus within

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